T16-IE-O2015

Attitude control

T16-1
Elena Fantino

T16-2

Outline
Recollections of attitude dynamics
Environmental disturbance torques
Attitude control:
Passive methods
Active technologies
Attitude maneuvers:
Yo-yo despin
Slew

T16-3

Attitude dynamics

T16-4

Angular momentum of a rigid body

For a rigid body:
R i = R O + ri
=R
+ r + r
R
i
O
i
i
= VO + 0 + ri

d
d
A = A +A
dt I dt B

Proof

T16-5

Proof
If we have a general vector A = Ax i + Ay j + Az k in the rot. frame,
its time derivative in the fixed frame is:
dAy
dA(t ) dAx
dA
i+
j+ z
=
dt
dt
dt
dt

di
dj
dk
k + Ax + Ay + Az
dt
dt
dt

In the xi reference frame:

u i = 0

In the Xi reference frame:

du i
= ui
dt

x3

X3
x2

x1
X2
X1

T16-6

...Proof...
Let us consider a body (rotating) frame (x,y,z) and an inertial
frame (x,y,z) with common origin. If the rotation is about the z axis
with angular velocity and the two ref. frames coincide at t=0, the
transformation from rotating to inertial coordinates can be written:
x = x' cos t y ' sin t
y = x' sin t + y ' cos t

y
x

The inverse transformation is:

x' = x cos(t ) + y sin(t )
y ' = x sin(t ) + y cos(t )

Introduce the unit vectors (i,j,k) representing standard unit basis

vectors in the rotating frame:

i = (cos t , sin t )
j = ( sin t , cos t )

T16-7

i = (cos t , sin t )
j = ( sin t , cos t )

The time derivatives of these unit vectors, which rotate without

changing magnitude, are:
di (t )
= ( sin t , cos t ) = j
dt
dj(t )
= ( cos t , sin t ) = i
dt

Introducing the vector = (0,0, ) , they can be generalized as

du(t )
= u
dt

in which u is either i or j

T16-8

The angular momentum of the small element

of mass mi about O (=OI) is given by:
i = (ri + R O ) mi (VO + ri ) = ri mi (VO + ri )
h Oi = R i mi R

+ R O mi (VO + ri ) = mi ri VO + mi ri ri + mi R O VO + mi R O ri

Sum all elements to find the total angular

momentum of body B about OI:

h O = VO mi ri + ri ( ri )mi + mi R O VO + R O mi ri
i
i
i
i

Let us assume motion around the centre of mass: OB = CM=OI

m r = 0
i i

Then:

h O = ri ( ri )mi
mi

RO = 0
VO = 0

T16-9

Expanding the cross product:

h = i x yi2 + zi2 mi y yi xi mi z xi zi mi
mi
mi
mi

+ j y xi2 + zi2 mi x xi yi mi z yi zi mi
mi
mi
mi

+ k z xi2 + yi2 mi x xi zi mi y yi zi mi
mi
mi
mi

which can be written as:

] [

] [

h = i x I xx y I xy z I xz + j y I yy x I yx z I yz + k z I zz x I zx y I zy = ihx + jhy + khz

Ixx,Iyy,Izz = Moments of inertia of the body about x,y,z

Ixy,Ixz,Iyz = Products of inertia

= x y

z ]T

We have dropped the subscript O,

we assume O = CM from now on

T16-10

We can write the angular momentum vector in vector/tensor

notation:
I xx

h = I yx
I zx

I xy
I yy
I zy

I xz x

I yz y = [I ]
I zz z

and [I] is the inertia tensor

Without deriving it here, it is also useful to know that the

rotational kinetic energy is
1
K rot = T [I ]
2

It is better to choose a reference frame where all the products of

inertia become 0, so [I] becomes a strictly diagonal matrix.
If the inertia products can be made very small, the ACS design
process becomes easier.

T16-11

Torques
The angular momentum of the particle of mass m about O is
given by:
h O = r mr
The time derivative is the rate of change of momentum:
h = d (r mr )
O
dt

This rate of change of momentum can be associated to an

applied torque about O, defined as Mo:
d
M o = r F = r mr = (r mr )
dt
M o = h o
Hence:
If the applied torque is 0, then the angular momentum is
conserved
h = 0
o

T16-12

Eulers rotational equations of motion

dh
M=
dt

This is the absolute rate of h about the center of mass. Hence:

M=

dh
+ h
dt B

which can be written as:

] [

] [

M = i hx + y hz z hy + j hy + z hx x hz + k hz + x hy y hx

or:
M x = hx + y hz z hy
M y = hy + z hx x hz
M z = hz + x hy y hx

The general attitude motion can be

modelled by means of these three
equations. However, theres no general
solution as M is not specified.

T16-13

Principal axes of inertia

I xx
[I ] = 0
0

0
I yy
0

I xx
h = [I ] = 0
0

It is the set of body axes wrt which

inertia tensor is diagonal. Such axes
are called principal axes

0
0
I zz
0
I yy
0

0 x
0 y = I xx x i + I yy y j + I zz z k
I zz z

h = y z (I zz I yy ) i + [x z (I xx I zz )]j + x y (I yy I xx ) k
d
h = I xx x i + I yy y j + I zz z k
dt

M x = I xx x + y z ( I zz I yy )
M y = I yy y + x z ( I xx I zz )
M z = I zz z + x y ( I yy I xx )

T16-14

Torque-free motion: stability of the rotation about princ. axes

Determine the motion of a torque-free, rigid body disturbed from steady spin.
Motion is stable if amplitudes of disturbed quantities are bounded by
initial values.

I xx x + y z ( I zz I yy ) = 0
I yy y + x z ( I xx I zz ) = 0
I zz z + x y ( I yy I xx ) = 0
Consider the case (indeed is general as we have not specified the relative sizes of
the three moments of inertia): = 0i
Perturb initial spinning motion by small quantity :

x = 0 +
y << 0
z << 0

I xx = ( I yy I zz ) y z

I yy y = ( I zz I xx )(0 + )z

I zz z = ( I xx I yy )(0 + ) y

T16-15

Neglect terms of order 2 or higher:

I xx = 0 = const
I zz I xx
0 z
y =

I
yy

I xx I yy
0 y
z =
I zz

(I xx I YY )(I xx I zz ) 2

y +
0 y = 0
I yy I zz

(I xx I YY )(I xx I zz ) 2

z +
0 z = 0
I yy I zz

Simple harmonic oscillators with general solution:

i t

j = j1e + j 2 e

i t

( j = 2,3) and =

(I

xx

I yy )(I xx I zz )
I yy I zz

If is imaginary j will diverge and motion is unstable

Thus to guarantee stability, must be real (oscillation but in steady state), which
implies that the radicand is positive:
Ixx > Iyy and Ixx > Izz
MOTION AROUND AXIS OF MIN OR MAX MOM. INERTIA
Ixx < Iyy and Ixx < Izz

T16-16

Energy dissipation effects

The discussion on torque-free motion and stability is valid under
the assumption of rigid body. In reality, s/c are not completely rigid
(think of mechanisms, boom antennas, liquid slosh, elastic
structural deflections).

T16-17

Energy dissipation effects - Explorer 1

Explorer 1 was put into spinning state around axis of min. moment of
inertia, but after a short time it tumbled and started spinning around
axis of maximum moment of inertia. If internal energy dissipation is
present, the energy will dissipate until a minimum energy state is
reached.
Consider kinetic energy around axis of
min and max I:
2T = h2/Imax
2T = h2/Imin
The four antennas were flexible

Hence motion around the major axis is the state of minimum energy.

T16-18

Disturbance torques

T16-19

Disturbance Torques
Disturbance torques are small but persistent (unavoidable), at
levels of 10-4 Nm (or less).
They can be cyclic (varying in a cycle around the orbit) or secular
(accumulating with time, never averaging out to 0)
These torques would naturally rotate a spacecraft unless they are
resisted, and this is one main function of ACS.
Conservation of angular momentum implies that only the
external torques can change the total angular momentum, so
either external torques must be balanced by external control
torques, or the resulting increase in momentum must be
temporarily stored internally (e.g., by reaction wheels).

T16-20

Aerodynamic Torques
The space vehicles fly largely beyond the atmosphere, except for
launch and reentry, out of the realm of aerodynamics
In some cases they operate (partly) in the less dense layers of the
atmosphere
So there is an intrinsic upper bound on the magnitude of the
aerodynamics forces on a vehicle
There is a range of altitudes at which a satellite can have a useful
lifetime but be affected by non-negligible aerodynamic torques:
e.g., Earth-observing satellites (low height determined by
observational requirements and by the cost of placing satellites
into higher orbits)

T16-21

Aerodynamic torque
The force imparted by the atmospheric gases to dA is
1
dFa = Vr dAC D Vr
2

The total torque is G a = 1 a C DVr (rs Vr )dA

Whenever the aerodynamic centre of pressure (COP) is not in the

same location as the centre of mass (COM), the aerodynamic
force produces a torque.
If we put the COP at position rC in the s/c frame we can
approximate the expression as follows:
G a = rC Fa

1
V
2
Fa = Vr AC D r
2
Vr

rC depends on the attitude, but also on the operational state and

history of the space vehicle (solar panel position, remaining fuel)

T16-22

Example
Consider a satellite with projected area S = 5m2 and drag
coefficient CD = 2, orbiting at 400km, where we assume = 4 x
10-12 kgm-3.
Assume the orbit is circular: V = GM = 7.7 km/s
r
Magnitude of the force is Fa = 1.2 x 10-3 N which is small, but
...
dh d d 2
5
Assume rC = 0.01m, then: Ga = 1.2 10 Nm = = I = I 2
dt

dt

dt

Take I = 1000 kgm2 .Solve (=divide by I and integrate):

(t) = 1.2x10-8 t2 0.7 over 1000 s large error for
attitude control, and it goes as t2 ... so this is about 1 rad error
after only 2 orbits!

T16-23

Radiation pressure torque

P = S/c = momentum flux incident on dA (outward normal n)
from direction s
Momentum transferred per unit time due to absorbed portion:

dFabs = PK a cos sdA

( 0 / 2)

Momentum transferred per unit time due to specularly reflected

portion

dFspr = 2 PK s cos 2 ndA

(0 / 2)

Momentum transferred per unit time due to the diffusely

reflected portion

dFdif = PK d (2 cos n / 3 + cos s )dA

(0 / 2)

T16-24

Radiation pressure torque

Sum of the three contributions

dFrad = P[(1 K s )s + 2(K s cos + K d n / 3)]cos dA

( K a + K s + K d = 1)
s

Integrate over the surface

G rad = r dFrad

T16-25

Radiation pressure torque

A simplified formula is

G rad = r Frad

Frad = (1 + K )PAn

where r is vector from COM to spacecraft optical centre of

pressure, K = surface reflectivity (0 < K < 1: K= 0 absorption only,
K = 1 specular reflection), A is projected area toward the Sun, P
=S/c where S = 1358Wm-2 at 1AU, and c is the speed of light.
This torque is independent of position or velocity of the vehicle, and
so is harder to imagine and make it relevant for a designer.
Order of magnitude approximation. Typical values could be:
A = 5m2, K = 0.5, r = 0.1m, Grad = 3.5 x 10-6 Nm, and so solar
radiation pressure is about 3 orders of magnitude less important
than the atmosph. drag for low orbits but can be the most
important disturbance torque in GEO

T16-26

Gravity gradient torque

Gravity field decreases with r according to r -2
A vehicle in orbit therefore feels a stronger gravity pull on the
lower side than on the top side.
We have just seen that small torques are a problem, so what
happens to this vehicle because of the gravity gradient?
If it has unequal principal moments of inertia, this torque will try
to rotate the vehicle so that its minimum inertia axis (long axis)
becomes vertical.

Equilibrium
configuration

T16-27

Gravity gradient torque General treatment

m R cos
z

R
m

m R cos

m
R
O

I = 2mR 2
dg
=
dz
sin ( 2 )
GgO =
M
2 m R cos R sin =
I
2

T16-28

Gravity gradient torque for small deviations from equilibrium

Gravity gradient torque is given by

IR

G g 3n 2 R
0
0
= R / R = unit vector radial direction
R
0
0
0
n = R0
2

R0

[ , ,1]T
R
0
which works for small angles, and gives:

[Without proof ]

G g = 3n (I zz I yy ) , (I zz I xx ) ,0
2

(independent of = yaw)

T16-29

Gravity gradient torque

Note torque magnitude goes as r -3, and is a function of
differences between principal moments vehicles that are
long and thin are more affected than vehicles that are short
and fat.
Example: if n = 0.001 rad/s and the difference in moments of the
relevant axes is 1000 kgm2: Gg = 5 x 10-5 Nm/deg.

T16-30

Magnetic Torque
Earths own magnetic field creates a torque due to the current
loops and any residual magnetisation in the spacecraft structure
or systems.
Gm = m B

where m is the total magnetic dipole moment (Am2) of the

vehicle and B (Tesla) is the magnetic field of the Earth in the
vehicle coordinate frame, which is proportional to r -3.
Earths magnetic field at 200 km is about 3 x 10-5 T, and the
torque on a small spacecraft is of the order of 10-6 Nm.
However, because internal magnetic fields can be controlled, this
effect can also be used to control vehicle attitude rather than to
disturb it.

T16-31

Comparison

T16-32

Disturbance torques summary

Aerodynamic torque: from planetary atmospheres. At Earth
500 km
Gravity gradient torque: from planetary gravity fields, 1/R3. At
Earth: h 35000 km
Magnetic torque: from planetary magnetic fields, 1/R3. At
Earth: h 35000 km
Solar radiation pressure torque: in the entire solar system,
1/r2.
Torques from micrometeorites and debris impacts: at all
altitudes
Spacecraft generated torques: from mass movements
(mechanims, propellant, astronauts)
Their relative importance is a function of s/c size, mass distribution,
altitude and design

T16-33

Attitude control

T16-34

Attitude Control Basics

There are two basic types of space vehicle attitude mode:

Spin-stabilised
(including dual spin)

3-axis stabilised

T16-35

Passive Attitude Control

Passive attitude control takes advantage of natural forces and
physical principles by designing a space vehicle to maximise one
force or torque while minimising others.
Basic idea: use the disturbances to help provide stability, which
being free leads to long spacecraft lifetime.
Disadvantage: relatively low accuracy and inability to respond to
changing conditions.
(Generally) Even spacecraft with some major element of passive
attitude control need support from some active system to
improve stability.

T16-36

1) Spin stabilisation
Spin stabilisation is the most basic passive method of attitude control, where
gyroscopic stiffness keeps the rotation axis oriented in the same direction in
the inertial reference frame.
Any applied torque has components perpendicular and parallel to the
momentum vector
The parallel component T// spins the spacecraft up or down (i.e. increase or
decrease of spin rate)
The perpendicular component moves the momentum vector h in the direction
of the torque T
T

dh
h
= T = F
dt
t
h h = I
Ft Ft

=
h
I
gyroscopic stability

T16-37

Spin stabilisation is simple, and is used where simplicity is more

important than operational flexibility.
Most geostationary satellites are spin-stabilised
Long-term stability of spinners requires suitable choice of the
relative values of the principle moments of inertia:
overall shape design for the vehicle.
Lunar Prospector (Moon)

SRAT (aeronomy)

Meteosat Generation-1

T16-38

2) Dual spin
Dual spin = spun platform + despun
platform (hosting equipment which needs
fixed pointing: telecomms antennas,
observation instruments)
Galileo spacecraft (Jupiter)

Spun platform
Despun platform

HS 376 (telecomms)

T16-39

3) Gravity gradient stabilisation

A spacecraft in a low orbit will tend to stabilise with the minimum-inertia axis
in a vertical direction, and this can be used by the vehicle designer when there
is some useful reason to point an instrument or system to the Nadir (directly
down) a common case for many spacecraft.
The goal is to design the shape so that Iz << Ix, Iy
So how to get the inertia axes like this?
Usually add a long boom with a heavy (several kg) end-mass
Obviously, there is no possibility to provide yaw stability using the gravity field
alone.
Even in this configuration, additional damping is required to remove
oscillations caused by disturbances (gravity gradient vehicles hang like
pendulums).

T16-40

Typical accuracy is only about 10, but it is possible

to do better than this for carefully designed,
large, spacecraft.
To control yaw as well, additional active methods
must be added (e.g. momentum wheel).
So, in summary:
Nadir (down) oriented only.
Gravity gradient rarely works alone.
Requires stable (and exagerated)
inertia ratio: Iz < < Iy, Ix

T16-41

GG Boom Deployment (ONYX satellite)

Tip
Mass

Retracted

Boom
Arm

Deployed

T16-42

4) Reaction wheels
Reaction wheels are the most common form of active control.
A small electric motor spins a freely rotating wheel, and the wheel axis is
aligned to a vehicle control axis.
It is conceptually the same as adding a small spin stabilised vehicle inside
another vehicle, and rigidly attaching them.
A vehicle therefore needs a reaction wheel for each axis in order to achieve
full attitude control, and usually redundancy means a 4th wheel is added, on a
different axis, to provide limited control in a backup mode.
The electric motor is controlled according to commands from the control
feedback system in an attitude control computer, and change their rate of
rotation to induce a torque as they change rate.
Reaction wheels have a very fast response, and give rapid maneuverability to
an imaging platform.
But

T16-43

Reaction wheels are heavy and expensive, they are complex with
moving parts.
The external torques become stored as angular momentum in
wheels over time, and so wheels become saturated,
unable to control the spacecraft after a certain period of time.
Wheels can be desaturated through momentum dumping, by
using a second active method at the same time as despinning the
wheels.

T16-44

T16-45

Reaction wheels example: HST

HST needs to track stars
with an accuracy of 0.1.
No thrusters to avoid
contaminating the mirrors.
Two reaction wheels

Maneuvering with reaction wheels is based on the third Newtons law and
conservation of angular momentum: if the wheel accelerates in one direction
the satellite turns into the opposite one

T16-46

5) Momentum wheels
When a reaction wheel is designed to operate at high speeds, it takes a new
name, and a new control method: the Momentum Wheel.
Momentum wheels use tachometers to measure rotation rate, and keep the
rate nearly constant with respect to the spacecraft. Small rate adjustments
provide torque control.
Useful for vehicles that need a high degree of pointing stability, but reduced
slew rates (maneuverability).

T16-47

6) Magnetic torquers ( or torque rods)

Instead of providing a disturbance, magnetic fields can be used to provide
attitude control.
Magnetic Torquers are particularly effective for initial attitude acquisition, and
for momentum dumping from reaction wheels.
Electrical coils: when activated, they experience a torque and try to align
themselves with the surrounding magnetic field. By controlling the current in
each of a set of orthogonal magnetic torquers, attitude control can be
achieved.

T16-48

Common on Earth orbiting spacecraft.

Rarely used as primary control device, except in emergency or for
initial attitude acquisition.
Primarily used for dumping excess angular momentum from
reaction wheels.
Particularly useful when carrying consumables, e.g. fuel for
reaction jets, would limit design lifetime, or when exhaust gas
flowing from such jets might contaminate or otherwise harm the
spacecraft.
Relatively low control authority.
Can interfere with other components on the spacecraft (EMI)

T16-49

7) Reaction Jets/Thrusters
Reaction thrusters can provide very large control forces in a very rapid
response, and so are common in human space vehicles.
Also typical in space missions that
cannot effectively use magnetic
torquers or gravity gradient methods
(higher orbits, interplanetary missions, etc.)
Principal disadvantage is the
requirement for a fuel or neutral gas
propellant, which comprises a
lifetime-limiting resource on board.
Thrusters are typically either on or
off, so cannot easily be used in a
proportional control system with a
response reaction based on the
measurement of a disturbance or
required slew.

T16-50

Variable response is achieved by

using multiple jets in carefully
timed pulses.
Each axis of control requires
multiple thrusters,
and as each thruster only works in
one direction, they are arranged
in symmetric triples.
Combinations of firings in different
axes (usually separately) achieve
complete attitude control.

Apollo Lunar Module ACS

T16-51

Summary
Reaction wheels ( 3500 rpm): electric wheels used to compensate for
perturbing torques (continuously accelerating, hence periodic desaturations),
used to maneuver (e.g., slew maneuvers, as in HST)
Momentum wheels ( 10000 rpm): electric wheels used to stabilize attitude
against disturbance torques. Constant, high speed (higher than reaction
wheels), high inertia
Thrusters: used to maneuver
(both attitude and orbit), not to
counteract perturbations (lack of
proportionality), high precision,
need to be fired in symmetrical
pairs if orbit displacement is to be
avoided (orbit-only maneuvers
consist in firing through center of
mass so that no torque is produced)

T16-52

Three axis stabilized spacecraft

Attitude law requiring control over three axes. Achieved by any
of the previous methods, or combinations of them
Cassini-Huygens (Saturn-Titan)

Intelsat 5a (Comms)

Stabilized via momentum wheels

T16-53

Attitude maneuvers

T16-54

Yo-Yo despin
During launch and orbit insertion, and sometimes during orbit transfers,
upper stages or the spacecraft themselves are provided with a spin to ensure
stability. Usually, it is therefore necessary to stop a space vehicle spinning
e.g. might want to change orientation before making a thrust manoeuvre, so
temporarily stop spinning.
Easily achieved using small thrusters
(retro-rockets).
Or, can consider a Yo-Yo Despin, which
works very well for symmetrical
spacecraft, and is very simple if
you only need to de-spin once.
Exploit conservation of angular momentum

T16-55

Slews
Slew = reorienting the S/C
from one attitude to another
by creating torque to rotate
about one or more axes
The graphs illustrate how:
from torque
to ang. acceleration
to ang. velocity
to change in attitude

T16-56

Slew example
Mission planners for a photoreconnaissance satellite want to image two
separate targets during the same pass over a country of interest.
After imaging the first target, the satellite will have 30 seconds to perform a
slew manoeuvre to prepare for imaging the second target.
The actuators used for the manoeuvre produce a constant torque of 6.98 Nm
and the satellite has a mass moment of inertia about the slew axis of 2000
kgm2.
At the point of closest approach, the first target will be 15 degrees away from
Nadir on the left side of the groundtrack. Thirty seconds later, the second
target will be 25 degrees to the right of the groundtrack.
Sketch plots of angular acceleration, angular velocity, and angular position
versus time for the slew manoeuvre that uses the minimum amount of torque
from the actuators.

T16-57

X2
X1

An Earth observing satellite is typically on a Sun-synchronous orbit,

with a ground-track (GT) like that shown in the picture.
The two targets are indicated with X1 and X2, respectively 15 deg
on the left and 25 deg on the right of the GT.

T16-58

Of the two schemes shown at page 55, that which

implies less use of torque is b (fuel-efficient).
We must characterize the various curves by taking
into account the value of the constant torque T,
the moment if inertia I around the slew axis (axis
around which the change of attitude is
performed). In particular we need to determine
the duration t of each torque application (we
assume they have equal duration)
T=

S =

dhS d ( I S S )
d S
=
= IS
= I SS
dt
dt
dt

6.98 N m
T
2
2
=
=
0
.
00349
rad/sec
=
0
.
2
deg/
sec
I S 2000 kg m 2

T16-59

Plot for angular velocity:

it is a trapezoid

(deg/sec)

30

t
(sec)

The area of the trapezoid must equal the total slew maneuver, i.e.the total
slew angle = 25 (-15) = 40.
If t represents the duration of the first slew maneuver before the coast
period, then the total area of the trapezoid is
A = = 40 = (30 t) h where h is the trapezoid height.
Since the slope of the trapezoid is the angular acceleration, the height h
is angular acceleration times t:

h = S t
40o = (30 s t )s t = (30 s t )0.2t
0.2t 6t + 40 = 0
2

Second degree eq. in t

T16-60

Solving for t gives:

6 6 2 4(0.2)(40) 6 2
t =
=
2(0.2)
0.4
t = 10 sec or t = 20 sec

In the context of the problem, the only acceptable solution is t = 10 sec.

The height of the angular velocity plot becomes (0.2/s2)(10 sec) = 2 deg/sec.
During the first application of torque, the attitude angle will change by the area of
the triangular section of the trapezoid: =10.
Between t= 10 sec and t = 20 sec, the attitude angle changes at a constant rate of
2/s for an additional = 20.
The final application of torque changes the attitude angle by another = 10 just
like the first application.

T16-61

Overall slew strategy

25.0
15.0
-5.0

(deg) -15.0

(deg/sec)

0
t
(sec)

2.0
0
t
(sec)

0.2
..

(deg/sec2) 0
-0.2

20
10

30
t
(sec)

T16-62

The application of the Fast strategy would give:

T=

dhS d ( I S S )
d S
=
= IS
= I SS
dt
dt
dt

S =

6.98 N m
T
2
2
=
=
0
.
00349
rad/sec
=
0
.
2
deg/
sec
I S 2000 kg m 2
h

(deg/sec)

2t

t
(sec)

40o = ht
h = t = 0.2 deg/ s 2 t
s

40o = 0.2 deg/ s 2 t 2 t = 200 s = 14.14 s

h = 2.83 deg/ s
2t = 28.28s