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IPA, 2006 - Proceedings of an International Conference on Petroleum Systems of

SE Asia and Australasia, 1997

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INDONESIAN PETROLEUM ASSOCIATION

Proceec!ings of the Petroleum Systems of SE Asia and Australasia Conference, May 1997

PETROLEUM SYSTEM OF THE KUTEI BASIN, KALIMANTAN, INDONESIA

David W. Patemon*
Andang Bachtiar"*
John A. Bates***
Jeny A. Moon****
Ron C. Surdam*****

Coals and carbonaceous shales of Middle to Late

Miocene age associated with the delta plain to delta
front depositional environments are the source rocks
for the Lower Kutei Basin oil and gas fields. These
source rocks have outstanding generative potential TOCs of 20% to 70%, hydrogen indices ranging up to
300, and genetic potential yields up to 175 mg/g. The
kinetic profile of these source rocks is characterized
by significantly lower generative thresholds than
conventional source rock types. Oil generation occurs
between Ro=0.35 to Ro=0.6, oil to gas transformation
occurs between Ro=0.6 to Ro=l.2, and gas generation
from kerogen where Ro>l.2.
The top of the effective kitchen is defined in terms of
onset of significant hydrocarbon expulsion, not in
terms of generation Expulsion commences where
Ro=O 6. equivalent to the kinetic threshold of the
oil-to-gas rcactioii Potentially. earlier expulsion of oil
may occur where tectonic stresses lead to fracturing of
the source rocks while In the generative stage

and ranges from 0 to 10 kilometres in distance.

Vertical migration is an important, but subsidiary
factor. Trap formation occurred prior to hydrocarbon
migration, hence there is high trapping potential.
Conversely, the long anticlines that form the giant oil
and gas fields also act as migration shadows to areas
regionally updip and out of the kitchen, towards the
west.
The dominant hydrocarbon type in the basin is gas.
The gas is interpreted to be a product of oil to gas
catagenesis, not of kerogen to gas metagenesis. Oil
occurrence is a case o f preservation. Oil is found
where the reservoirs lie above the oil-to-gas cracking
threshold (10,OO.Ofeet or Ro=O.6). There are two basic
oil types, of common genetic origin, recognized in the
fields. The two oil types are characterized by their
post-generative catagenesis history into: (A) a waxy
crude and (B) a light API oil that is type (A) oil with
the heavier carbon components cracked off.

INTRODUCTION
The basc of thc effcctive hydrocarbon kitchen is
interpreted as the top of the hard overpressure zone.
The kitchen is up to 3000 feet in thickness and covers
a large area located in the Middle to Late Miocene
age paleo-depocentre
The charging of deltaic sandstone reservoirs is very
efficient, as the source rocks and thc sandstone
reservoirs arc contiguous. Migration is largely lateral
*

T a r n o Indonesia Ltd.

**

VICO Indonesia
Union Texas Petroleum - Jakarta
Union Texas Petro!mm - Houston
LJniversity of Wyoming

***
****
*****

This year (1997) marks the 100th anniversary of the

spudding of the first Kutei Basin exploration well, the
Louise-1 oil discovery. This well was sited on the
basis of an oil seep. This initial success foreshadowed
the prolific hydrocarbon potential of the Lower Kutei
Basin. An estimated 2.5 billion barrels of oil (EUR)
and 28 TCF of gas (EUR) have been discovered to
date. Greater than 97% of the basin reserves are found
along four long anticlinal structural trends aligned
parallel to the coastline. The initial 1898 discovery
well is located on the westernmost, inboard trend.
Significant new reserve additions continue to be made

7I 0

in this prolific hydrocarbon province through active

exploration and appraisal drilling programs. The new
reserves are being found in the traditional producing
fairways and are due to the application of sequence
stratigraphic concepts in tandem with 3-D seismic
technology. Conversely, wildcat drilling beyond the
traditional
fairways
has been
commercially
unsuccessful, due in our opinion to the lack of an
effective petroleum system.
The emphasis in recent publications covering the
Lower Kutei Basin has been on the benefits of
sequence stratigraphic studies (Allen, G.P. and
Mercier, F., 1994, D u d , B.C.. et al.. 1992, Stuart,
C.J., et al., 1995, and Snedden, J.W., et al., 1996).
Elements of the petroleum system have been touched
upon in these papers and others (Bates, J.A., 1996 and
Burris, J., et al., 1992), though not as the principal
theme of the paper. The benefit of a petroleum system
synthesis comes from shifting the emphasis from
structure and traps to petroleum, timing, and migration
(Magoon, L.B., and Sanchez, K.M.O., 1995). Hence,
presenting Lowcr Kutei Basin data in a petroleum
system synthesis offers new insights beyond the
traditional play fairway interpretation methods.
A petroleum system synthesis was one of the principal
goals 01' thc Lower Kutei Basin regional study
undertaken by VICO Indonesia Limited in 1992-1995.
Specific objectives of the project included: (i)
identifying the source rocks and analyzing their
properties, (ii) mapping the petroleum kitchen and
paleo-kitchens, (iii) mapping the location and the
timing of the hydrocarbon migration paths, and (iv)
explaining the oil versus gas distribution in the basin
on the basis of a conceptual petroleum system model.

BASIN SE'ITING
The study area includes the onshore Sanga Sanga PSC
and the offshore portion of the Lower Kutei Basin.
The tectonic setting of the Kutei Basin is shown in
Figure 1. A regional synthesis of the basin
tectono-stratigraphy is provided by van de Weerd, et
al. (1992). Depositional facies models of the Miocene
fluvial-deltaic systems have been derived from
detailed analogue studies of the modcrn Mahakam
Delta (Allen, G.P., et al., 1976, Allen, G.P., and
Mercier, F., 1994 and Roberts, H.H., and Sydow, J.,
1996). The structural development of the basin folds
and faults, in particular the more severely deformed

onshore portion of the basin, is still the subject of

active research (Chambers, J., and Daley, T.E., 1995).

Within the study area, the Paleogene aged section is

overpressured and buried at too great a depth to be
considered a contributor to the petroleum system. The
post-Miocene aged section is not buried sufficiently
deep enough to generate an active petroleum systcm.
Hence, the Early Miocene to Late Miocene aged
section is the focus of this study. The Early Miocene
section in the study area is composcd of shelfal, slope,
and bathyal sediments, and is dominantly shale
(Figure 2). The proximal facies of Early Miocene age,
which were deposited to the west of the Sanga-Sanga
PSC, have been largely eroded.
In Figure 2, note the relentless progradation of the
facies eastward through time, and beginning in the
Middle Miocene, the contemporaneous uplift and
erosion in the west. The inversion of the
paleo-depocentres in the west provided the quartz
enriched sandstones that form the reservoirs in all of
the Lower Kutei Basin fields, accounting for 99% of
reserves in the basin (Tanean, H., et al., 1996).
Estimates of uplift and erosion in the study area range
from zero at the present day coastline to 4,500 feet in
the western synclines,' eg. Buat-1 well shown in
Figures 1 and 2 (Grundy, R.J., et al., 1996). The
anticlines can have up to 10,000 feet of section
removed, eg. Belonak-1 and Tengin-1 wells shown in
Figure 1.
Stratigraphically, the Middle Miocene was marked by
an initial outbuilding of the delta systems over shelfal
to slope sediments, establishing a new shelf margin
under the present day Tunu Field and a depositional
shoreline in the Badak to Nilam Field area. The area
in the west, across which the early Middle Miocene
system prograded, subsequently accumulated a Middle
to Late Miocene age deltaic section significantly
thinner (8,000-10,000 feet) than in the Nilam to Tunu
area (12,000-15,000 feet).
After the initial rapid progradation of the delta
systems during earliest Middle Miocene time, they
tended to aggrade overall. The paleobathymetry of the
area did not vary significantly in the Middle Miocene.
Sedimentary flux was high and comparatively constant
throughout the period. The accumulation of a thick
(6,000 to 8,000 feet present day) aggregation of delta

71 1
plain environment section of Middle Miocene age in
the Nilam area is the dominant charactenstic of this
age section. The development of a thick coastal plain
(topsets) suggests that relative sea level was rising
during this time, that is, net basin subsidence
continually generated accommodation space.
The beginning of the Middle Miocene saw the
progressive development on a west to east basis of the
syn-depositional folds that are the initial structural
expression of today's long. linear anticlines. The
Nilam Anticline began forming in the middle of this
period. Initial folding was passive, due to gravity load
tectonics, and because subsidence outstripped sediment
supply there was no erosion on the anticline crests.
At the beginning of the Late Miocene a period of
major outbuilding of the delta systems past their shelf
margins occurred. There is a corresponding major,
eastward basinward shift in the facies. Towards the
end of the Late Miocene, the shelf margin had
prograded to a position approximately under the S k i
gas discovery. This basinward shift is associated with
a pulse of renewed structural inversion. The onshore
Sanga Sanga Field anticline commenced uplift and
erosion at this time, as the structural deformation
progressed to compressive folding of the anticlines.
Delta channel sands crossing the next anticlinal trend
eastward, the Badak and Nilam Field areas, show
structural influence on channel morphology.
The input of sediment was accomplished via a
proto-Mahakam river system that remained centered
along the course of the present day river The
deposition rate for the Miocene section IS estimated
from decompacted well log data to average 3,500 feet
per million vears in the delta plain environment The
vertical stacking of proximal sediments was
accomplished with minimal syn-depositional faulting
The anticlines further west, involved in the subsequent
progressive compressional folding, had by Late
Miocene time developed associated flank thrust faults
Figure 3 shows a simple delta depositional
environment modcl. Key aspects to the present day
and proto-Mahakam deltas are the mixed fluvial/tidal
character of the depositional process with minimal
wave influence. Consequently, sand deposition is
within the distributary channels and at the channel
mouth bars. There is minimal sand content in the
environments beyond the delta front.

HYDROCARBON SOURCE
Three distinct types of potential source rocks were
examined: coals, carbonaceous shales, and marine
mudstones. The depositional environments ranging
from fluvial delta plain to delta front contain coal and
carbonaceous shale lithologies that have outstanding
source rock potential. The marine depositional
environments, beyond the shelfal extent of the delta
front, contain mudstones that have poor source rock
potential.
VICO mapped the subsurface using logs from
approximately 600 wells, and utilizing average
lithology techniques first applied in the Kutei Basin
by TOTAL (Duval, B.C., et al., 1992). The Middle
Miocene section is characterized by an abundance of
coals in the delta plain environment. Two distinct coal
types were identified, a liptinitic and a vitrinitic type.
The fluvial delta plain has preserved average coal
percentages, on a total rock volume basis, ranging
from 9% to 4% (proximal to distal). The tidal delta
plain has preserved average coal percentages ranging
from 4% to 1% (proximal to distal).
The high coal percentage preserved in the Middle
Miocene is due to the relatively high sea levels of the
period, an equatorial geographic location, and to the
accommodating style of the basin subsidence that
promoted aggradation of the section with minimal
erosion. The preserved Late Miocene coal percentages
are estimated to be approximately one-half those of
the Middle Miocene. The Early Miocene proximal
deltaic section was deposited to the west of the study
area and is largely eroded.
The carbonaceous shales are associated with the tidal
delta plain to delta front depositional environments.
Identification of the same macerals found in the coal
beds and recognition of fine grained and dispersed
coal particles imply the carbonaceous shales are
composed of transported, reworked organic debris of
similar origin to the coals. The carbonaceous shales
constitute 5% to 15% of the section in the tidal delta
plain to delta front environment.
The coals have Total Organic Carbon (TOC) and a
Genetic Potential (GP) averages of 65% and 175
mg/g, respectively. The values in the carbonaceous
shales TOC range up to 20% and GP ranges from 20
to 60 mg/g. On a weighted total lithology basis the

712
delta plain to delta front environment has a GP
ranging from 5 to 15 mg/g (Figure 4). The initial
Hydrogen Indices (HI) for both lithologies range up to
300.
The prodelta to bathyal shales have TOCs averaging
0.5% to 1%. The organic matter is widely dispersed in
the samples but exhibits similar maceral composition
to the other two source rock lithologies. Hydrogen
Indices are usually less than 100. The GP is up to 2
mglg, often less than 1 mglg. The marine shales can
form up to 100% of the stratigraphic section in distal
environments. In the Miocene section of the Kutei
Basin, the distal shales are generally encountered
within the overpressure regime (Bates, J.A., 1996).
New source rock kinetics, based on multiple hydrous
pyrolysis measurements of surface and subsurface
samples, were derived as part of this study. The
kinetics are radically different to conventional Type
I11 (and Type I & 11) source rock kinetics. They are
sufficiently different to be Lonsidered their own
organic facies source rock type. The coal and
high-TOC carbonaceous shales generate oil at a
maturity equivalent of Ro=0.35% to 0.6%. The
thermal thresholds are offset to slightly higher values
for the lower-TOC samples analysed. These source
rocks have significant storage capacity and are
initially very inefficient in expelling the generated oil.
Expulsion from the source rock does not occur until
an oil-to-gas transformation stage at Ro > 0.6%.
Metagenesis commences at Ro=1.2%. The
kerogen-to-hydrocarbon product for both the coals and
the carbonaceous shales is 213 oil and 113 gas over the
complete maturation cycle. The primary expulsion
efficiencies, estimated from laboratory studies, are
between 25% and 40%.
The marine shales, because of their low TOC and HI,
are gas prone, with an estimated kerogen to gas
generation threshold equivalent of R0=0.8% and a gas
expulsion threshold of Ro=l.O%. Ro>0.8 is always
encountered within the hard overpressure zone in the
Lower Kutei Basin.

KITCHEN
Our determination of Lower Kutei Basin kitchen
boundaries is similar to recent work published by
Total Indonesia (Duval, B.C. et al., 1992), and differs
from earlier published studies (Combaz, A. and

Matharel, M.D., 1978 and Oudin, J.L., and Picard,

P.F., 1982). The top of the effective kitchen for the
delta plain depositional environment is taken to be
where Ro=0.6%. This is the depth of first
hydrocarbon expulsion. The conventional selection for
top kitchen is to use the top of the generative window.
This was not used in our analysis because of the high
storage capacity of the source rocks and thus the need
to focus on the first significant expulsion threshold.
The geothermal gradient in the Lower Kutei Basin,
where measured in wells, is highly variable due to
active meteoric water influx and due to overpressure
at depth. An average normal pressured section
gradient of 1.65 degrees Fahrenheit per 100 feet,
relatively cool, is applicable to the Lower Kutei
Basin. As a consequence, in the Lower Kutei Basin
the expulsion threshold for hydrocarbons (Ro=0.6) is
equivalent to depths of approximately 10,000 feet.
The base of the effective kitchen is taken to be the
top of the Hard Overpressure Zone. Overpressuring is
ubiquitous in the Lower Kutei Basin and is interpreted
to be initially caused by shale undercompaction due to
low hydraulic conductivity relative to the very high
sediment deposition rates (Bates, J.A., 1996). The
abnormal pressures are maintained in areas of the
basin without recent significant depositional load or
even in areas that have been uplifted. The
maintenance of abnormal pressures may be due to
hydrocarbon generation leading to multiphase fluid
flow and capillarity as per the discussion of the
"Gas-ex" Zone that follows.
The depositional environments characteristic of the
Hard Overpressure Zone are non-deltaic and in the
Lower Kutei Basin have poor source rock TOC
potential, high thermal thresholds for gas expulsion,
and poor secondary migration efficiencies because of
low sand content. Undercompaction initially occurs at
very shallow depths. A burial depth of 7,500 feet in
sand poor sequences marks the point at which
compaction ceases. Hence, undercompaction leading
to overpressuring occurs prior to marine source rock
kinetic expulsion thresholds (Ro=l .O%) being reached.
Thus, while the Hard Overpressure Zone is unlikely to
be effective as a kitchen in the Lower Kutei Basin, it
is acknowledged that periodic tectonic activity could
permit release of gas into the shallower section.
The hydrocarbon kitchen is spatially coincident with

713
an interval of transitional increased pressure, which
VICO labels the Gas Expulsion ("Gas-ex") Zone. This
interval is recognizable on sonic logs by the
suppressed sonic values in the shales (see Bates, J.A.,
1996). The relationship between the source kitchen
and the transitional pressures is considered to be
causal. Increasing gas saturation in the
inter-distributary shales as they reach the oil to gas
catagenesis threshold enhances their sealing capacity.
This effect is due to the development of a large
capillary prism because of two phases of fluid being
present. In the fields, such as Nilam, the top of the
"Gas-ex" pressure transition zone is marked by a
stepped increase in reservoir gas column heights.
Ro data and associated sonic log data were available
from 24 wells in the study area. In each case where a
"Gas-ex" transitional pressure zone was identified
from the sonic log, the top of the zone was equivalent
to an R0=0.6. Where a thick deltaic section had not
aggraded, a transition zone did not develop and
Ro=0.6 is encountered in the Hard Overpressure Zone.
The pressure transition begins where shales become
laterally continuous and sandstones become lenticular
and discontinuous. Pressure displacements of 2000 psi
above hydrostatic are potentially sustainable.
Mapping the effective top of the kitchen utilizing well
Ro data was expanded upon by using the "Gas-ex"
transition zone sonic log signature from the extensive
well petrophysical database. Figure 5 shows an
isopach map of the present day Lower Kutei Basin
kitchen. The thickest kitchen isopach is in the Nilam
Field area, where it is up to 3,000 feet in thickness.
The kitchen comprises Middle and Late Miocene aged
sediments.
The relative distributions of source rock types varies
within the kitchen. There are significantly higher
percentages of fluvial delta plain and tidal delta plain
environments present in the Nilam and West Tunu
Field areas than further to the east. These two
palticular areas not only have kitchen isopachs two
times thicker than the average regional kitchen
isopach but they also benefit from high sand content
and thus higher migration efficiencies.
The uplifted and eroded western region of the study
area has no effective kitchen today as shown by our
mapping. This is not solely due to uplift. Much of this
area is interpreted, utilizing section restoration and

uplift studies (Grundy, R.J., et al., 1996) to never

have accumulated the necessary 10,000 feet of deltaic
section needed above the overpressured marine shales
to reach an Ro=0.6. Hence, the area west of the
current fields never did have an effective kitchen as
per our kitchen definition. However, potentially in the
past, the same tectonic stresses that structurally
uplifted and deformed the western areas may have
also led to fracturing of the deltaic source rocks while
in the generative stage, and hence, early oil expulsion.
Our estimates show the western portion of the study
area, shown without an effective kitchen in Figure 5,
accumulated an average of 2,000 feet of deltaic
section placed in the main part of the oil generative
window, ie. between Ro=0.45 and R0=0.6, or 7,500 to
10,000 feet maximum burial depth prior to uplift.
Exploration wells drilled in the western area tend to
find the preserved deltaic section completely flushed
with meteoric waters. Thus, it is not clear if the
tectonic fracturing kitchen model is valid or not in the
western area. However, in the westernmost oil fields,
eg. Semberah and Pamaguan, some support is given
for the tectonic fracturing model. In these fields, there
is preliminary analytical evidence that some of the
oils are as low as Ro=0.45 equivalent in maturation.
This work still needs to be expanded upon before the
hypothesis can be said to have been properly tested.

HYDROCARBON MIGRATION
Vertical sealing capacity in the deltaic environment is
greater than lateral sealing capacity (Kaldi, J.G., and
Atkinson, C.D., 1993). For traps with a stratigraphic
component, the pool size will depend on the lateral
sealing capacity and the size and the geometry of the
displacement pressure barrier. The lateral leaking of
pools due to exceeding lateral seal capacity limits,
where it occurs along a plunging anticline, would tend
to lead to secondary migration up-plunge towards the
anticlinal crest. Traps in the seal-enhanced, "Gas-ex"
transitional pressure zone, however, have the capacity
to hold hydrocarbon columns up to 5,000 feet, though
the maximum observed is 2,000 feet.
In the Lower Kutei Basin, hydrocarbon migration is
dominantly lateral and regionally updip, from east to
west, distal to proximal. Important exceptions, are
Nilam and Badak Fields, where there is also a
significant west to east component. The combination
of relatively low heat flow (estimated 35-40 mWm-2)

714
during the Miocene and the early development of
anticlinal structures meant traps were in place before
hydrocarbon expulsion occurred. This has led to very
efficient trapping.
The kitchens comprising delta plain depositional
environments will be efficiently drained by the
spatially contiguous sandstone channels. Higher sand
content to the west within a sequence, provides very
efficient drainage in this direction, regionally updip
out of the kitchen. Structural dip alone does not
control migration direction in those cases where the
channels are aligned oblique to structural dip.
The tidal and marine bar sands are not as efficient
carrier beds as the delta plain channel sands because
they are areally more discontinuous in the dip
direction and have poorer reservoir properties than the
channel sands. Where the bar sands are interconnected
with the channel sands, they will tend to serve as
feeder conduits into the channel sands. Where the bar
sands are isolated, they have the potential to form
local stratigraphic traps, (eg. West Tunu Field).
Vertical migration is a subsidiary but important
component of migration in the Lower Kutei Basin.
Vertical migration is interpreted to occur where the
sandlshale ratio exceeds 35% within the fluvial
deltaics or where there is faulting. There is a minimal
amount of extensional faulting in the Lower Kutei
Basin. Therefore, the vertical plumbing of source
kitchen to shallower reservoirs is the exception.
Bekapai and Attaka oil fields are good fault path
migration examples because the shallow oil reservoirs
in the fields are without laterally mature kitchens and
the fields' domal structures clearly exhibit normal
faults (Courteney, S. ed., 1991). Further west, where
there has been uplift and erosion, faulted structures,
including the upper intervals of the westemmost
fields, with high sandlshale ratios tend to be flushed
by meteoric waters.

HYDROCARBON TYPE AND DISTRIBUTION

There has been approximately 2.5 billion barrels of
liquids (EUR) and 28 TCF (EUR) of gas found in the
Lower Kutei Basin to the end of 1994. The bulk of
the gas is interpreted to be a product of oil to gas
cracking, not kerogen to gas metagenesis, because
metagenesis thermal thresholds are not reached until
well into the Hard Overpressure Zone, an interval lean

in source rocks. Gas is found in all reservoirs trapped

within the kitchen and is also found in shallower
reservoirs. Gas maturation data by depth studies
(Schoell, M., et al., 1985) found mature gases at
shallow depths as well as within the kitchen. Gas
content flowing to the Bontang LNG Plant, and hence
a mix of all the producing fields, is composed of
83.3% C1, 5.1% C2, 3.3% C3, 2.2% C4+, and 5.1%
C 0 2 . The C 0 2 is a decarboxylation product of acetate
produced by maturation of the coals. Significantly,
hydrous pyrolysis measurements show coal maturation
yielding 7% C 0 2 by weight.
The first hydrocarbon expulsion product is dominantly
oil with minor gas. The volume of this initial
expulsion is potentially enormous as the coal source
rocks generate two-thirds of their ultimate potential
volume of hydrocarbons prior to Ro=O.6%. The early
charging potential remains latent and is only realized
with the start of gas generation from the cracking of
previously generated oil.
The oils in the Lower Kutei Basin can be grouped
into two (2) basic types (Figure 6). There is a strong
resinous, terrestrial signature to both types of crude as
evidenced by the pristanelphytane ratios and the
Carbon Preference Index (CPI) values >1 .O. Detailed
descriptions of the Low'er Kutei Basin oils can be
found in Oudin, J.L., and Picard, P.F., (1982), who
recognized terrestrial and marine influenced oils
(tidal-deltaic), but concluded all of the oils studied
were sourced from source rocks similar in nature.
Type A oils, characterized by significant C14 to C27
components, are found towards the crestal positions of
the westernmost oil fields - Semberah, Sanga Sanga,
Pamaguan, and Mutiara. Chromatographs of oil
extracts from an immature coal sample obtained from
hydrous pyrolysis analysis match Type A oil.
Type B oils, characterized by dominant C2 to C12
components are found in all the fields. Type B oil is
interpreted to be Type A oil thermally cracked in the
source rock and expelled from the source rock later
than the Type A oil. The CPI values for the Type B
oil samples show lower values, and hence increasing
maturity. The pristanelphytane relationship observed
in Type A oil is maintained in Type B oil.
Regionally updip, east to west migration, would
favour the preservation of oil if the oil is trapped and
the pool does not become buried deeper subsequently

715
and enter the kitchen. If the kitchen continues to be
buried there will be increasingly higher gas content in
the traps updip to the west as lighter products are
expelled. Oil, the initial migration phase from the
kitchen, is only preserved in those cases where it
remains at temperatures above the oil-to-gas cracking
threshold. Hence, virtually all the oil reserves in the
Lower Kutei Basin are found at depths shallower than
10,000 feet and bitumen is found in the deeper gas
pools.

development of synclines on the east flank of

Semberah Anticline, west Semberah Syncline, west
Sanga Sanga Syncline, and west Mutiara Syncline.
The structuring style is gentle folding with no
faulting. Hard overpressure was at depths of 8000 feet
in marine shale facies. The section above the hard
overpressure had not reached the thermal thresholds
for oil expulsion. Thus, traps are already present but
the kitchen is immature.
10.5 Ma

Where the kitchen-to-trap migration direction is lateral

from west to east, for example, west of Nilam to
Nilam Field, the lateral p a t h w q is completely
contained within the kitchen. The shales within this
zone are enhanced seals and thus can support greater
hydrocarbon column heights. In these cases, it is less
likely the capillary seal capacity of the seals will be
breached due to hydrocarbon column height. The
tendency is for gas to be preserved in the traps
because, we hypothesize, the early oil is cracked into
gas in-situ.
The kitchen average yield, on a total rock volume
basis, is calculated to be 30 barrels per acre foot. This
estimate uses source rock type distribution within the
kitchen (Figure 4 j: expulsion efficiency estimates
weighted by source type and kitchen isopach (Figure
5). For the western portion of the composite kitchen,
the area west of the syncline axis between the Nilam
and Tunu Fields. we calculate 58 billion barrels of oil
equivalent may have been expelled. Approximately 10
billion barrels of oil equivalent has been trapped in
place in this area. This yields a theoretical trapping
efficiency of approximately 15%, relatively high by
world standards. Considering the 0 to 5 kilometer,
kitchen-to-trap distance, such a high efficiency is not
surprising.

PETROLEUM SYSTEM
Figure 7 illustrates in cross section view the
deirelopment of the Lower Kutei Basin Petroleum
System through time. The sections are at 10.5 Ma, 6.5
Ma, and Present Day. Figure 8 shows these same data
summarized in a petroleum system events chart, for
the Nilam Field location.

BJ.

11.7 Ma

(VICO

interval).

there

was

By 10.5 Ma (VICO N050N interval), there is further

growth of the anticlines and synclines evident at E
time. 10.5 Ma sees the commencement of a major
episode of basin inversion and associated contractional
folding and faulting. Commencement of faulting on
the limbs of the westemmost anticlines dates from this
time. Burial depths of the normally pressured section
remain at insufficient depths for oil expulsion.
6.5 Ma

6.5 Ma (Ty marker) is within a period of major

tectonic activity in the Sanga Sanga PSC area of the
L,ower Kutei Basin. At approximately 8 Ma, there was
accelerated uplift and erosion of the western
anticlines. Associated with the basin margin uplift
there was meteoric water incursion in high sand/shale
areas driven by topographic relief. The syncline west
of Tunu Field had developed, providing early but
unrealized trapping potential for the west flank of
Tunu Anticline.
By 6.5 Ma: intervals as young as the top of G had
become mature, as shown on the section. The most
easterly developed kitchen segment is the west flank
of Nilam Anticline at G interval. Further to the west,
the 12: 121, J: &: K intervals are mature. These pre-G,
Middle Miocene kitchen segments were at their
maximum development by 6.5 Ma.
The controlling limits to the G kitchen segment are
immaturity to the west at the base of the interval and
hard overpressure to the east at the top of the interval.
Migration vectors for petroleum are to the west
towards Sanga Sanga Anticline and to the east
towards Nilam Anticline.
The accelerated tectonic activity at this time period
could have created tectonic expulsion of oil from

716
source rocks, still in the generative stage, located in
the Sanga Sanga Anticline area. A few tentatively
identified low Ro, Type A oils found in the western
fields may date from this time. Most Type A oil
analysed to date is found to be near Ro=0.6 in
maturity.

ens segments, which are located in the

syncline west of Sisi Field. The extent of the kitchen
beyond the present day shelf edge is uncertain (Figure
5). Conceptually, shelf bypass deltas caused by sea
level lowstands could have deposited carbonaceous
shales in-situ with sandstones.

Pment Day

CONCLUSIONS

The G interval kitchen segment is still active at the

present day. The G interval had a total expulsion
period of approximately 6.5 Ma. This is the longest
active kitchen wiiidow for any of the intervals. The
pre-G interval kitchen segments, located to the west,
were uplifted and became ineffective in the 6 Ma to
3 Ma period, except for any tectonic-enabled
expulsion. The post-G intervals became active
progressively from 6 m a to 2 Ma, and are still active
today.

The initial objectives identified by VICO in

undertaking the Lower Kutei Basin petroleum system
synthesis have been achieved. The identification of
coals and carbonaceous shales as the active source
rock types in the deltaic environment corroborates
previously published work. The use of hydrous
pyrolysis lab techniques has yielded significantly
lower source rock kinetic thresholds than previous
studies.

The G interval kitchen segment remains centered over

the west flank of the Nilam Anticline. Since 6.5 ma,
the G interval kitchen segment area has extended to
the south to include the Handil Field area and a
wedge offshore from the Wain Sub-Basin. Migration
pathway flow vectors are generally to the west within
the G interval. except on the west flank of the Nilam
Anticline where they are to the east towards the Nilam
and Badak Fields.
The F interval is the youngest mature interval within
the Sanga Sanga PSC. The F kitchen is also centered
on the west Nilam Syncline, though the coal-rich
portion of the section is located further south in the
Tambora to Handil Field areas.
The section shows the NOS0 interval kitchen centered
on the west flank of the syncline west of Tunu Field.
This kitchen has charged the West Tunu Field sands
to the east and the NOSON interval of the Handil and
Badak Fields to the west.
There is residual evidence of an cxtensive 3 Ma
meteoric water invasion event. Present day this is
expressed by the occurrence of fresh water sands at
6,000 feet depth and 30 kilometres offshore. In Figure
8, 3 Ma is taken as the critical moment. when tilting
as a result of uplift on the western limb of the Nilam
Anticline removed rollover for the shallower intervals.
The cross section shows the limits and location of the

The proposed source rock kinetic model, in turn,

allows for an alternative and simpler explanation to
previously published studies, of the relative
distribution of oil versus gas in the basin. Oil, while
the initial hydrocarbon product, is only preserved at
depths above the oil-to-gas cracking threshold. Gas is
the dominant hydrocarbon type trapped within the
kitchen.
The kitchen mapping is similar to previously
published studies. However, defining the top of the
kitchen as R0=0.6, based on expulsion threshold, not
generation threshold, is a significant revision. The
recognition for the potential of a tectonic,
stress-enabled threshold for earlier oil expulsion, and
hence, shallower kitchen is also significant.
The limit of the effective kitchen to the west is only
partially due to uplift and erosion. Restorations show
that much of the westem portion of the Lower Kutei
Basin failed to accumulate sufficient thickness of
deltaic section to reach the top of thc kitchen thermal
thresholds. These western areas of the basin, while
having traps present, are not sourced from the proven
kitchen because of the long intervening linear
anticlines acting as migration shadows.
The efficiency of the Lower Kutei Basin petroleum
system can be attributed to the formation of structural
traps prior to kitchen development, to the
short-to-in-situ migration pathways, the spatial
coincidence of reservoir and source beds, and to

717

recent formation of the petroleum system (6.5 Ma to

Present).

Courteney, S. ed., 1991, Indonesia Oil and Gas Fields

Atlas Vol. 5, Kalimantan. IPA Publication, 27 pp.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Duval, B.C., Choppin de Janvry, G., and Loiret, B.,

1992, The Mahakam
Delta Province: An
Ever-Changing Picture and a Bright Future. OTC
Paper No. 6855, 24th Annual Offshore Technology
Conference.

The authors would like to thank the management of

PERTAMINA-VICO Indonesia for their permission to
present this paper. The contents of this paper were
part of a regional Kutei Basin study conducted by
VICO's Exploration Department. We acknowledge the
efforts of our colleagues in providing the structural
and stratigraphic framework with which to carry out
this particular study. The work this paper was based
upon was completed in 1995, hence, some of the ideas
presented may not necessarily agree with current
VICO concepts, developed by succeeding workers.

REFERENCES
Allen, G.P., Laurier, D. and Thouvenin, J., 1976,
Sediment Distribution Patterns in the Modern
Mahakam Delta. Proceedings of the Indonesian
Petroleum Association, 5 , 159-178.
Allen, G.P. and Mercier, F., 1994, Reservoir Facies
and Geometry in Mixed Tide and Fluvial-Dominated
Delta Mouth Bars: Examples from the Modem
Mahakam Delta (East Kalimantan). Proceedings of the
Indonesian Petroleum Association, 2311, 26 1-273.
Bates, J., 1996, Overpressuring in the Kutei Basin:
Distribution, Origins and Implications for the
Petroleum System. Proceedings of the Indonesian
Petroleum Association, 25/1, 93-1 16.
Burrus, J.. Brosse, E., Choppin de Janvry, G.,
Grosjean, Y., and Oudin, J.L., 1992, Basin Modelling
in the Mahakam Delta Based on the Integrated 2-D
Model Temispack. Proceedings of the Indonesian
Petroleum Association, 21/1, 23-43.
Chambers, J. and Daley, T.E., 1995, A Tectonic
Model for the Onshore Kutai Basin, East Kalimantan,
Based on an Integrated Geological and Geophysical
Interpretation. Proceedings of the Indonesian
Petroleum Association, 24/1, 11 1-117.
Combaz, A. and Matharel, M.D., 1978, Organic
Sedimentation and Genesis of Petroleum in Mahakam
Delta, Borneo. AAPG Bulletin, 62, 1684-169s.

Duval, B.C., Choppin de Janvry, G., and Loiret, B.,

1992, Detailed Geoscience Reinterpretation of
Indonesia's Mahakam Delta Scores. Oil and Gas
Journal, Aug. loth, 1992 Issue, 67-72.
Grundy, R.J., Paterson, D.W. and Sidi, F.H., 1996,
Uplift Measurements in Tertiary Sediments of the
Kutai Basin, East Kalimantan, Indonesia as it Relates
to VICO Indonesia's PSC and the Surrounding Area.
Expanded Abstracts from Jakarta International
Geophysical Conference, SEG, 1996.
Kaldi, J.G. and Atkinson, C.D., 1993, Seal Potential
of the Talang Akar Formation, BZZ Area, Offshore
NW Java, Indonesia. Proceeding of the Indonesian
Petroleum Association, 2211, 373-394.
Magoon, L.B., and Sanchez, R.M.O., 1995, Beyond
the Petroleum System, AAPG Bulletin, 79/12,
173 1-1736.
Oudin, J.L., and Picard, P.F , 1982, Genesis of
Hydrocarbons in the Mahakam Delta and the
Relationship between their Distribution and the
Overpressured Zones. Proceedings of the Indonesian
Petroleum Association, 11, 181-202.
Roberts, H.H., and Sydow, J., 1996, The Offshore
Mahakam Delta: Stratigraphic Response of Late
Pleistocene-to-Modern Sea Level Cycle. Proceedings
of the Indonesian Petroleum Association, 25, 147-162.
Schoell, M., Durand, B., and Oudin, J.L., 1985,
Migration of Oil and Gas in the Mahakam Delta,
Kalimantan: Evidence and Quantitative Estimate from
Isotope and Biomarker Studies. Proceedings of the
Indonesian Petroleum Association, 14, 49-56.
Snedden, J.W., Sarg, J.F., Clutson, M.J., Maas, M.,
Okon, T.E.: Cartcr, M.H., Smith, B.S., Kolich, T.H.,
and Mansor, M.Y., 1996, Using Sequence
Stratigraphic Methods in High-Sediment Supply

718
Deltas: Examples from the Ancient Mahakam and
Rajang-Lupar Deltas. Proceedings of the Indonesian
Petroleum Association, 25/1, 28 1-296.
Stuart, C.J., Armin,R.A., Abdoerrias, R., de Boer,
W.D., Heitman, H.L., Nurhono, A,, Schwing, H.F.,
Sidik, B., Vijaya, S., Wiman, S.K., and Yusuf, F.,
1995, Sequence Stratigraphic Studies in the Lower
Kutei Basin, East Kalimantan, Indonesia. Proceedings
of the International Symposium on Sequence
Stratigraphy in SE Asia, Indonesian Petroleum
Association, 363-368.

Tanean, H., Paterson, D.W. and Endharto, M., 1996,

Source Provenance Interpretation of Kutai Basin
Sandstones and the Implications for the
Tectono-Stratigraphic Evolution of Kalimantan.
Proceedings of the Indonesian Petroleum Association,
2511, 333-346.

van de Weerd, A. and Armin, R.A., 1992, Origin and

Evolution of the Tertiary Hydrocarbon-bearing Basins
in Kalimantan (Borneo), Indonesia, AAPG Bulletin,
76/11, 1778-1803.

719

FIGURE 1

Tectonic Elements of the Kutei Basin. The area from the present day Mahakam Delta to the
shelf edge is the Lower Kutei Basin depocentre from the end of the Early Miocene to the
Present Day. There are 50,000 feet of sediments deposited in the depocentre. The effective
petroleum system is largely restricted to the Mahakam Depocentre area.

FIGURE 2

25

MIDDLE

UPPER

N23

N4

N5

NON

LJR

20 KM5

OVERPRESSURE

)/)

I.--------(

CHRQNOSTRAT PROFILE
LOA
(PROJ

D E POSIT10N

.IAl

w
E

Chronostratigraphic profile of the Lower Kutei Basin. There was a major progradation of the deltaic facies at N8 time, followed by
aggradation. The aggraded N10 to N14 aged delta plain section at the Nilam Field is 8,000 feet thick. TLe eroded section at the
Buat-1 well location is estimated to be 4,500 feet.

I---

MIOCENE

PLIOCENE

LATE

PLEISTOCE NE

INTERVAL

S ERI ES

i
VlCQ

CHKONOSTRATICRAPHIC
UI rc

72 1

LEGEND
HM - HOKMARINE
FM - FLUVlOMAlMlE
m -MANCROWSWAMP
MM - M4EINAL MMNE

FIGURE 3

TRANSITIONAL TO MARINE
DEPOSITIONAL ENVlRONMENTS

Depositional Environment Classification. The proto-Mahakam Deltas are mixed fluvialhidal

with minimal wave influence. Sands are restricted to the delta front to fluvial delta plain
environments. In-situ and effective detrital source rocks are restricted to the prodelta to fluvial
delta plain environments.

722

DEP. ENVIR

S O U R C E RUCK

- 4% Coal

6 5% Carbonaceous

cp

=--I-=

SOU-

"-&.

65%

300

175

2-3%

200

20

14-7

shale

4
5

- 1% Coal

- 15% Carbona-

1 75
300

2-3%

20

ceous
shale

1 75

1 -O%Coal
15

- 25% Carbona
ceous
shale

5-20%

300

60

-.---L-

a% c ~ a i
0%. Carbnnaceous

1%

l,

shale
80

35

60% Shale

1 - 0% coal
- 15% Carbowaceous

shale

100%

5-20%

<150

60

300

Shale

P O SI T 1 0 NAL E NVIR ONMLENT

SOURCE P O T E N T I A L
'

FIGURE 4

Source Potential Characterized by Depositional Environment. The Genetic Potential (GP) for
each source type present is shown in milligrams per gram. The GP for. each depositional
environment is derived from a weighted average based on percentage volume of the source
rock types (5 mglg is considered a good source rock). An unproven concept in the Kutei
Basin is the self-sourcing potential of shelf bypass deltas, recently the target of deep water
drilling.

723

LEGEND :

0
0
A--\

0-1000
1000-2000
2000-3000
2 3000
x -Section in Figure : 7

GAS FIELD
OILFIELD

COMPOSITE KITCHEN ISOPACH MAP

11.12.96 CD1

FIGURE 5

XRDF29H

Composite Kitchen Isopach Map contoured in feet. The thickest and richest portion of the
kitchen is located on the west flank of the Nilam Field. Uplift and erosion limits the extent
of the effective kitchen to the west. The existence of a kitchen to the east, beyond the present
day shelf edge, is speculative and is confined to Upper Miocene intervals of shelf bypass
deltas.

FIGURE 6

0
1

6 7 8 9 1011 121314151617181920 21222324252627282930 3132333435

Chromatography of the two oil types found in the Lower Kutei Basin. Type A oil, a waxy oil, is found in the crestal portions of the
western oil fields (Semberah, Sanga Sanga, Pamaguan, and Mitiara). Oil extracts from Kutei Basin coals match Type A oil
chromatographs. Type B oil, characterized by significant C2 to C12 components, is found in all the oil fields and is the most common
oil type. Type B oil is a thermally cracked product of Type A oil.

10

12

14

Oil Chroma ography

.P

725

N50 TIME

Today
RESTORED S E C T I O N WITH H Y D R O G E O L O G I C A L SYSTEMS
~

06.01.97 cD1

FIG RE 7

XBDF91HP

Restored cross-section A-A' (Figure 5) with liydrogeological systems. Syncline/antic ine

development is evident at 10.5 Ma @ S O time). By 6.5 Ma (Ty time), an effective kitchen had
developed in the syncline west of Nilam Anticline. Compressional stresses tightened the
western folds and caused uplift and erosion. There was extensive meteoric water invasion
Present Day shows the full development of the kitchens. The kitchen segments further west
of the syncline west of Nilam Anticline have been uplifted, but may still release oil from
coals due to tectonic fracturing.

FIGURE 8

LOWER

25.2

N5

N13

N15
N14

Nl6

NIB

N19

N20

u-

M-

N85O

Nmo-

I021V-

N7Of (A)

INTERVAL

VlCO

N4

N5

N6

Ni

N8

+-

F
C

N50/(D)

46O/(C&B)

--m-

WSON-

---NWJN-

-W70N-

__ 1-

HORIZON

.
EVENTS

section not in trapping

configuration

- overburden taken to be

target interval

pressures in Nilam field &

also base kitchen & base reservoir

- base C is top of abnormal

8,000 ft gross hydrocarbon

interval

insitu for F & C intervals.

The N60-E intervals rely on
an eastern kitchen

- seal/reservoir/source are

COMMENTS

IN

N22

N21

PETROLEUM SYSTEM EVENTS CHART

N4

4 I

16.20

MIDDLE

UPPER

EARLY

3.5*

1.65-

N23

gEzG

BLOW

Petroleum System Events Chart for the Nilam Field area. The deltaic channel sands draped across the Nilam Anticline have access
to western, in-situ, and eastern kitchen segments that become younger from west to east. Hydrocarbons have been migrating into the
Nilam Field from 6.5 Ma to the Present Day. Uplift in the west at 3 Ma removed some of the west limb closure and initiated a major
meteoric water influx event.

-10.20

-5.20-

LATE

SUB SERIES

."