Solar Power human body Sensing Automatic light

Abstract
This Project is about scientific home for power saving. Normally when nobody inside a room
and we forgot to switch off the light and fans. That light and fans remains on condition. For
this reason we waste lots of electrical energy. This is a regular problem in every home. For that
we have a solution. We are going to implement that in this project. When nobody is inside a
room then lights and fans are automatically off without human body interface to that. We are
getting this idea from scientific study. When we move our body radiates some amount of
infrared. We have catch that infrared to do this work. For that we find a sensor known as PIR
sensor (Passive infrared sensor). This sensor can detect human body movement because it
catches amount infrared radiated from the human body. This is very is innovative and useful
project. This can be implementing each individual home.

Block Diagram:-

Hardware Required:Solar Panel/Photo voltaic cell, Diode, Resistors, Transistor, Led, voltage regulating IC, PIR
sensor, Relay, DC bulb.

Introduction
This is a scientific home for power saving. In this project we use natural power from sun light.
It is complete green effect project. We save lots of energy by using PIR sensor. This is going
control our load in accordance with the human presence near by it.

Component Description: -

Solar Cell

Fig 32 Solar Cell

Description:

This epoxy-encapsulated polycrystalline solar cell offers 6.7V and 31mA in a 37x33mm
package. These are mounted on sturdy fiberglass backing, with color-coded polarity solder tabs. As for
performance, it offers 6.1V at 23mA in its 37x33mm package. After using your solar cells for a couple
of bots I noticed that they can be altered to provide about 3.3v at near 80ma (in full sun) by cutting the
bus connector on the back to electrically separate the two sides of the cell and then to cross-connect the
two sides of the bus to the + and - contacts. This puts the two sides in parallel.

A solar cell or photovoltaic cell is a device that converts sunlight directly

into electricity by the photovoltaic effect. Sometimes the term solar cell is reserved for devices
intended specifically to capture energy from sunlight, while the term photovoltaic cell is used
when the light source is unspecified. Assemblies of cells are used to make solar panels, solar
modules, or photovoltaic arrays. Photovoltaic is the field of technology and research related to

the application of solar cells in producing electricity for practical use. The energy generated
this way is an example of solar energy (also called solar power).

TIMELINE OF SOLAR CELL

The term "photovoltaic" comes from the Greek
(phs) meaning "light", and "voltaic", meaning electric, from the name of the Italian
physicist Volta, after whom a unit of electrical potential, the volt, is named. The term "photovoltaic" has been in use in English since 1849.
The photovoltaic effect was first recognized in 1839 by
French physicist A. E. Becquerel. However, it was not until 1883 that the first solar cell was
built, by Charles Fritts, who coated the semiconductor selenium with an extremely thin layer
of gold to form the junctions. The device was only around 1% efficient. Sven Ason Berglund
had a number of patents concerning methods of increasing the capacity of these cells. Russell
Ohl patented the modern junction semiconductor solar cell in 1946, which was discovered
while working on the series of advances that would lead to the transistor.
The modern age of solar power technology arrived in
1954 when Bell Laboratories, experimenting with semiconductors, accidentally found that
silicon doped with certain impurities was very sensitive to light [citation needed].Daryl Chapin, with
Bell Labs colleagues Calvin Fuller and Gerald Pearson, invented the first practical device for
converting sunlight into useful electrical power. This resulted in the production of the first
practical solar cells with a sunlight energy conversion efficiency of around 6 percent. The solar
battery was first demonstrated on April 25, 1954. The first spacecraft to use solar panels was
the US satellite Vanguard 1, launched in March 1958 with solar cells made by Hoffman
Electronics. This milestone created interest in producing and launching a geostationary
communications satellite, in which solar energy would provide a viable power supply. This
was a crucial development which stimulated funding from several governments into research
for improved solar cells.
In 1970 the first highly effective GaAs heterostructure
solar cells were created by Zhores Alferov and his team in the USSR.Metal Organic Chemical
Vapor Deposition (MOCVD, or OMCVD) production equipment was not developed until the
early 1980s, limiting the ability of companies to manufacture the GaAs solar cell. In the
United States, the first 17% efficient air mass zero (AM0) single-junction GaAs solar cells
were manufactured in production quantities in 1988 by Applied Solar Energy Corporation
(ASEC). The "dual junction" cell was accidentally produced in quantity by ASEC in 1989 as a
result of the change from GaAs on GaAs substrates to GaAs on Germanium (Ge) substrates.
The accidental doping of Ge with the GaAs buffer layer created higher open circuit voltages,
demonstrating the potential of using the Ge substrate as another cell. As GaAs single-junction
cells topped 19% AM0 production efficiency in 1993, ASEC developed the first dual junction
cells for spacecraft use in the United States, with a starting efficiency of approximately 20%.
These cells did not utilize the Ge as a second cell, but used another GaAs-based cell with

different doping. Eventually GaAs dual junction cells reached production efficiencies of about
22%. Triple Junction solar cells began with AM0 efficiencies of approximately 24% in 2000,
26% in 2002, 28% in 2005, and in 2007 have evolved to 30% AM0 production efficiency,
currently in qualification.

HIGH EFFICIENCY CELL

High efficiency solar cells are a class of solar cell that can
generate electricity at higher efficiencies than conventional solar cells. While high efficiency
solar cells are more efficient in terms of electrical output per incident energy (watt/watt), much
of the industry is focused on the most cost efficient technologies, i.e. cost-per-watt. Many
businesses and academics are focused on increasing the electrical efficiency of cells, and much
development is focused on high efficiency solar cells.

THEORY

Simple explanation
1. Photons in sunlight hit the solar panel and are absorbed by semiconducting materials,
such as silicon.
2. Electrons (negatively charged) are knocked loose from their atoms, allowing them to
flow through the material to produce electricity. Due to the special composition of
solar cells, the electrons are only allowed to move in a single direction. The
complementary positive charges that are also created (like bubbles) are called holes
and flow in the direction opposite of the electrons in a silicon solar panel.
3. An array of solar cells converts solar energy into a usable amount of direct current
(DC) electricity.

PHOTOGENERATIORN OF CHARGE CARRIERS

When a photon hits a piece of silicon, one of three things can happen:
1

The photon can pass straight through the silicon this (generally) happens for lower
energy photons,

The photon can reflect off the surface,

The silicon can absorb the photon, if the photon energy is higher than the silicon band
gap value. This generates an electron-hole pair and sometimes heat, depending on the
band structure.

When a photon is absorbed, its energy is given to an electron in the crystal lattice. Usually this
electron is in the valence band, and is tightly bound in covalent bonds between neighboring
atoms, and hence unable to move far. The energy given to it by the photon "excites" it into the
conduction band, where it is free to move around within the semiconductor. The covalent bond
that the electron was previously a part of now has one fewer electron this is known as a
hole. The presence of a missing covalent bond allows the bonded electrons of neighboring
atoms to move into the "hole," leaving another hole behind, and in this way a hole can move
through the lattice. Thus, it can be said that photons absorbed in the semiconductor create
mobile electron-hole pairs.
A photon need only have greater energy than that of the band gap in order to excite an electron
from the valence band into the conduction band. However, the solar frequency spectrum
approximates a black body spectrum at ~6000 K, and as such, much of the solar radiation
reaching the Earth is composed of photons with energies greater than the band gap of silicon.
These higher energy photons will be absorbed by the solar cell, but the difference in energy
between these photons and the silicon band gap is converted into heat (via lattice vibrations
called phonons) rather than into usable electrical energy.

CHARGE CARRIER SEPARATION

There are two main modes for charge carrier separation in a solar cell:
1

drift of carriers, driven by an electrostatic field established across the device

diffusion of carriers from zones of high carrier concentration to zones of low carrier
concentration (following a gradient of electrochemical potential).

In the widely used p-n junction solar cells, the dominant mode of charge carrier separation is
by drift. However, in non-p-n-junction solar cells (typical of the third generation solar cell
research such as dye and polymer solar cells), a general electrostatic field has been confirmed
to be absent, and the dominant mode of separation is via charge carrier diffusion.

THE p-n JUNCTION

The most commonly known solar cell is configured as a largearea p-n junction made from silicon. As a simplification, one can imagine bringing a layer of
n-type silicon into direct contact with a layer of p-type silicon. In practice, p-n junctions of
silicon solar cells are not made in this way, but rather, by diffusing an n-type dopant into one
side of a p-type wafer (or vice versa).

If a piece of p-type silicon is placed in intimate contact with a

piece of n-type silicon, then a diffusion of electrons occurs from the region of high electron
concentration (the n-type side of the junction) into the region of low electron concentration (ptype side of the junction). When the electrons diffuse across the p-n junction, they recombine
with holes on the p-type side. The diffusion of carriers does not happen indefinitely however,
because of an electric field which is created by the imbalance of charge immediately on either
side of the junction which this diffusion creates. The electric field established across the p-n
junction creates a diode that promotes charge flow, known as drift current, that opposes and
eventually balances out the diffusion of electron and holes.

EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A SOLAR CELL

Fig 16 Equivalent Circuit of solar cell

SCHEMATIC SYMBOL OF SOLAR CELL:

Fig 17 Schematic symbol of solar cell

LIFESPAN
Most commercially available solar cells are capable of producing electricity for at least twenty
years without a significant decrease in efficiency

COST
Cost is established in cost-per-watt and in cost-per-watt in 24 hours for infrared capable
photovoltaic cells.

SLICING COST
University of Utah engineers devised a new way to slice thin wafers of the chemical element
germanium for use in the most efficient type of solar power cells. The new method should
lower the cost of such cells by reducing the waste and breakage of the brittle semiconductor.

LOW COST SOLAR CELL

The schematic symbol of a solar cell
To understand the electronic behavior of a solar cell, it is useful to create a model which is
electrically equivalent, and is based on discrete electrical components whose behavior is well
known. An ideal solar cell may be modeled by a current source in parallel with a diode; in
practice no solar cell is ideal, so a shunt resistance and a series resistance component are
added to the model. The resulting equivalent circuit of a solar cell is shown on the left.

8V, 44Ma Polycrystalline Solar Cell

Description:

This big brother of the 37 X 33 Solar Cell is also an epoxy-encapsulated

polycrystalline solar cell, but this one offers 8 volts and 44mA in a 37 x 66mm package!

Epoxy protects the 14 cells mounted on a PCB back plane, making these
very robust. You won't risk breaking these like the old Panasonics Sunbeams. These new cells
also feature footprint on the backside for installing a user supplied parallel-wired zener diode
for over-voltage protection

DIODE
The diode is a p-n junction device. Diode is the component used to control the
flow of the current in any one direction. The diode widely works in forward bias.

Diode When the current flows from the P to N direction. Then it is in forward bias.
The Zener diode is used in reverse bias function i.e. N to P direction. Visually the
identification of the diode`s terminal can be done by identifying he silver/black line.
The silver/black line is the negative terminal (cathode) and the other terminal is the
positive terminal (cathode).
APPLICATION
Diodes: Rectification, free-wheeling, etc
Zener diode: Voltage control, regulator etc.
Tunnel diode: Control the current flow, snobbier circuit, etc
RESISTORS
The flow of charge through any material encounters an opposing force similar in
many respects to mechanical friction .this opposing force is called resistance of the
material .in some electric circuit resistance is deliberately introduced in form of
resistor. Resistor used fall in three categories , only two of which are color coded
which are metal film and carbon film resistor .the third category is the wire wound
type ,where value are generally printed on the vitreous paint finish of the
component. Resistors are in ohms and are represented in Greek letter omega, looks
as an upturned horseshoe. Most electronic circuit require resistors to make them
work properly and it is obliviously important to find out something about the
different types of resistors available. Resistance is measured in ohms, the symbol
for ohm is an omega ohm. 1 ohm is quite small for electronics so resistances are
often given in kohm and Mohm.
Resistors used in electronics can have resistances as low as 0.1 ohm or as high as 10
Mohm.

FUNCTION
Resistor restrict the flow of electric current, for example a resistor is placed in
series with a light-emitting diode(LED) to limit the current passing through the
LED.
TYPES OF RESISTORS
FIXED VALUE RESISTORS
It includes two types of resistors as carbon film and metal film .These two types are
explained under
1. CARBON FILM RESISTORS
During manufacture, at in film of carbon is deposited onto a small ceramic rod. The
resistive coating is spiraled away in an automatic machine until the resistance
between there two ends of the rods is as close as possible to the correct value. Metal
leads and end caps are added, the resistors is covered with an insulating coating and
finally painted with colored bands to indicate the resistor value

Figure No. 1.15: Carbon Film Resistors

Another example for a Carbon 22000 Ohms or 22 Kilo-Ohms also known as 22K

at 5% tolerance: Band 1 = Red, 1st digit Band 2 = Red, 2nd digit Band 3 = Orange,
3rd digit, multiply with zeros, in this case 3 zero's Band 4 = Gold, Tolerance, 5%

METAL FILM RESISTORS

Metal film and metal oxides resistors are made in a similar way, but can be made
more accurately to within 2% or 1% of their nominal vale there are some
difference in performance between these resistor types, but none which affects their
use in simple circuit.
WIRE WOUND RESISTOR
A wire wound resistor is made of metal resistance wire, and because of this, they
can be manufactured to precise values. Also, high wattage resistors can be made by
using a thick wire material. Wire wound resistors cannot be used for high frequency
circuits. Coils are used in high frequency circuit. Wire wound resistors in a ceramic
case, strengthened with special cement. They have very high power rating, from 1
or 2 watts to dozens of watts. These resistors can become extremely hot when used
for high power application, and this must be taken into account when designing the
circuit.

TESTING
Resistors are checked with an ohm meter/millimeter. For a defective resistor the
ohm-meter shows infinite high reading.
LED
LED falls within the family of P-N junction devices. The light emitting diode
(LED) is a diode that will give off visible light when it is energized. In any forward
biased P-N junction there is, with in the structure and primarily close to the
junction, a recombination of hole and electrons. This recombination requires that
the energy possessed by the unbound free electron be transferred to another state.
The process of giving off light by applying an electrical source is called
electroluminescence.

LED is a component used for indication. All the functions being carried out are
displayed by led .The LED is diode which glows when the current is being flown
through it in forward bias condition. The LEDs are available in the round shell and
also in the flat shells. The positive leg is longer than negative leg.

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

PREHISTORY: 8048
In fact, it should have started with chapter -2, the invention of microprocessor. Intel
introduced a single-chip processor, the 4004, in 1971. It was a 4-bit microprocessor,
with whopping processing speed of 100 thousand operations per second, and was
meant for an electronic calculator. There is a lot of 4-bit processing in calculators,
especially if the software is based on BCD arithmetics. Later Intel introduced the 8bitter 8008 and it's grown-up brother - the famous 8080 (which then was perfected
by an ex-Intel employee as Zilog Z80, one of the best 8-bit microprocessors of all
times). In 1976, Intel introduced its first microcontroller, 8048. It integrated the
processing core with code and data memory and certain peripherals. The code
memory was a 1kB mask ROM (defined by the last metallisation mask during the
chip processing) or EPROM (after all,

Intel invented EPROM), the data memory was 64 bytes of RAM (including the 8level stack and two pages of eight general purpose registers). Besides generalpurpose I/O (see below), peripherals included a timer and an external interrupt (plus
the necessary interrupt system). Although the 8048 is clearly an 8-bit architecture, it
is said to be an ancestor of the 4-bit 4004 rather than the 8080. Also it is said to bear
remarkable similarities to Fairchild F8 microprocessor. Today, it is hard to say
whether something of this is true, but one thing is sure, the 8048 has a couple of
strange features. Using four of its general purpose input/output ports, and adding
one or more 8243-type chip - and the I/O expand into another four 4-bit ports. This
expansion has not only support in the hardware - dedicated pins on 8048 - but also
in the instruction set, having dedicated instructions for I/O operations (including
AND and OR(!)) via the expander.
The 8048 already had a lot of useful features known well to 8051-users: external
code memory support; external data memory support (inherently only 256 bytes
addressed indirectly by R0 and R1 as there is no 16 bit pointer register such as the
DPTR in 8051 - the 8051 inherited this 8-bit external data access);
quasibidirectional I/O ports. Maximum clock is 11MHz, but an instruction cycle
takes 15 oscillator clocks. The "A" version (advanced) introduced powerdown mode
There were multiple variations of the 8048 around, mostly with different
numbering, but generally denoted as the MCS-48 family. 8048 itself denoted a
mask-ROM part, 8748 an EPROM part - windowed (CERDIP - erasable) for
development, and unwindowed (PDIP) OTP. The romless part was a bit surprisingly
marked 8035 (probably most of the parts sold as romless were parts with unusable
ROM, due to error in the "programmed" firmware). There was a low-cost version
with reduced pin count and omitted some of the features as 8021, and versions with
more ROM and RAM as 8049 (2kB ROM/128B RAM) and 8050 (4kB ROM/256B
RAM); with ROMless versions as 8039 and 8040; and 8049 had also an EPROM
version 8749 (the funny thing is, that 8749 came in 1981, one year after 8051/8751).
8048's were second sourced by a number of manufacturers, including NEC,
Toshiba, and were cloned also behind the then iron curtain in Czechoslovakia (Tesla
MHB8048/8035) and USSR. Application specific versions of 8048 were also built
quite early, with adding of various peripherals,

such as 8-bit ADC in 8022 and a parallel-bus slave interface in 8041/8042. The
MCS-48 family was used in a quite wide range of applications. One of the first
applications of 8048 was in a gaming console (Magnavox Odyssey2), but there
were also more "serious" applications, for example in one of the first car engine
"computerized" control units. But the biggest hit came when IBM decided to use
8048 in its original PC keyboard. Although in the AT keyboard IBM used the
(presumably cheaper) 6805, it used 8042 as a co-processor on the mainboard,
communicating with the keyboard. The 8042 is still present in almost each and
every PC even today, but don't search for a chip with "8042" on it - it is integrated
in the chipset. It may come as a surprise to somebody, but thanks to this fact the
8048 with its derivatives is most probably the most widespread microcontroller at
all.
As in the 70s there were no pdf-s and no world-wide web, datasheets and other
documentation is hardly available over the internet. I believe Intel will give out a
copy if one really wants it (there is a "literature request" form at their "museum"
pages). However, there seems to be a couple of enthusiastic people, one of the
maintaining a wonderful document called Grokking the MCS-48 System at
http://home.mnet-online.de/al/mcs-48/mcs-48.pdf .
8051: THE CLASSICS
In 1980, Intel introduced the successor to 8048, the 8051. Intel made sure that the
transition from the already successful model will be as smooth as possible.
Architecturally, the 8051 is an extension to 8048. Almost every feature and resource
of 8048 is present in 8051 in same or superior form. 4kB ROM and 128B RAM on
chip. Pin compatibility was not maintained, but it was not a real issue. Software
compatibility is not binarywise but source-wise, but that is also acceptable. The
preliminary datasheet read: "Enhanced MCS-48 Architecture". The extensions
included code and data memory extended to 64kB with appropriate support in
instruction set and registers (DPTR), relative conditional and unconditional jumps
(conditionals and DJNZ were constrained within a 256-byte page in 8048), four
register banks instead of two, "unlimited" stack (8048 had stack limited to 16
bytes), multiple and divide instructions.

REGULATOR IC (78XX)
It is a three pin IC used as a voltage regulator. It converts unregulated DC current into regulated
DC current.

Normally we get fixed output by connecting the voltage regulator at the output of the filtered DC
(see in above diagram). It can also be used in circuits to get a low DC voltage from a high DC
voltage (for example we use 7805 to get 5V from 12V).
There are two types of voltage regulators
1. Fixed voltage regulators (78xx, 79xx)
2. Variable voltage regulators (LM317)
In fixed voltage regulators there is another classification 1. +ve voltage regulators
2. -ve voltage regulators POSITIVE
VOLTAGE REGULATORS
These include 78xx voltage regulators. The most commonly used ones are 7805 and 7812. 7805
gives fixed 5V DC voltage if input voltage is in (7.5V, 20V).

PIR Sensor:-

What is a PIR sensor? PIR sensors allow you to sense motion, almost always used to detect whether a
human has moved in or out of the sensors range. They are small, inexpensive, low-power, easy to use and
don't wear out. For that reason they are commonly found in appliances and gadgets used in homes or
businesses. They are often referred to as PIR, "Passive Infrared", "Pyroelectric", or "IR motion" sensors.
PIRs are basically made of a pyroelectric sensor (which you can see above as the round metal can with a
rectangular crystal in the center), which can detect levels of infrared radiation. Everything emits some low
level radiation, and the hotter something is, the more radiation is emitted. The sensor in a motion detector
is actually split in two halves. The reason for that is that we are looking to detect motion (change) not
average IR levels. The two halves are wired up so that they cancel each other out. If one half sees more or
less IR radiation than the other, the output will swing high or low. Along with the pyroelectic sensor is a
bunch of supporting circuitry, resistors and capacitors. It seems that most small hobbyist sensors use the
BISS0001 ("Micro Power PIR Motion Detector IC") , undoubtedly a very inexpensive chip. This chip
takes the output of the sensor and does some minor processing on it to emit a digital output pulse from the
analog sensor. For many basic projects or products that need to detect when a person has left or entered
the area, or has approached, PIR sensors are great. They are low power and low cost, pretty rugged, have
a wide lens range, and are easy to interface with. Note that PIRs won't tell you how many people are
around or how close they are to the sensor, the lens is often fixed to a certain sweep and distance
(although it can be hacked somewhere) and they are also sometimes set off by housepets.
Experimentation is key! How does it work? PIR sensors are more complicated than many of the other
sensors explained in these tutorials (like photocells, FSRs and tilt switches) because there are multiple
variables that affect the sensors input and output. To begin explaining how a basic sensor works, we'll use
this rather nice diagram (if anyone knows where it originates plz let me know). The PIR sensor itself has
two slots in it, each slot is made of a special material that is sensitive to IR. The lens used here is not
really doing much and so we see that the two slots can 'see' out past some distance (basically the
sensitivity of the sensor). When the sensor is idle, both slots detect the same amount of IR, the ambient
amount radiated from the room or walls or outdoors. When a warm body like a human or animal passes

by, it first intercepts one half of the PIR sensor, which causes a positive differential change between the
two halves. When the warm body leaves the sensing area, the reverse happens, whereby the sensor
generates a negative differential change. These change pulses are what is detected.

Battery storage: the simplest means of storage on a smaller moderate scale is in

electric storage batteries, especially as solar cells produce the direct electric current
required for battery charging. The stored energy can then be delivered as electricity upon
discharge. The common iead acid storage batteries, such as are used in automobiles, are
not ideal for this purpose, but they are probably the best presently available. Extensive
research in progress should lead to the development of more suitable batteries.

A possible alternative is to use the direct current from solar cells to

decompose water into hydrogen and oxygen gases. These gases would be stored in a
suitable form and utilized as needed to generate electricity in a fuel cell..

A general type of inverter circuit which is found best suitable for the utility

application is shown in fig. the current can be used in

two modes: (1) as an inverter changing DC to AC or (2) as a rectifier changing AC to DC,
thus charging the battery.

It is clear that the system photovoltaic offers the option of DC power, AC power,
hydrogen and oxygen fuels in either gas or liquid forms from which electricity can be
generated. The system has many advantages and disadvantages.

OVERVIEW
This system is designed for outdoor application especially in un-electrified remote rural areas.
This system is an ideal application for campus and village street lighting.

The system is provided with battery storage backup sufficient to operate the light for significant
hours daily.

The system is provided with automatic ON/OFF time switch for dusk to down operation and
overcharge / deep discharge prevention cut-off with LED indicators.
RENEWABLE SOURCEOF ENERGY
The 89 petawatts of sunlight reaching the Earth's surface is plentiful - almost
6,000 times more than the 15 terawatts of average electrical power consumed by humans.
Additionally, solar electric generation has the highest power density among renewable energies.
Solar power is pollution-free during use. Production end-wastes and emissions are manageable
using existing pollution controls.

End-of-use recycling technologies are under development.

PV installations can operate for many years with little maintenance or intervention after their
initial set-up, so after the initial capital cost of building any solar power plant, operating costs are
extremely low compared to existing power technologies.

Solar electric generation is economically superior where grid connection or fuel transport is
difficult, costly or impossible. Long-standing examples include satellites, island communities,
remote locations and ocean vessels

What is embedded system?

An Embedded System is a combination of computer hardware and software, and perhaps
additional mechanical or other parts, designed to perform a specific function. An embedded
system is a microcontroller-based, software driven, reliable, real-time control system,
autonomous, or human or network interactive, operating on diverse physical variables and in
diverse environments and sold into a competitive and cost conscious market.
An embedded system is not a computer system that is used primarily for processing, not a
software system on PC or UNIX, not a traditional business or scientific application. High-end
embedded & lower end embedded systems. High-end embedded system - Generally 32, 64 Bit
Controllers used with OS. Examples Personal Digital Assistant and Mobile phones etc .Lower
end embedded systems - Generally 8,16 Bit Controllers used with an minimal operating systems
and hardware layout designed for the specific purpose.

SYSTEM DESIGN CALLS:

Build
Operating
Digital
Integrated Download
circuit
Systems
Electronic design
design
Debug
Analog
Tools
Electronic design
Computer
Embedded Architecture
Sensors and Systems

measurements

Software
Engineering

Electric motors
and actuatorsControl
Data
Engineering
Communication

Embedded system design calls on many disciplines

Figure.2(a): Embedded system design calls

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LED
Light Emitting Diodes (LED) have recently become available that are white and bright,
so bright that they seriously compete with incandescent lamps in lighting applications. They are
still pretty expensive as compared to a GOW lamp but draw much less current and project a
fairly well focused beam.
The diode in the photo came with a neat little reflector that tends to sharpen the beam a
little but doesn't seem to add much to the overall intensity.
When run within their ratings, they are more reliable than lamps as well. Red LEDs are
now being used in automotive and truck tail lights and in red traffic signal lights. You will be
able to detect them because they look like an array of point sources and they go on and off
instantly as compared to conventional incandescent lamps.

LEDs are monochromatic (one color) devices. The color is determined by the band gap of
the semiconductor used to make them. Red, green, yellow and blue LEDs are fairly common.
White light contains all colors and cannot be directly created by a single LED. The most
common form of "white" LED really isn't white. It is a Gallium Nitride blue LED coated with a
phosphor that, when excited by the blue LED light, emits a broad range spectrum that in addition
to the blue emission, makes a fairly white light.

There is a claim that these white LED's have a limited life. After 1000 hours or so of
operation, they tend to yellow and dim to some extent. Running the LEDs at more than their
rated current will certainly accelerate this process.
There are two primary ways of producing high intensity white-light using LEDS. One is
to use individual LEDS that emit three primary coloursred, green, and blueand then mix all
the colours to form white light. The other is to use a phosphor material to convert
monochromatic light from a blue or UV LED to broad-spectrum white light, much in the same
way a fluorescent light bulb works. Due to metamerism, it is possible to have quite different
spectra that appear white.
LEDs are semiconductor devices. Like transistors, and other diodes, LEDs are made out
of silicon. What makes an LED give off light are the small amounts of chemical impurities that
are added to the silicon, such as gallium, arsenide, indium, and nitride.
When current passes through the LED, it emits photons as a byproduct. Normal light
bulbs produce light by heating a metal filament until it is white hot. LEDs produce photons
directly and not via heat, they are far more efficient than incandescent bulbs.

Fig 3.1(a): circuit symbol

Not long ago LEDs were only bright enough to be used as indicators on dashboards or
electronic equipment. But recent advances have made LEDs bright enough to rival traditional
lighting technologies. Modern LEDs can replace incandescent bulbs in almost any application.

Types of LEDS
LEDs are produced in an array of shapes and sizes. The 5 mm cylindrical package is the most
common, estimated at 80% of world production. The color of the plastic lens is often the same as the
actual color of light emitted, but not always. For instance, purple plastic is often used for infrared
LEDs, and most blue devices have clear housings. There are also LEDs in extremely tiny packages,

such as those found on blinkers and on cell phone keypads. The main types of LEDs are miniature,
high power devices and custom designs such as alphanumeric or multi-color.

Fig 3.1(b) Different types of LEDS

BC547

TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS:
The BC547 transistor is an NPN Epitaxial Silicon Transistor. The BC547 transistor is a
general-purpose transistor in small plastic packages. It is used in general-purpose switching and
amplification BC847/BC547 series 45 V, 100 mA NPN general-purpose transistors.

BC 547 TRANSISTOR PINOUTS

An NPN Transistor Configuration

We know that the transistor is a "CURRENT" operated device and that a large current
(Ic) flows freely through the device between the collector and the emitter terminals. However,
this only happens when a small biasing current (Ib) is flowing into the base terminal of the
transistor thus allowing the base to act as a sort of current control input. The ratio of these two
currents (Ic/Ib) is called the DC Current Gain of the device and is given the symbol of hfe or
nowadays Beta, (). Beta has no units as it is a ratio. Also, the current gain from the emitter to
the collector terminal, Ic/Ie, is called Alpha, (), and is a function of the transistor itself. As the
emitter current Ie is the product of a very small base current to a very large collector current the
value of this parameter is very close to unity, and for a typical low-power signal transistor this
value ranges from about 0.950 to 0.999.

RESISTORS
A resistor is a two-terminal electronic component designed to oppose an electric current by
producing a voltage drop between its terminals in proportion to the current, that is, in accordance
with Ohm's law:
V = IR
Resistors are used as part of electrical networks and electronic circuits. They are extremely
commonplace in most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various
compounds and films, as well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as
nickel/chrome).

The primary characteristics of resistors are their resistance and the power they can
dissipate. Other characteristics include temperature coefficient, noise, and inductance. Less wellknown is critical resistance, the value below which power dissipation limits the maximum
permitted current flow, and above which the limit is applied voltage. Critical resistance depends
upon the materials constituting the resistor as well as its physical dimensions; it's determined by
design.
Resistors can be integrated into hybrid and printed circuits, as well as integrated
circuits. Size, and position of leads (or terminals) are relevant to equipment designers; resistors
must be physically large enough not to overheat when dissipating their power.
A resistor is a two-terminal passive electronic component which implements electrical
resistance as a circuit element. When a voltage V is applied across the terminals of a resistor, a
current I will flow through the resistor in direct proportion to that voltage. The reciprocal of the
constant of proportionality is known as the resistance R, since, with a given voltage V, a larger
value of R further "resists" the flow of current I as given by Ohm's law:

Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous
in most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various compounds and films, as
well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as nickel-chrome). Resistors
are also implemented within integrated circuits, particularly analog devices, and can also be
integrated into hybrid and printed circuits.
The electrical functionality of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common
commercial resistors are manufactured over a range of more than 9 orders of magnitude. When
specifying that resistance in an electronic design, the required precision of the resistance may

require attention to the manufacturing tolerance of the chosen resistor, according to its specific
application. The temperature coefficient of the resistance may also be of concern in some
precision applications. Practical resistors are also specified as having a maximum power rating
which must exceed the anticipated power dissipation of that resistor in a particular circuit: this is
mainly of concern in power electronics applications. Resistors with higher power ratings are
physically larger and may require heat sinking. In a high voltage circuit, attention must
sometimes be paid to the rated maximum working voltage of the resistor.
The series inductance of a practical resistor causes its behavior to depart from ohms law;
this specification can be important in some high-frequency applications for smaller values of
resistance. In a low-noise amplifier or pre-amp the noise characteristics of a resistor may be an
issue. The unwanted inductance, excess noise, and temperature coefficient are mainly dependent
on the technology used in manufacturing the resistor. They are not normally specified
individually for a particular family of resistors manufactured using a particular technology. [1] A
family of discrete resistors is also characterized according to its form factor, that is, the size of
the device and position of its leads (or terminals) which is relevant in the practical manufacturing
of circuits using them.

Units
The ohm (symbol: ) is the SI unit of electrical resistance, named after Georg Simon
Ohm. An ohm is equivalent to a volt per ampere. Since resistors are specified and manufactured
over a very large range of values, the derived units of milliohm (1 m = 103 ), kilohm (1 k =
103 ), and megohm (1 M = 106 ) are also in common usage.
The reciprocal of resistance R is called conductance G = 1/R and is measured in Siemens
(SI unit), sometimes referred to as a mho. Thus a Siemens is the reciprocal of an ohm: S = 1.
Although the concept of conductance is often used in circuit analysis, practical resistors are
always specified in terms of their resistance (ohms) rather than conductance.

SOLAR POWER

Solar power is the generation of electricity from sunlight. This can be direct as with
photovoltaics (PV), or indirect as with concentrating solar power (CSP), where the sun's energy

is focused to boil water which is then used to provide power. Solar power has the potential to
provide over 1,000 times total world energy consumption in 2008, though it provided only
0.02% of the total that year. If it continues to double in use every two to three years, or less, it
would become the dominant energy source this century. The largest solar power plants, like the
354 MW SEGS, are concentrating solar thermal plants, but recently multi - megawatt
photovoltaic plants have been built. Completed in 2008, the 46 MW Moura photovoltaic power
station in Portugal and the 40 MW Waldpolenz Solar Park in Germany are characteristic of the
trend toward larger photovoltaic power stations. Much larger ones are proposed, such as the 100
MW Fort Peck Solar
Farm, the 550 MW Topaz Solar Farm, and the 600 MW Rancho Cielo Solar Farm.
Terrestrial solar power is a predictably intermittent energy source, meaning that whilst solar
power is not available at all times, we can predict with a very good degree of accuracy when it
will and will not be available. Some technologies, such as solar thermal concentrators have an
element of thermal storage, such as molten salts. These store spare solar energy in the form of
heat which can be made available overnight or during periods that solar power is not available to
produce electricity. Orbital solar power collection (as in solar power satellites) avoids this
intermittent issue, but requires satellite launching and beaming of the collected power to
receiving antennas on Earth. The increased intensity of sunlight above the atmosphere also
increases generation efficiency.

Future Scope: This is very is innovative and useful project. This can be implementing each individual home. It
is goings lots energy in day to day life. It is useful for green environment. Solar is a unlimited
source for long period of time.

Conclusion:Finally we design this project for our day today life to save unnecessary power loss when nobody
is there. It works successfully. It can be implemented in our classroom. It will also successfully
implement solar panel in this project.