An International Comparative Study of School Curriculums

An International Comparative Study of School Curriculums
NATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

This study is best viewed in the wider context of educational research projects
initiated by the National Institute for Educational Research (NIER) of Japan. In
the late 1960s, for example, NIER organized a series of workshops as part of a joint
research project: A Comparative Study of School Curriculum Development of the
Stage of Elementary Education in Asian Countries. The outcome of these
workshops was the publication in 1970 of a three-volume report titled Asian Study
of Curriculum.
In the 1980s, NIER initiated two joint research projects on school curriculum with a
series of workshops and meetings. The objectives of the projects were the following:
Study the curriculum systems of the countries in Asia and the Pacific.
Appreciate the similarities and differences among them in the context of their
socioeconomic and cultural backgrounds.

Identify general trends as well as the unique features of their problems in these
areas.
Exchange experiences with one another for mutual benefit.

The outcome of the projects were the publication of Elementary/Primary Schools
Curriculum in Asia and the Pacific and Some Critical Aspects of Secondary Education
in the Countries of Asia and the Pacific.
Over the last decade, since the joint project was launched, many countries have
revised, or are in the process of revising, their curricula. NIER therefore decided to
initiate a new research project on the study of curriculum at both primary and secondary
education levels. Accordingly, at the first phase, NIER organized two meetings: the
Regional Meeting on the Study of Curriculum in Asia and the Pacific on 10-21
November 1997, and the Editorial Committee Meeting on the Study of Curriculum in
Asia and the Pacific on 9-11 March 1998.
Based on the questionnaire developed by the first Regional Meeting and further
finalized by the Editorial Committee Meeting, selected countries in Asia and the Pacific
as well as in other regions were invited to undertake national studies. In order to share
their experiences and make a comparative analysis of national studies conducted by the
participating countries of the project, NIER organized the International Meeting on the
Study of School Curriculum on 9-20 November 1998. This meeting was convened in
collaboration with ACEID, UNESCO Principal Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific
(PROAP), Bangkok.
Objectives of the Meeting
The objectives of the meetiing were as follows:
Cross-nationally
analyze
the
background
information
in
terms
of
the
socioeconomic conditions, educational systems, and other related matters of the
participating countries.
Make a comparative analysis of the school curriculums based on reports of the
national studies conducted in the participating countries.
Complete the final report of the study.
Participation
Participants from selected countries in Asia-Pacific as well as Europe and North
America were invited to the meeting. In some cases, participants attended as official
country representatives and in others in their individual capacities. They were from
Australia, China, Fiji, France, Germany, India, Indonesia, Japan, Lao People's
Democratic Republic (PDR), Malaysia, New Zealand, the Philippines, the Republic of
Korea, Sri Lanka, Thailand, the United States of America, Uzbekistan, and Vietnam. A
representative from the UNESCO Regional Office in Bangkok also attended the
meeting.
Inauguration
The meeting was inaugurated on 9 November 1998 with an opening address by
Shigeru Yoshida, director-general of NIER. This was followed by a welcome address by
Masamitsu Oki, deputy director general of the Science and International Affairs Bureau,
Ministry of Education, Science, Sports and Culture (Monbusho) of Japan on behalf of
Monbusho as well as the Japanese Commission for UNESCO. A welcome message from
Rupert Maclean, chief of ACEID, was also presented on behalf of the director of
PROAP.
Officers
The following participants were elected as officers of the meeting:
Co-chairpersons:
Ram Chankar (Fiji) - Group A
B.P. Khandelwal (India) - Group B
Co-rapporteurs:
David Nohara (USA) - Group A
Bella O. Marias (Philippines) - Group B
Organization
The meeting conducted its work in plenary sessions as well as in group sessions. After
the presentation of country reports, the participants decided to continue to work on the
analytical framework developed by Robyn Baker (New Zealand) and the NIER
secretariat prior to the meeting. Two working groups were constituted: Group A dealt
with sections B and D, while Group B was in charge of sections C and E of the
questionnaire.
A drafting committee composed of officers of the meeting--Susan Mann (Australia),
Colin Brown (New Zealand), Gyu Ho Hwang (Republic of Korea)--and the NIER
Secretariat was formed for the purpose of finalizing a draft manuscript.
Final Report
The draft final report of the meeting and the joint project was adopted in the final
working session on 20 November 1998. Minor modifications and final editing were
completed by the NIER secretariat. Each participating country finalized its report.
Curriculum Policies
Background
During the last decade, various efforts have been made in each country to remodel its
education system to bring it into line with social, economic, political, and cultural
change. These educational changes are reflected in national educational policies and the
curriculum framework.
Social/economic/political/cultural contexts of curriculum policies

Curriculum policies in participating countries represent a wide variety of social,
economic, political, and cultural contexts. While the degree of emphasis varies in each
country, the following imperatives driving curriculum policy are evident:
The need to build social cohesion and national identity in global society and to
preserve cultural heritage, e.g., in Australia, Germany.

The need to impart cultural, ethical, and moral values, e.g., in Indonesia, Fiji,
Lao PDR, Malaysia.

Concern for future economic well-being, international competitiveness, e.g., in
Australia, New Zealand, the United States, Uzbekistan.

Concern for equal opportunity and equity, (urban/rural, gender, income,
disabilities), e.g., in Sri Lanka, the United States, India.

The desire to raise achievement for all students, e.g., in New Zealand, the United
States.
Educational goals/aims for the compulsory education sector
All countries have stated educational goals for their compulsory education sector. The
most common include development of basic foundation knowledge (literacy, numeracy,
and life skills); and of the child's intellectual, emotional, spiritual, and physical
potential; and of critical thinking and problem-solving skills. Others mentioned are
knowledge of the world of work, respect for human dignity and human rights,
understanding of ecology and appreciation of the environment, international
understanding and development of a oneworld view, promotion of civic and moral

values, and the ability to adapt to change.
One major difference between countries is the existence of religious goals and the
extent to which they are included in the curriculum. For example, the Indonesian and
Malaysian curriculums include religious goals, while other countries, including
Australia, France, and New Zealand, are secular in their public education systems.
Regulations governing curriculum policies
In all countries, schools are subject to some degree of government regulatory control
of the curriculum, either at a national or state level.
In countries with a federal structure where the states have responsibility for
education, as in Australia, Germany, and the United States, there is no mandatory
national curriculum. Within these countries, regulations at the state level may vary.
Countries with a national education structure exhibit a range of national regulations,
from the complete control of all aspects of student outcomes and curriculum
implementation, including time allocations, subjects, and assessments, (as in China, Lao
PDR, Sri Lanka, and Vietnam) to curriculum and administrative guidelines with
flexibility for implementation at the school level (as in India and New Zealand).
Countries with a high degree of curriculum regulation also tend to highly regulate
textbook development and provision.
Curriculum Change
Curriculum changes over the past 5-10 years
There have been a variety of changes in the school curriculum of participating
countries over the past 5-10 years. The following table provides an overview.
All countries report significant curriculum changes over the last 5-10 years. The most
commonly introduced new subjects include information technology, civics, and
additional foreign languages. Other new subjects are technology (Australia and New
Zealand), and integrated studies (Life Environmental Studies in Japan, and The World
Around Us in Lao PDR).
The development and revision of national or state curriculum frameworks and
standards/ competencies occurred in Australia, Germany (Bavaria), the Philippines, the
United States (New York State), and Vietnam.
One common trend was the attempt to redefine the balance between compulsory and
elective subjects. Interestingly, countries with a broad range of elective subjects were
attempting to refocus on a common core (Australia and Germany [Bavaria]). Other
countries were expanding their electives to provide more subject choice (Fiji, Japan,
and Vietnam).
The analysis reveals an increasing emphasis on school-based continuous assessment
in Australia, Fiji, India, Malaysia, New Zealand, Philippines, and Sri Lanka.
Predicted changes in national curriculum for the next 5-10 years
As countries look toward the future, there is a general readiness and acceptance of the
need to revise and review curriculum. Many of the expected changes over the next 5-10
years continue current reform efforts. Some countries (Japan and Sri Lanka) have an
approved government direction for future curriculum, while others are only in the
position to predict trends.
The integration of information technology across the curriculum is regarded as a
major priority by many countries. Other priority areas for the next 5-10 years include
maintaining basic skills such as literacy and numeracy; values education in a pluralistic
society; vocational education and enterprise studies; encouragement of independent,
self-directed learning; development and refinement of schoolbased assessment; and
education for participation in a global society.
Countries expect to continue to focus on the balance between compulsory and elective
subjects. Those where subjects proliferate need to strengthen the core (Australia,
Germany [Bavaria], New Zealand, and the United States [New York State]). Those with
a large number of mandated subjects expect to provide more flexibility by introducing
more electives (China, Japan, Korea, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, and Vietnam).
In addition to curricular and pedagogical changes, some countries are considering
changes in school structures. For example, the Philippines is planning to increase the
number of years of compulsory schooling by one year, Vietnam is increasing the number
of hours in the school day, and Japan is reducing the number of school days by
eliminating instruction on Saturdays.
Curriculum Development Processes
Degree of centralization of curriculum development
The role of curriculum development is considered to be of such importance for
national and state policies that no government in the participating countries has
abrogated its overall responsibility for this task.
In most countries, curriculum development is generally centralized, but at the
implementation level there is a varying degree of autonomy of local authorities, schools
and teachers.
China, Fiji, France, Germany (Bavaria), Indonesia, Japan, Korea, Lao PDR, Malaysia,
the Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Uzbekistan all report highly centralized
curriculum development processes.
TABLE 1. Curriculum Policies: An International Comparative Study of School
Curriculums
Country Subject
change
National
Balance
curriculum between
standards
School
Assessment Monitoring
structures
compulso
ry
and
electives
Australi Asian
Nationally 8
developed compulso education
languages,
Vocational
Certificate
Introduction of
assessments literacy
technology, curriculum ry subject has changed includes
numeracy
and
test
civics.
framework areas
Yr. 11 and internal and ing.
s.
12
defined.
school external
structures.
assessments
.
China
Computer
Curriculum Reduction No
technology, plan for 9- of

integration year
of
some change.
on
compulso
social compulsor ry
studies.
great Emphasis is Three levels of

testing management:
abilities.
central,
and
local,
and school.
addition
education. of
more
electives
and
activities.
Fiji
Computer
Primary
Class
8 No change. Internal
Standardized
technology, framework exam
assessment test in classes 3
vernacular
revised for change to
conducted
languages
grades 1-8. include
in Form 7 literacy
now
Secondary environm
subjects.
numeracy.
External
Literacy
examinable. framework ent
and
in
and
and
Conversatio undergoing moral

nal
and revision.
cross-
values
studies.
cultural
foreign
language
taught
in
primary
education.
France
NTIC
National
Electives Unified
and
Curriculum in classes lower
examination nu-
meracy
Standards 8 and 9.
secondary
s in classes testing
at
and
school (6-9) 9
National
has
and
two Internal
12. beginning
the
of
classes 3 and 6.
Curriculum
types
Council.
upper
of assessments French,
conducted.
mathematics,
secondary
foreign
schools:
language,
general and
history,
technology
geography
(10-12)
testing
vocational.
beginning
at
the
of
class 10.
German Foreign
Set
curriculum of
language
(Bavaria and
)
IT
in s
Reduction No change. Final

for
examination
all electives
primary and schools.
in
secondary
secondary
education.
(focus
Integrated
core
social
curriculu
and
science
studies
No change.
upper
held
for
all types of
school.
m).
in
one type of
secondary
school.
India
National
National
Emphasis Developmen Continuous Attempts
core
core
on
more t of parallel and
for
national
curriculum curriculum electives structure for comprehens standards tests

in 8 subject up
to at
senior vocational
ive
at
areas.
secondary secondary courses, and evaluation
Computer
level.
level
in at secondary held
and
and
secondary
assessment
level.
at grades 10
communicat level
ive
foreign Senior
language
and and
vocationa
equal to A l
senior external
and 12.
level
with 1990s.
technology Secondary new

equal to O subjects
secondary
since
learning at level.
education
secondary
level.
Indonesi Civic
Minimum
10
education.
national
compulso
Science
standards. ry
technology.
No change. National
No change.
assessments
in
subjects.
subjects.
Computer
science.
Local
curriculum.
Japan
Integration Course
of
of Increased Comprehens National
social study.
number of ive
Introduction of
course assessments school
studies and
elective
science
in
subjects
local
grades
and
educational
and 2; Life
reduction
authorities.
Environmen
in
Local
tal
Studies
compulso
educational
and
Social
ry
authorities
subjects.
evaluation
by
divided into
Ministry
of
Geography
Education.
Studies
introduced. conducted.
evaluation
by
and History,
and
Civics
in
upper
secondary.
Lao
Primary:
PDR
"The world teacher

around
Move from No
us" centered to
change.
No change. Various
Positions
assessment pedagogical
instruments adviser
(integrated student
developed
class).
for use by created.
Lower
centered.
of
teachers.
supervisor
and
secondary:
biology,
physics, and
chemistry
integrated
into natural
science.
Upper
secondary:
politics
replaced by
civics.
All
levels:
HIV/AIDS
and
drug
abuse
prevention.
Malaysi Primary:
Move from More
science,
student's
living
profile
skills,
and national
local
5-7
years Growing
electives allotted
for emphasis on to
to offered at primary
upper
level.
standards. secondary
studies.
Empowerment
school-
state/district/sc
based
hool
assessment. to
level.
External
Secondary:
exams
living
certain
skillsinventi
levels.
authority
monitor
curriculum
for implementation
.
on,
information
technology.
New
Technology, Developme 7
Zealand essential
nt
Flexibility
of compulso introduced
skills
curriculum ry subject into
identified
statements areas
Move
school-
school based
structures.
to NEMP
Project
(benchmarks,
to be examined
assessments every
four
and
based
integrated
the
into
on defined.
NZ
Move
to and
years).
selfmanagin inclusion of National exams
the Curriculum
curriculum. Framework
schools. internal
held in Years
Establishme assessment 11 and 13.
and on a
nt of Kura for
National
Kaupapa
qualificatio
Qualificati
Maori
ns.
ons
(Maori
Framework
immersion
schooling).
Philippi Introduction Identified
No
nes
system of
level
decentralizatio
electives.
national
n.
of
values desired
education as learning
a
separate competenci
subject
as es
in
well
as areas.
all
No change. Year-of-
examinanati
ons
(NEAT/NSA
integrated
T)
in
school-
other
subject
based.
areas.
Introduction
of
technology
into science
and
vocational
education.
Focus
critical
thinking,
problem
solving,
practical
on
Move
are
towards
work.
Republic English
Revision
Korea
introduced
of national elective
emphasis
at
curriculum courses at
placed
elementary in
More
1992, upper
No change. More
essay
School
evaluation
on introduced
local education
level (from giving
secondary
writing
year
level.
elementary Local
3). more
Optional
flexibility
courses for to
local
elementary and school

and
level.
at authorities.
and
educational
secondary
authority
levels.
evaluation
conducted
by
secondary
Ministry
of
schools.
Education.
Technology
and
home
economics
become
compulsory
for
both
boys
andgirls
at
secondary
level.
Computer
science and
environment
al
studies
introduced
as
optional
courses
at
secondary
level.
Sri
by
College
Move from No
253 national Continuous No change.
Lanka
level:
teacher-
change.
schools
business
oriented to
introduced. introduced.
statistics
competenc
(Administrat
and
math y-based.
ion
for
non-
central
math
assessments
by
ministry)
students;
introduced
new
topics
in
pure
mathematics
and applied
mathematics
, geography,
history,
political
science,
logic and st.
[Jeff-?]met
hods, Greek
civilization.
Primary
level:
environment
studies.
Integration,
activitybase
d beginning
science
Thailand Repackagin Set
Balancing School
and School-
subjects national
between
in
physical standards
compulso design their assessment through school
in
all ry
and school
based
has
education
community
School
for
self-audit
every charter
and
and hygiene learning

with human areas
and
elective
for subjects
self- basic
developmen education
t.
in
structure
year
and
primary and control. School
terms curriculum
of
time based
in school
every
quality
quality assured
on quarter
in by
outcomes. constraint standards
secondary
Set
by alternate assessment
s. Balance and
accountability
of
benchmark in bipolar readiness of year.
administrative
s of every developm school.
authorities and
3-year
ent
other agencies.
level.
standards
(e.g. self
vs.
society).
United
No
States
in
change Move from No

national syllabus
level.
No
change in in
approach
national
to
level.
change No
national in
level.
change No change in
national national level.
level.
curriculum
framework.
Uzbekist Technology; National
an
Emphasis National
values;
curriculum on
business;
standards
environment in
al studies.
1-9.
subjects.
Vietnam Integrated
New
Nine
social
sciences
compulso
curriculum ry
in .
National subjects
grades 1-3. curriculum in

standards
in
1-9.
and
Education.
compulso introduced. comprehens
grades ry
natural and primary
schools
Continuous Ministry
primary
grades school.
Some
elective
ive
assessment.
No change. No change. No change.
of
subjects
in
primary
and
secondary
.
In some countries there is a varying possibility for local authorities, schools, and
teachers to influence curriculum development at the implementation level. For example,
local content is allowed in Indonesia (20%), Lao PDR (10%), and Vietnam (15%). In
other countries such as Australia and New Zealand, teachers develop their own content
within centrally developed curriculum frameworks.
Initiation of curriculum development
Involvement of a wide range of agencies and stakeholders is regarded as an important
factor to assist government or its nominee to develop an effective curriculum. Although
final decisions are generally made at the government level, stakeholders are consulted
before and during the development process. The consultation takes a variety of forms,
including the use of councils of experts to directly develop policy, as in Japan and
Bavaria; systematic input from teachers on policy development, trialing, and reviewing
curriculum as in France, Australia, New Zealand, and the Philippines; and advice from
parents and communities, as in Australia, Bavaria, Indonesia, New Zealand, and
Vietnam. Other stakeholders involved in curriculum development include foreign consultants, research institutes, university staff, and welfare agencies.
The involvement of representatives from industry and business in consultation on
curriculum issues is a distinctive feature in a range of countries, including Australia,
Fiji, Germany, Indonesia, New Zealand, the Philippines, and the United States,
particularly in relation to vocational education.
TABLE 2. Initiation of Curriculum Development
Country
Agency
initiating Agencies consulted
curriculum development
Australia
Education
(state
Departments Schools,
and
federal) business,
Curriculum Corporation
teacher
teachers,
other
parents,
government
unions,
industry,
departments,
universities,
school
communities
China
State Education Ministry
Professional
editors,
colleges
and
universities, teachers, students parents, other

professions
Fiji
Curriculum
Development Local government, teachers unions, research
Unit, Ministry of Education institutions,
employers,
industries,
nongovernmental agencies, teachers

France
Ministry
National
of
Education; National educational organizations, teachers

Curriculum
Council
Germany
Ministry of Education
State
(Bavaria)
Advisory
School
Council,
State
Institute for School Education (can propose

revision and develop curriculum)
India
National
Council
Educational
Research
of School
boards,
official
associations
of
and teachers, individual teachers (no involvement
Training, State Councils for of parents and students)

Education,
Research
and
Training and State Boards of

Secondary Education
Indonesia
Senior officials from relevant institutions,

subject
specialists,
institutes,
universities
senior
headmasters,
subject
and
teachers,
representatives
from
the
National Education Advisory Board, private

companies
Japan
Central Council for Education (broad aims),

Curriculum Council (curriculum guidelines),
committee for making the course of study
Lao PDR
National Research Institute Some

for Educational Science
departments
within
MOE
(e.g.,
Department
of
General
Education,
Department
of
Teacher
Training),
representatives of trade unions, women's

unions and youth unions, Party Central
Committee
Teacher
University
for
Ideological
Development
Center,
Education,
National
Malaysia
Curriculum
Development Academics,
Center
teachers'
unions,
parents,
professional bodies, and nongovernmental

agencies
New
Government departments, teachers, sector
Zealand
groups and organizations, teachers' unions,

parents,
community,
national
experts,
international
business
and
and
industry
groups
Philippines Bureaus of Elementary and Professional stakeholders, parents, teachers,
Secondary Education
Republic of Ministry
Korea
(sometimes
of
students
Education Research institutes (e.g., KEDI and KICE,

by
special involved
commission)
various
in
developing
groups
(e.g.,
draft
teachers,
version),
parents,
students, industry, academic associations)

Sri Lanka
National
Institute
of Foreign
Education
consultants
(Asian
Development
Bank, World Bank) and local consultants,

university
staff
members,
Ministry
of
Education and Higher Education, Provincial

Education
Authorities,
master
teachers,
experienced senior teachers

Thailand
Department of Curriculum Department of Curriculum Development,

and
Instruction local agencies, teachers, community, welfare
Development; Ministry of agencies

Education
United
State Education Department All stakeholders
States (New (Board of Regents)

York)
Uzbekistan People's Education Ministry, Research institutions
Ministry
of
Higher
Education
Vietnam
National
Institute
Education Sciences
for National Education Council, international

and national experts, teachers, parents
Accommodation of group opinions in curriculum decision making

The following table describes the process of incorporating stakeholder opinion in
curriculum decision making.
Whether at the formulation or review stage, education stakeholders are consulted on
curriculum development in all participating countries. In New York state and Bavaria,
consultation is required by law where the change is significant.
The purpose of consultation varies across countries, from providing information to the
public, to seeking genuine feedback and comment. New Zealand has established a legal
definition of public consultation to ensure it is seriously considered by policymakers.
The most common methods of consultation include meetings of formal representative
committees, either formed for the ongoing purpose of consultation or brought together
to review the specific initiative. In addition, seminars, workshops, public forums, and
other forms of structured discussion are used. Questionnaires to schools, research and
school piloting of draft proposals are also used. In some countries, including Australia,
Japan, and the United States, the Internet is starting to be used to publish draft
consultation documents.
TABLE 3. Input of Stakeholders in Curriculum Development
Country
Processes
Australia
Consulting with committees representing stakeholder groups; consulting

with media (press); consulting at school level with parents, community;
surveying schools to review policy, school pilots.
China
Examining policy, using academics.
Fiji
Using consultation committees (including teacher unions, principals and

head teachers, university and research representatives; no parents); using
pilot school committees; surveying schools.
France
Consulting teachers on projects.
Germany
Using state advisory councils (including teachers; parents; students;
(Bavaria)
representatives of industry, commerce, and the church) that make

recommendations to minister and are responsible to parliament.
India
Encouraging expression of opinion by all segments of society.
Indonesia
Using committees of principals, parents, teachers, students, industry

representatives, and stakeholders.
Japan
Publishing of draft papers, collecting opinions, conducting hearings of

parents and specialists, before submission of final report by the council.
Korea
Using groups, but resorting to government decision when groups don't

and can't agree.
Lao PDR
Developing drafts and questionnaires, holding stakeholder meetings,

adopting final curriculum document by National Institute for Educational
Sciences. Ministerial commission makes final decision.
Malaysia
Participating in curriculum design; adopting resolutions and suggestions

from seminars, conferences, and workshops; issuing memorandums.
New Zealand Developing policy specifications for writing curriculum, acceptance of

tenders or contract for writing curriculum by Ministry of Education.
Consultation with various groups, provision of draft to ministry by
contractors. Seeking input, development of final draft, approval and
signing by minister.
Philippines
Conduct of conferences, seminars, and workshops.
Sri Lanka
Interview of university personnel and other professionals, teachers,

parents, students; conduct of pilot process to get public's views; use of
public media programs (for education and dissemination).
Thailand
Participation in national curriculum framework development through

hearings and seminars; school board of stakeholders approves school
charters and school curriculum.
United States Legally requiring public comment in some cases, from curriculum
(New York)
development committees (of subject specialists, SED staff, university

researchers,
teachers,
business)
for
example;
developing
draft
documents; holding public forums; disseminating the draft; drafting final

document.
Uzbekistan
Experimenting with trial policies in good schools; involving students and

researchers.
Vietnam
Establishing curriculum development committee, preparing drafts,

organizing workshops to review drafts, conducting trials in some
provinces, establishing science council with minister's approval.
The length of time for consultation varies, depending on the country and the extent of
the change. Time and money appear to be constraints on thorough consultation.
Curriculum approaches to promote unity and cultural diversity

The following table details how each country promotes unity and cultural diversity
through its curriculum.
There is a general consensus that cultural diversity and national unity are promoted
through the curriculum with varying emphasis, depending on the countries concerned.
Culturally homogeneous countries such as Korea and Japan emphasize national unity,
particularly through a centrally developed common curriculum and examination system.
Cultural understanding in these countries is supported through tolerance and moral
education programs and developing international understanding. Encouraging cultural
diversity is interpreted as emphasizing local or provincial differences.
In countries with diverse ethnic groups, including Australia, India, Indonesia,
Malaysia, New Zealand, and Sri Lanka, stress is equally placed on the development of
cultural diversity and national unity. This aim is generally supported through the
following:
curriculum or topic offerings, commonly including civics, social studies, history,
and moral education courses (Australia, Lao PDR, New Zealand Philippines);
use of ethnic languages as a medium for instruction (Fiji, Indonesia [primary
school], Malaysia, New Zealand, Sri Lanka, and Uzbekistan);

bilingual programs and migrant languages (Australia and Germany); and
foreign language instruction including cultural studies.

In some cases where cultural diversity is supported, local community groups are
involved in curriculum development, e.g, Maori groups in New Zealand, and aboriginal
and Torres Strait Islanders in Australia.
Provision for children with special needs
In the development of curriculum policies, all countries make varying provisions for
students with special needs through modification of the curriculum, special schools,
support services, and improving access to mainstream education.
Most countries provide for students with physical disabilities through special schools.
In nearly all countries, efforts are made to integrate these students into mainstream
education where possible.
While most countries modify their curriculum and provide additional support for low
achievers, only a few countries have specific curriculum policies for high achievers and
gifted students. These include Australia, China, Germany, Indonesia, the Philippines,
the United States, and Vietnam.
Except for Australia, China, Japan, Lao PDR, New Zealand, and the United States
(New York state), there is little consideration of the issue of gender in the curriculum.
Where it is addressed, the trend is to increase girls' participation in mainstream
education.
In many countries, ethnicity and low socioeconomic background are addressed
through additional support services with the aim of improving access and participation
to mainstream education.
Curriculum Organization
Every country needs to make decisions regarding the overall approach to curriculum
design as well as to the subject areas.
TABLE 4. National Unity and Cultural Diversity Curriculum
Australia
Curriculum focus
Languages
Civics and social studies.
Languages
Teaching
Community
materials
groups
of Civics, social Variety
migrant groups. studies,
China
State arranged, with a few Chinese

locally
curriculums.
and ethnic groups
language
and aboriginal
materials
and
reflecting
Strait
multicultural
Islanders
community.
included.
and Bilingual
arranged ethnic
materials
local
English and other languages. Various
of
community
and groups
in
editing developing
of materials.
Fiji
Torres
Inclusion
teaching
languages.
of
policies.
ethnic Locally
languages.
produced
material
and
cassette tapes.
France
Unity promoted by national Regional

curriculum standards.
Participation
languages
options
as
of teachers in
with
formulating
exam subjects.
curriculum.
Germany
Policy applies to all schools Various migrant Those
(Bavaria)
and unifies entitlement.
languages
preserve
that
to illustrate how
diversity
identity. Cross- enriches
cultural
and culture
conversational
and
life.
language
instruction.
India
Local
curriculums Hindi
appropriate to needs.
as
the Provided
official
NCERT
language;
SCERT.
by
and
English as the
link
language
(second foreign
language).
Three-language
formula
(learning of one
more
regional,
foreign,
or
ancient
language).
Indonesia National
development Indonesian
needs. Science, technology, languages.

arts,
environment,
education,
Pancasila (five
principles)
civic English, French, education.
religious German,
Introductory
education, reading, writing, encouraged.
science
and
and mathematics.
technology,
geography,
national
and
world history,
handicrafts
and
arts,
drawing, local
content
curriculum.
Japan
National
standards
to Japanese
as Local studies. Local
co-
introduce
and
reinforce official
curricular
moral and civic education. language.
activities.
Emphasis on international French, German,

understanding
in
moral Korean
education.
Lao PDR
etc.
encouraged.
Topics in history, civics, and Lao to non-Lao- Concentrated Special

Lao language.
speaking taught "language
schools
to children.
ethnic
encounter"
materials
for
for minorities
local studies.
in
each
province.
Malaysia
Single
medium
of National
National
instruction Core subjects for language
as
types.
all.
of
and
medium
Tamil
Chinese
instruction.
primary
Ethnic language
schools.
for
school
instruction
at
primary level.
New
Social studies curriculum. Community and Materials
Zealand
Curriculum
statements international
developed in Te Reo Maori. languages.
reflecting
Maori
the language
multi-cultural schools;
community.
Involvement
Resource
of
support
Pacific
for islands
teaching
languages
other
and
ethnic
as communities.
an option.
Philippine Indigenization/localization
Local
Local content Indigeneous
languages.
and context.
of the curriculum.
cultural
communities.
Republic
National
curriculum
Separate
of Korea
provides common features,
books
but
provincial
diversity
modification
through
is
also
emphasized.
for
studies.
Moral
education and history are

regarded as the foundation
for unity.
Sri Lanka One
common
curriculum Sinhala as first In
and common examination. language
and Sinhala
both Involvement
and of
Values and morals education Tamil as second, Tamil.
community
integrated
groups.
into
religious or Tamil as first
education.
language
all
and
Sinhala
as
second, English
compulsory,
other
foreign
languages
optional.
Thailand
New
proposed curriculum Unified national Teachers'
Involved
in
design: national standards language. Local decision.
approval
of
for
school charter
basic
education language
outcomes and benchmarks (dialect)

every three years for local to
schools
to
taught
study
local
develop wisdom, foreign
curriculum
language
as
optional subject.
United
Specific
States
citizenship.
topics
State
in English
as
and language
of
national history and culture instruction.

emphasized in social studies Bilingual
and
English.
and
Diversity second language
integrated in all subjects.
instruction
provided.
and
curriculum.
Uzbekista
Russian
language
Materials
for local heritage,
interethnic
history,
dialogue.
culture.
Instruction
on
and
in
ethnic language
groups.
Vietnam
Moral and civic education, Bilingual

mathematics,
science,
nature
and program
Vietnamese ethnic areas.
Materials from
for integrated
subjects.
language.
Basic Approaches to Curriculum Design
Two main approaches to curriculum design reported by the participating countries are
the content or topic-based approach and the outcome- based approach.
The content or topic-based approach lists the topics or themes of the subject area or
discipline. The listing is generally broad and includes the aims and objectives for the
subject area.
The outcome-based approach to curriculum design defines the outcomes, usually as
abilities or skills, that students are expected to achieve by the end of the period of study
or period of schooling for the specific subject.
The general trend is toward the combined use of content-based and outcome-based
approaches to curriculum design. For example, China, France, Germany, Japan, Korea,
Lao PDR, Malaysia, the Philippines, and the United States report that they have
designed their curriculum using varying combinations of the content and outcomebased approaches. Australia, New Zealand, and Thailand predominantly use the
outcome-based approach, while Fiji, Indonesia, and Vietnam predominantly use the
content-based approach. India and Sri Lanka are moving from a content- to an
outcomebased approach, while Uzbekistan reports a move from a purely outcome-based
model to a combination of both approaches.
Other details of the curriculum organization of the different countries are shown in
the table below.
TABLE 5. Approaches to Curriculum Design
Country
Approach
Australia
China
Fiji
France
13, 12(TVE)
Germany
(Bavaria) 3
India
1 2
Indonesia
Japan
Lao PDR
Malaysia
New Zealand
Philippines
Republic of Korea
3, 1-2
Sri Lanka
1 2
Thailand
United States (New York state)
Uzbekistan
23(TVE)
Vietnam
1 3,
Legend: 1 - content based; 2 - outcome based; 3 - combination TVE Technical/Vocational education.

Curriculum interpretation by teachers
Teachers in Australia interpret their curriculum frameworks with some variations
across the states and territories and across subject areas. Teachers in Korea, India, and
Malaysia are moving from implementing the curriculum as prescribed to some degree of
local interpretation. In China, Fiji, Indonesia, Lao PDR, and Uzbekistan, teachers must
implement the curriculum as it is prescribed. The curriculum of all the other countries is
interpreted by the teachers and implemented with some local variations.
The general trend is toward the setting of national guidelines with a certain degree of
flexibility for interpretation at the local (regional, state, district, and school) level.
Curriculum structure
The participating countries offer a variety of courses or subjects in both the primary
and secondary level. These subjects include the national language and any regional or
local language, foreign languages, science, technology, mathematics, social studies,
humanities, vocational education, creative and performing arts, health, and physical
education. Some related areas are further illustrated under each of the subject
denomination, as shown below.
Curriculum structure at the primary level
Analysis of the course offerings at the primary level in all the participating countries,
shows that while the above content areas are generally covered, time allotments and the
nature of the content vary across each subject area. Foreign languages are offered by
Australia, China, France, Germany, Malaysia, New Zealand, the Philippines, and Sri
Lanka on either a mandatory or optional basis. Six countries --Fiji, Japan, India,
Indonesia, Lao PDR, and Uzbekistan--do not offer any foreign language at this level.
A major aim of all countries at the primary level of education is functional literacy
and numeracy. The national language and mathematics are offered by all the
Multilingual and multicultural countries provide options to address language and
cultural needs of their students.
TABLE 6. Subjects in the Curriculum per Topic
Social studies
History
Civics
Economics
Political science
Geography
Health and physical education
Physical education
Games and sports
Health educaton
Personal management*
Humanities
Ethics/Religion
Moral/Values education
Classical and cultural background
Creative and performing arts
Art
Music and dance
Drama
Technical vocational
Pre-vocational
Agricultural science
Industrial/Practical arts
Home economics
Business management
Services education
Technology
Computer
Electronics
Communications
Mechanics
*Personal management includes management of time, life skills, consumer education,

safety education, personal hygiene, and etiquette.
Curriculum structure at the lower secondary level
Analysis of the curriculum structure at the lower secondary level shows that foreign
language subjects are offered by all the participating countries, except Fiji. National
language and mathematics courses are offered in all countries.
In many countries, the study of the Humanities is integrated into other subjects. In
China, India, and Thailand, technology is an emerging content area in science, while in
Australia and New Zealand they are a new distinct subject.
Curriculum structure at the upper secondary level
At the upper secondary level, subjects include the national language and any regional
or local languages, foreign languages, science, technology, mathematics, social studies,
humanities, creative and performing arts, health, and physical education. There is an
increasing trend toward subject diversification and the integration of technical
education into general education.
In addition, technical/vocational education in all countries prepares students for the
world of work or for higher education. There is an increasing trend for bridges and
pathways between academic and vocational streams.
At this level, the subject offerings are more specialized, more detailed, and more
specific, and there are more options across the subject areas.
At least two language courses, including the national and a foreign language, are part
of the curricular offerings for all countries. Some countries, (Korea, France, Germany,
Australia, and Uzbekistan) offer a third language either on a compulsory or optional
basis.
Curriculum integration
Integration can be viewed as the combination of knowledge of several subjects with
similar features into one subject area, usually around themes. An example is values
education, where values can be incorporated across subject areas, although values
education may also be offered as a separate subject area.
In Malaysia, integration is seen as the incorporation of key aspects into the prescribed
curriculum. On the other hand, in the United States, integration is the approach used to
improve understanding of academic content.

Integration of specific curriculum areas
In the majority of participating countries, values education and environmental
education are integrated into existing subjects of the curriculum.
While some countries offer values education, education for the world of work, science
and technology, information and communication technology, health education, and
environmental education as separate subjects, they are often also integrated into other
subject areas to strengthen their emphasis.
TABLE 7. Integration of Specific Curriculum Areas
Themes/Areas
Country
Values /
International
understanding /
moral / ethical
issues
Education
for the
world of
work
Foreign Computer
languages information
technology
Health
Environmental
education education
Australia
P/S
P/S
I/D
P/S
China
P/S
P/S
P/S
Fiji
I/D
P/S
P/ D
S
D/I P/S
P/S
France
P/S
I/D
P/ I
S
P/S I
P/S
Germany
(Bavaria)
P/S I
India
I/D
P/S
P/S
D(610)
P/ D/P(1S 10)
P/S I/D P/S
P/S
Indonesia
P/S
P/S
P/S
Japan
P/S
P/S
P/S
Lao PDR
P/S
P/S
P/S
P/S
Malaysia
I/D
P/S
P/ I/D
S
P/S I/D P/S
P/S
New
Zealand
P/S
P/S
P/S D
P/SS I
P/S
Philippines I/D
P/S
P/S
P/ I
S
P/S
P/S
Republic
of Korea
P/S
P/S
P/ I/D
S
P/S I/D P/S
I/D
I/D
I/D
I/D
P/S
Sri Lanka
E/S
US S
E/S
E/S
Thailand
P/S
P/S
P/ I
S
P/S I
P/S
P/S
United
States
P/S
P/ I/D
S
P/S D
P/S
P/S
Uzbekistan I
P/S
I/D
P/U
LS D
LS I
P/S
P/S
Vietnam
P/S
P/S
P/S
I/D
Legend: I - Integrated; P - Primary; D - Distinct; S - Secondary.

Curriculum coverage
Issues relating to curriculum coverage
In designing the curriculum, countries need to make decisions about the breadth and
depth of subject content and approaches. Some countries are concerned that the general
education provided in their school system requires students to cover too many subject
areas. There are also pressures to add new subject areas such as environmental studies,
international understanding, information technology, etc. Other countries are concerned
about the number of subjects that students are required to study either because of the
pressure this puts on students or because it means that subjects are approached in a way
that does not lead to a depth of understanding or to the fostering of creative and critical
thinking.
Overcrowding of the curriculum is caused by schools being asked to take
responsibility for a wide range of social issues that were once viewed as the
responsibility of families or the community as a whole, such as appropriate behavior
and personal etiquette.
Actions to address the issues relating to curriculum coverage
Countries identify a number of actions to address issues relating to curriculum
coverage, including a continuing review of the existing content so that, where possible,
integration can be undertaken rather than new subjects created.
Integration need not be limited to the curricular content but can also include cocurricular activities and optional or elective subjects, both at the primary and secondary
levels. For other themes that are seasonal or periodic, resource materials can be
provided in the library for general information and reading.
The use of new or appropriate technology is suggested as another means to address

the overcrowded curriculum. Where distance education or some other alternative
delivery system is possible, content can be learned through these means. Multimedia
resources are increasingly becoming more sophisticated, and learning may not be
confined within the classroom.
Where the overcrowded curriculum results from an inability of curriculum developers
to determine the basic knowledge and skills that should go into a subject area,
restructuring and prioritization of basic content, deemed relevant, necessary, and
appropriate at each level and in each subject area could be of assistance. Benchmarks
could also be established so that there is basis for monitoring and evaluation.
The perennial issue of pressure from government or groups may be transformed into a
healthy working relationship through closer collaboration between competing interest
groups. The pressures from these groups need not be accommodated totally. A balance
can be struck between political, social, scientific, and academic requirements.
Teachers plays a very important role in delivering the curriculum. Resistance
sometimes exists because of their lack of involvement in planning and the lack of
training and orientation prior to curriculum implementation. This may be alleviated by
regular or periodic upgrading of teacher competencies through continuing in-service
training.
Continuing research, monitoring, and evaluation was also proposed, so that feedback
and reports of curriculum reviews could become the basis for curriculum revision or
development.
Curriculum Implementation
Unless there are effective strategies for the implementation of curriculum policies, an
education system does not derive the full benefits that should accrue from the school
curriculum. The questions in this section of the questionnaire sought responses to key
aspects which are crucial for curriculum implementation: teacher development; resource
provision; classroom strategies; and student assessment.
Teacher Professional Development
A curriculum, no matter how good, will simply remain a curriculum on paper if it is

not implemented properly. The teacher and the instructional leaders in the school are the
key to the implementation of that curriculum. The questions in this section of the
questionnaire sought to find out how teachers in the various countries are prepared
professionally for teaching, and the programmes available for their continuous
professional development.
Pre-service teacher development
Requirements for teacher education qualification
All the countries reported requirements for qualification or admission into the Teacher
Training Institutions or any form of pre-service teacher education.
Framework for pre-service teacher education
The following table shows the description of national frameworks for pre-service
teacher education.
All countries or states have some form of curriculum, guidelines, or frameworks for
preservice teacher education.
Programs for pre-service teacher development
See table.
Components of the pre-service teacher education programs
Pre-service teacher education programs in various countries commonly include four
main components: educational methods/teaching methods; professional education/basic
education; subject courses/curriculum studies; and teaching practice/field experience.
Additional components may include co-curricular activities, self-enrichment, and
languages. Topics or subjects like introduction to educational systems of other countries
(France), languages (Sri Lanka), emerging Indian society (India) and morality and
career education (Thailand).
TABLE 8. Description of National Frameworks
Country
Description of national frameworks for pre-service teacher education
Australia
National Standards and Guidelines for Initial Teacher Education.
China
Fiji
National Curriculum Framework.
France
National guidelines for teacher training university colleges.
Germany
(Bavaria)
State Law on Teacher Education; State Examination Regulations.
India
There is no prescribed national curriculum for pre-service teacher education.

However, there are guidelines and a framework for pre-service teacher
education developed by National Council of Teacher Education.
Indonesia
National curriculum for training teachers of each level of education.
Japan
National guidelines.
Lao P.D.R.
Various teacher training curriculums adopted in 1993 by the Prime Minister

Decree on State Education Personnel.
Malaysia
Framework prescribed by the Teacher Education Division of the Ministry of

Education and the university.
New Zealand
Approval of courses through internal quality assurance and governmental

agencies, national professional standards established for beginning teachers
(used by individual institutions) as a basis for course development.
Philippines
Policies/guidelines (Policy Standards for Teacher Education) provided by the

Commission on Higher Education
Republic of
Korea
Sri Lanka
Prescribed curriculum for diploma in teaching for colleges of education.
Thailand
United States
General guidelines. Curriculums and syllabuses developed by institutions.
(New York state) State-approved programs for institution.
Uzbekistan
State-approved curriculum of each institution.
Vietnam
National curriculum for training teachers of each level of education.
TABLE 9. Title/Length of Program for Pre-service Development

Level of
teacher
Title/Length of
program
Type of institution
Australia
Primary
Lower
secondary
Upper
aecondary
4-year degree
University
China
Primary
Primary school
Secondary normal school
teachers' trial post
regulation (3-4 years)
Junior secondary
school graduates
Lower
Secondary school
Senior
Country
Universities and colleges
Minimum entry
requirement
Year 12
(secondary)
Fiji
France
Germany
India
secondary

regulation (2-3 years)
secondary
school graduates
Upper
secondary
Secondary school
regulation (4 years)
Universities and Senior

colleges
secondary
school graduates
Primary
2-year teacher's
certificate
Teachers' college
Pass in Form 6
(in practice,
Form 7)
Lower
secondary
2-year diploma in
education
Teachers' college
Pass in Form 7
Upper
secondary
4-year bachelor of
education (PGCE-postgraduate
certificate of
education)
University of the South

Pacific
Pass in Form 7
Primary
3+1+1
University + Institute
Baccalaureate
Universitaire pour la
Formation des Mai(circ)tres
(IUFM) + IUFM
Lower
secondary
3+1+1
Baccalaureate
(IUFM) +IUFM
Upper
secondary
3+1+1
4+1+1
Baccalaureate
(IUFM) +IUFM
Primary
5 years (3 + 2)
University + Seminar
Abitur
(Gymnasium
leaving
certificate)
Lower
secondary
5 years (3 + 2)
Abitur
(Gymnasium
leaving
certificate)
Upper
secondary
6 years (4 + 2)
Abitur
(Gymnasium
leaving
certificate)
Primary
2 years
Teacher training institute
Senior
secondary
Lower
1 year
University
Graduate (3
secondary
Indonesia
Japan
Upper
secondary
1 year
University
Postgraduate (2
years)
Primary
D2 ( 2 years)
Higher education
12 year
(secondary
school)
Lower
secondary
D3 (3 years)
Higher education
12 year
(secondary
school)
Upper
secondary
S1 (4 years)
Higher education
12 year
(secondary
school)
Primary
Teachers' certificate
Lower
secondary
Upper
secondary
Lao P.D.R. Primary
Malaysia
New
Zealand
years)
3 years (with 8 years Teacher training school

prior)
1 year (with 11 years
prior)
Graduate of
lower/upper
secondary
education
Lower
secondary
3 years
Teacher college
Graduate of
upper secondary
Upper
secondary
4 years
University
Graduate of
upper secondary
Primary
Diploma in teaching
(3 years)
Teacher training colleges
School
certificate
Lower
secondary
Diploma in teaching
(1 year)
University
Degree
Upper
secondary
Diploma in teaching
(1 year)
University
Degree
Primary
B.Ed. (teaching) (3
years)
B.Ed. (4 years)
University,
polytechnic,college of
education
University
entrance or
equivalent
Diploma of Teaching Polytechnics, college of

(2 years)
education
Partial tertiary
qualification and
relevant work
experience
Diploma of Teaching University, polytechnic,

(1 year)
college of education
A degree
Lower and
upper
secondary
Diploma of Teaching University, polytechnic,

(1 year)
A degree with
relevant
teaching
subjects
Bachelor of
College of education
elementary education Teacher education
(4 years)
institution
High school
graduate
Lower
secondary
Bachelor of secondary College of education

education (4 years)
Teacher education
institution
High school
graduate
Upper
secondary
Diploma of teaching
(1 year)
University, polytechnic,
A degree with
relevant
teaching
subjects
4 years
Primary education
departments of national
universities
Lower
secondary
4 years
National or private
Upper
secondary
4 years
National or private
Primary
Diploma in teaching
(3 years)
Colleges of education
G.C.E. (A/L)
Lower
secondary
Diploma in teaching
(3 years)
Colleges of education
G.C.E. (A/L)
Upper
secondary
B.Ed. (3 years)
Universities
G.C.E. (A/L)
Primary
No (depends on local
body-teacher training
institution)
High school
graduation
Lower
secondary
institution)
High school
graduation
Upper
secondary
institution)
High school
graduation
Philippines Primary
Republic of Primary
Korea
Sri Lanka
Thailand
United
Primary (preStates (New kindergarten,
York state) 6)
Secondary
(7-12)
Length of program not

specified, but
typically part of a 4year baccalaureate
(recently introduced
policy requires
Typically, a 4-year postsecondary education

institution with a teacher
education program
approved by and registered
with the State Education
Varies by
institution, but
usually at least a
high school
diploma
master's degree of all Department

newly hired teacher)
Uzbekistan Primary
Vietnam
Bachelor / 3-4 years
College
Institute
30% out of 226

grades (1998)
Lower
secondary
Institute / University
30% out of 226

grades (1998)
Upper
secondary
Institute / University
30% out of 226

grades (1998)
Primary
Bachelor of primary
education (2 years)
Teacher training college
Graduation from
general
education (grade
12)
Lower
Secondary
Bachelor of lower sec Teacher training college

(3 years)
Graduation from
general
education (grade
12)
Upper
Secondary
Bachelor of up sec (4 National teaching

years)
university
Graduation from
general
education (grade
12)
With few exceptions, all countries report having the four components identified in
their pre-service teacher training programs.
Processes undertaken by pre-service teacher education
The measures taken in all countries to ensure that pre-service teacher education
programmes keep up with changes in school curriculum and other areas of change in
education can be categorized into two main groups: (i) change as prescribed by
regulation; and (ii) changes initiated by the teacher education institution itself as part of
its quality system process.
While some countries regulate changes to pre-service teacher education, others rely
on self-regulation of the teacher education institutions themselves. However, there is a
range of ways these countries preserve pre-service teacher education standards. Some
examples include Germany (Bavaria) where there are state examinations established by
the Education Ministry, teacher licenses in the United States, and teacher registration
and professional standards for beginning teachers set by the Australia and New Zealand
educational authorities. In some cases (Fiji, for example), where the changes are
prescribed by regulation, the teacher training education institutions are involved in
curriculum change.
In-service teacher development programs
Professional development for teachers
A large number of countries provide compulsory in-service training either for all
teachers each year, including Vietnam, Lao PDR, and Sri Lanka. Some countries
provide or require in-service training for all teachers over a longer time frame (United
States, New York state) and others for promotion to leadership positions (Australia,
France, Germany, and Japan) or for relicensing (Philippines, New York state). In
addition, there are a wide range of voluntary opportunities for in-service, and a number
of countries combine voluntary and compulsory activities.
Compulsory time varies: Lao PDR--80-180 hours per year; New York state--175 hours
every five years; Sri Lanka--300 hours prior to next promotion; Vietnam--1 month per
year in the summer.
Support for in-service training programs
All countries provide financial support for in-service education.
Methods of improving teaching practice
The most common professional development opportunities available for teachers
include enrollment in graduate studies, distance learning, membership in professional
groups, subscription to journals and educational magazines, attendance in local and
foreign seminarworkshops and conferences, staff meetings, refresher courses, interschool visits, the use of central curriculum advisors, and observance of peer teaching,
including master teachers.
In addition to the more conventional opportunities, a range of methods making use of
modern technology is evident. It includes the use of the Internet (Australia, Indonesia,
New Zealand, and the United States), and distance learning, teleconferences, TV
programs, and satellite TV (Australia, China, Indonesia, the United States, and
Vietnam). Some countries reported a comprehensive approach to professional
development at the school level. This often involves teachers working in teams toward
agreed common professional development goals.
TABLE 10. How Changes are Undertaken at Pre-service Teacher Education

Country
Change as
prescribed by
regulation
Changes
instigated by a
Comment
teacher education
institution
Australia
China
Fiji
France
Germany
(Bavaria)
India
National Guidelines for Teacher Training

specify outcomes, which include familiarity
with current educational policy. However,
teacher education institutions exercise quality
control.
Teacher training institutions involved in
curriculum changes.
State examinations for teachers take into
account curriculum changes.
National Council of Teacher Education

provides guidelines.
Indonesia
Japan
Malaysia
Teaching training colleges involved in

curriculum change.
Lao PDR
Teacher development center created to develop

new curriculum for teacher training institutions.
New
Zealand
Course approval every 3-5 years by national

agency and therefore must reflect current policy
changes.
Philippines
Changes initiated are decided by institution.
Republic of
Korea
Sri Lanka
National Institute of Education prepares both

school curriculum and pre-service training
curriculum.
Thailand
United
States
Uzbekistan
Vietnam
Each education division or institution designs

curriculum according to state standards.
Incentives for teachers to participate in in-service training

Teachers may participate in in-service training for several reasons, such as to receive
a promotion or an increase in salar y, to meet relicensing or rectification requirements,
and for their own personal or professional benefit.
Teachers as a professional group are actively engaged in professional development in
all countries. The main motivating factors and incentives for ongoing participation are
professional and personal enrichment and career development and promotion. In some
countries, in-service training is required to ensure that teachers are able to upgrade their
qualifications (Lao PDR), and maintain their license to teach (Philippines and New York
state).
Strategies for in-service training of teachers
All countries recognize the importance of providing central support for the
implementation of the curriculum. This support is provided as additional central
funding, as teaching and learning resources, and as publications to inform teachers,
parents, and the community of curriculum changes. In a few countries (Australia, New
Zealand, and the United States), information technology is being used to provide
curriculum resources and professional development.
TABLE 11. Motivation for In-service Training
Country
Career
development
(promotion,
salary)
Relicensin Professional Other

Comment
g
enrichment requirement
Australia
China
Fiji
France
Many activities sponsored

by education
administration and by
professional organizations
of subject area teachers.
Germany
(Bavaria)

by professional
organizations (of subject
area teachers).
India
Indonesia
Japan
Lao P.D.R.
Malaysia
New
Zealand
Not mandatory
(but recognized
as important by
employing
boards)
Philippines X
School-based requirement
on teachers by employing
boards.

by professional
organizations (of subject
area teachers).
X
Thailand
United
States
(New
York)
Move toward in-service

as requirement for
promotion of teachers.
Republic of
Korea
Sri Lanka
Educational
administrative bodies
organize in-service
training programs under
their responsibilities by
providing funds.
X
Uzbekistan X
Vietnam
Relicensing requirement.
Resource Support
Countries are using a diverse range of materials to support the implementation of new
curriculums. Material support of various kinds may assist in the provision of
information for students, provide a guide to teachers and assist teachers in
implementing effective classroom programmes that actively involve the students in
learning. This material support may take various forms such as textbooks, videos,
computer software, calculators, equipment and apparatus, multimedia, teacher guides,
and CD ROMs. The following section was designed to find out the kinds of support
materials countries are using to assist teachers implement curriculum change.
Textbooks
Countries use a variety approaches for the development and supply of textbooks.
Table 12 shows how countries develop and distribute textbooks and some comments on
textbooks and other teaching/learning resources.
Textbooks are used in most education systems to ensure that all students are able to
learn basic curriculum content. Most countries report that a government agency is
responsible for the provision or approval of textbooks (Fiji, Indonesia, Lao PDR, and
Sri Lanka). In some countries, schools select textbooks published by the private sector
(Australia, New Zealand, and the United States), while in others they select textbooks
from an approved list (Fiji, Germany, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia and the Philippines).
Teaching/Learning support materials
There are also other teaching/learning support materials available for schools,
including teacher guides, video tapes, computer software, CD-ROMs, etc.
Besides textbooks, almost all countries provide additional teaching and learning
resources such as CD-ROMs, videos, workbooks, software, instructional material,
supplementary reading material, resource guides, laboratory equipment, and other
teaching aids to enhance learning programs.
In all countries, government funds the development of supplementary materials for
teachers and students. In many countries, private publishers also produce and sell
materials directly to teachers and schools. In some countries, private publishers must
have their materials approved. Instances of government collaboration with the private
sector are also noted.
Development process of supplementary materials
Teachers are often involved in the development of supplementary materials, whether
working for the government or for private companies. In addition, a wide range of
individuals, such as university professors, professionals from business and industry, and
professional writers may also be involved.
Germany, France, and New Zealand also have dissemination networks of regional and
local groups.
Provision of textbooks and other materials

Textbooks and other materials are either provided by the government or purchased by
parents. The situation in the participating countries shown in Table 12.
Many countries provide textbooks free of charge. In some countries, students can
keep the books at the end of the year, while in others they are only on loan and must be
returned (Lao PDR, New Zealand, and the Philippines). Governments generally tend to
provide textbooks to children during the years of compulsory schooling, but expect
parents to assist in funding textbooks in the upper secondary, noncompulsory years.
TABLE 12. Provision of Textbooks and Other Materials
Country
Government
provides
Free loan
Rent
Parent purchase Comment
Australia
Some
Some primary
primary and and secondary
secondary
China
T (parents) Primary and

[sic]
secondary
Fiji
Primary
Secondary
France
Primary and
lower
secondary
Germany
(Bavaria)
Primary and
secondary
Secondary and Books provided by

some primary special
projects in 7 & 8 and
junior secondary
India
Government
school
Private schools
Indonesia
Primary school Lower and

(government
upper
schools only
secondary
Lower and
Depends on school
upper secondary
Japan
Primary and
lower
secondary
Upper
secondary
Lao PDR
Primary
education
Lower
secondary
Upper
secondary and
private schools
Malaysia
Incomebased loan
scheme
Monthly income Monthly income lower

lower than $400 than $400, textbooks
eligible for
are free
textbook loan
New
Zealand
School
loans
Philippines
Public
schools
Private schools
Republic of
Korea
Primary
school
Secondary (low
cost)
Sri Lanka
Primary and
lower
secondary
Upper
secondary
(No prescribed text

books for upper
secondary;
supplementary
materials only)
Thailand
United
States (New
York)
All schools
Uzbekistan
Vietnam
Primary and
secondary
Some
primary
Secondary and
some primary
Community Support
Extent of community support
Support for curriculum development is provided by parents, the local community, the
business community, and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs). In the participating
countries, the situation is shown in Table 13. Most countries report a trend toward
encouraging parent-teacher organizations, parents, and community members to
contribute to the implementation of curriculum. In some countries, business and NGOs
provide additional support for schools (New Zealand, the United States, and
Uzbekistan). In a few countries, religious groups and alumni associations provide a
range of types of assistance.
Classroom Strategies
Strategies to introduce new teaching approaches Most countries provide in-service

training to teachers to encourage the use of new teaching approaches. In addition, there
are many other ways for teachers to access professional development of new teaching
approaches. These methods include peer group teaching, the training of expert
facilitators to work with other teachers, pilot schools demonstrating new approaches,
and modeling of these methods in guidebooks, professional development programs, and
other media. These opportunities can be provided by the government, teachers' unions,
professional organizations, and private enterprises.
TABLE 13. Community Support for Curriculum Development
Country
Parents
Local community
Business
community
NGOs
Australia
Involved in
school
management
and school
programs
Used as resource
Sometimes
develops
curriculum
materials
Sometimes
develop
curriculum
materials
China
Involved in
school
management
Childrenfs
Palaces for
additional learning
experiences;
provision of
additional
equipment in rural
areas
Donation to
schools
Assistance to
develop
informal
education
Fiji
PTA
Local government Reviews
management of research institutions curriculum and
school
supplies
materials
France
Provision of
additional
equipment
Germany PTAs
(Bavaria)
India
PTAs
Tax for
technical and
vocational
education
purposes
Sponsor
schools
Set up own schools

outside of
Reviewing
curricula Assist
in nonformal
education
Other
Religious
bodies
(support
moral
education),
parents,
leaders
government funding
Indonesia PTA
Local government
Japan
Use of local
environment as
resource
PTAs (small
role)
Lao PDR Consultations

with parent and
student
associations
Private
business
Many different
groups,
depends on
district
Education
Foundation For
Needy Students
Malaysia
PTAs
Financial/material
support
Scholarships/
material
support
Material
support
New
Zealand
Consultation;
helpers in
class; fundraising; school
development
committee;
PTAs
Sponsor schools;
experts provided for
class programs;
learning experience
outside class
Collaboration
in resource
development;
school-industry
links;
sponsorship;
donations
Other ministry
resource
material;
research
agency
donations
Philippine PTAs in each Provision of

s
school (provide additional help,
general
finance and
support)
materials
Republic
of Korea
Parents
interested in
school
operations and
management
Sri Lanka Participate in

school
development
committee
Religious
groups assist
in schools;
PTA meets 3
times/year)
Provision of
Provide
additional help, instructional
finance, and
aids
materials
Revising and
enlarging
curriculum,
materials
development
Participate in school Occasional
Occasional
development
donations
donations
committee
(library books, library books,
infrastructure, infrastructure,
other resources) other
resources)
Students and
alumni
participate in
school
development
committee
Thailand
United
States
PTAs
Local school boards Collaborative

manage school
projects with
school
Grant programs Various

for schools and groups can
teachers
have power if
opposed to
curriculum
Uzbekista
n
Vietnam
Sponsor
competitions
and study
programs;
introduces
curriculum
materials
Give
comments and
financial
support to
curriculum
Ustoz
Republican
Foundation
Give comments and

financial support to
curriculum;
maintain school
buildings
Issues and concerns about teaching methods

Countries report several major trends in issues and concerns about teaching methods.
Most report a shift from teacher-centered instruction to child-centered learning, which
involves encouraging problem solving, creative thinking, learning to learn, and activitybased classroom programs. In a few countries, there is a refocus on the balance between
learning processes and subject content (Australia, New Zealand, and the United States).
School-based Student Assessment
The key issue for effective implementation of the curriculum involves students and
their learning assessment at the school level. Countries use a variety of strategies to
assess student learning. School-based assessment provides feedback to teachers with
respect to the effectiveness of their teaching and provides students and parents with
essential information about student progress.
The following table shows the methods of assessing student performance in the
elementary, and lower and upper secondary school levels. Also included are the
purposes or uses of the results of assessment and the methods of reporting the
assessment.
Developments in assessment
At the elementary level, the most common ways of collecting data on student
assessment are the paper-and-pencil tests, practical work, and teachers' observations.
The situation is almost the same at the lower secondary level with the introduction of
laboratory work, authentic assessment (Thailand), including project specifics and
portfolios, and school-based assessment for specific year levels in Sri Lanka.
At the upper secondary level, the trend is a shift from written tests to more
performance tests across the subject areas. In France and Uzbekistan, student
assessment includes projects in professional, technical, and vocational education.
Main purposes of assessment at the school level
School-based assessments are used to diagnose strengths and weaknesses of students,
in which case, diagnostic tests are administered at the beginning of the school year or a
year level. Assessments are also used to determine student performance and progress in
school, most of the time leading to promotion or admission to the next grade/year level.
Furthermore, assessments are used to report the child's progress in school to parents.
The evaluation of student performance is also a means to review the curriculum and
results are therefore used to improve not only the curriculum but the teaching and
learning process, as well.
TABLE 14. Types, Purposes and Methods of Reporting
Country
Elementary level
Australia
Secondary level
Purposes/Uses
Methods of
reporting
Lower
Upper
Structured
observation;
written and
standardized test
Structured
observation;
written and
standardized
test
Structured
observation;
written and
standardized
test
Report student
progress;
curriculum
development
Percentage and
letter grading;
checklist of
criteria;
descriptive
assessment
China
Paper-and-pencil
tests;
observations;
interviews;
portfolios
Paper-andpencil tests;
observations;
interviews;
portfolios
observations;
interviews;
portfolios
Diagnosis;
selection of
contestants;
determination
quality of
instruction;
examination of
student progress;
deciding
professional
direction
Comments;
behavior
marks;
percentage;
place in
competition;
grade
Fiji
Paper and pencil Paper and

tests; project
pencil tests;
Paper and
pencil tests;
Evaluate student Percentage

performance; for
works
project works
project works,
practical and
laboratory
work
promotion
purposes; prepare
for national and
external
examinations
France
Paper-and-pencil Paper-andtests; portfolio; pencil tests;

tests
portfolio; tests;
laboratory
work
Paper-andDiagnosis;
Grading and
pencil tests;
monitor student comments on
portfolio; tests; progress; decision achievement
laboratory
for promotion
work; projects
in TVE
Germany
(Bavaria)
Oral/written tests Oral/written

tests
Oral/written
tests;
pointgraded
system
Diagnosis;
assessment for
promotion;
reporting to
parents
Verbal
certification
for grades 1-2;
written plus
point-grades in
upper
secondary
India
Continuous
comprehensive
evaluation paperand-pencil tests;
projects and
practical work;
school based
Internal
reporting;
external
examination
Internal
reporting;
external
examination
Monitor learning
achievements;
and effectiveness
of instruction
Progress report
cards.
Observations
(elementary);
marks
(secondary)
Indonesia Paper-and-pencil
tests;
performance
tests
performance
tests
performance
tests
Promotion;
Grades
reporting to
parents; diagnosis
Japan
Paper-and-pencil Paper-andPaper-andDiagnosis;
tests; practical
pencil tests;
pencil tests;
requirement for
work
practical work practical work admission
Grade and
comments
Lao PDR
Paper-and-pencil
tests; oral tests
observations;
tele-record
oral tests;
observations;
tele-record
oral tests;
observations
tele-record
For parents to
Ten score
help children; for grading
remediation; to
improve the
teaching/ learning
performance
Malaysia
Paper-and-pencil
tests; teacher
observation
folios; practical
work
teacher
observation
folios; practical
work
teacher
observation
folios;
practical work
To report student Grade;

progress;
percentage;
diagnosis;
descriptive
teaching
effectiveness
New
Zealand
Paper-and-pencil Paper-andPaper-andtest, practical

pencil test,
pencil test,
work,
practical work practical work
observation
standardized
assessments,
parent interviews
Measure of
Grading
performance; to system
report to student
and parents on
progress.
Diagnostic and
formatic to
improve learning
and teaching
Philippines Paper-and-pencil Paper-andtests; projects;

pencil tests;
observations
projects;
observations
projects;
observations
Improve teaching/ Percentage

learning;
rating
diagnosis;
improve student
performance;
report to parents
Republic
of Korea
performance
Reporting to
parents;
requirement for
admission
Written
comments for
elementary
level; grade
and percentage
in secondary
level
To improve
learning,
teaching, and
assessment
practices
Grade;
progress
records;
students
profile; polar
gram and
subject-based
reports
Paper-and-pencil Paper-andtests;
pencil tests;
performance
performance
Sri Lanka School-based

assessment;
paper-andpencil
tests; practical
work;
assignments;
observations
School-based Public
assessment
examination in
from 1998 in grade 13
grade 6; from
1999 in grade
7-11; public
exams in grade
11
Thailand
Paper-and-pencil Paper-andtest at the end of pencil test at

year
the end of
semester;
authentic
assessment
Paper-andpencil test at
the end of
semester;
authentic
assessment
Measure
performance
(elementary and
secondary) and
making new pass
at end of year
(secondary only)
Grading
system; end of
level report to
parents and
concerned
authorities
United
States
(New
York)
Observation;
homework and
projects; written
exams
Observation;
homework and
projects;
written exams
Describe
performance;
incentive for
students for
promotion
Percentage and
grades
Observation;
homework and
projects;
written exams
Uzbekistan Paper-and-pencil Paper-andMore papertest; obpencil test and and-pencil
Evaluation of
Percentage
student learning; rating
servations;
portfolio
Vietnam
practical work test; laboratory promotion for

work in
next grade
professional
and technical
education
Paper-and-pencil Paper-andtests
pencil tests
Paper-andpencil tests
Diagnosis
Percentage or
(elementary
grades
level), assessment
for promo-tion
(secondary level)
Methods for reporting on students' performance

Student performances are reported quantitatively and qualitatively. Comments and
observations describing student performance and progress in class are reported to
parents. The comments maybe motivational or may say something about the potentials
of the student. In India, exclusive use of observations on student performance are for
the elementary level only while in Germany, there is a verbal certification for Grades 1
and 2.
A grading system is adopted in many countries. The letter, numerical equivalents, or
percentages are used for recording results.
External examinations
Table 15 explains the types and purposes of external examinations as well as their
impact on curriculum implementation.
Most of the countries report a system of external evaluation except for Indonesia and
Thailand. This evaluation is usually at specific levels and at the end of levels, such as
the elementary or secondary level.
The purposes of the external evaluation are to determine promotion or certification to
the next level of education, student performance, and school accountability.
External evaluation has positive or negative impact on curriculum implementation
because it provides feedback and data which may be used for curriculum development
and improvement.
Barriers and Constraints to Effective Curriculum Implementation
The effective
implementation of curriculum is dependent on a multitude of factors. Countries report

the difficulties and barriers that have been identified as constraints to effective
curriculum implementation include inadequate support instructional materials; large
class sizes; language of instruction; out-of-date materials; teacher qualifications,

teachers' availability; teachers' knowledge, skills, and attitudes; and the performance of
teachers and principals.
Barriers and constraints to curriculum implementation
Countries reported potential obstacles to effective curriculum implementation:

Lack of personnel resources (not enough teachers to reduce overcrowding, lack
of staff qualifications, and not enough training regarding new reforms); lack of quality
instructional materials related to new content and approaches; and lack of appropriate
infrastructure.
Difficulty of managing change; unrealistic expectations of policymakers, desire
for immediate results, and inappropriate or lack of implementation strategies.

Resistance to change among teachers, administrators, and the public, often
stemming from an overabundance of reform initiatives.

Conflict between reform goals and pressure on students to do well on entrance
examinations.
TABLE 15. External Examination System
Countries
External
examinations
(levels)
Purpose
Impact on curriculum
implementation
Australia
Yes, 12 (10 in
one state)
Certification; entry to higher

education
Creation of uniform curriculum;

comparability in assessment
China
Yes, 5 or 6, 9,
10, 11,12
Promotion; entrance to
university
Certification of proper
assessment; to ensure curriculum
is implemented to basic level of
educational quality
Fiji
Yes,
6,8,10,12,13
Performance monitoring
(elementary); promotion
(secondary) and employment
and higher education
For curriculum revision
France
Yes, 9, 12
Certification and higher

education
Incentive for full coverage of

curriculum content
Germany
(Bavaria)
Yes, 10, 12
Certification and higher

education
Considerable influence on
curriculum
Japan
Yes, 3
Promotion for higher

education
Review of implementation
Korea
Yes, 12
Entrance to university
India
Yes, 10, 12
Certification of achievements; Basis for analysis of performance

qualification
Indonesia
None
Lao PDR
Yes, 5,8,11
Certification
Revise curriculum
Malaysia
Yes, 6, 9, 11
6, 9 - performance; 11 certification
Review of implementation;
uniform curriculum
New
Zealand
Yes, 11, 13
Certification (along with

internal assessment)
Achievement levels
Informs school planning
Review of curriculum
Philippines Yes, 4, 6
Student achievement
Curriculum improvement
Sri Lanka
Yes, 5
(scholarship
ex.), 11, 13
Certification
Thailand
None
USA
Yes, 3, 5, 6,
(subject wise)
Uzbekistan Yes, 9, 12
Vietnam
Assess performance
Uniformity of curriculum;
examination orientation
For curriculum implementation
Lower secondary for entrance Diagnosis of curriculum

and vocational education,
implementation
upper secondary for higher
education
Yes, every level For merit attainment

certification
Under consideration to reorganize

examinations
Curriculum Monitoring and Evaluation

This section is devoted to overall curriculum evaluation and not to individual student
evaluation, which was covered in the previous section.
Monitoring and Evaluation
There are a number of ways in which the curriculum can be monitored and evaluated.
Among the participating countries, monitoring and evaluation activities exist both at the
local and system level. At the school level, the classroom observation is the most
common means of evaluation. Classes may be observed by the head or a subject area
specialist, a pedagogical adviser or educational supervisor from the district, province,

or state education office. Staff meetings are mentioned as a means to monitor and
evaluate the curriculum. Visits by inspectors or supervisors are common among the
At the system level, national examinations are the most common means of monitoring
and evaluating the curriculum. Inspection and supervision by education officers are
conducted regularly. Feedback from surveys, reviews, and studies undertaken by
national or regional agencies are gathered during the monitoring and evaluation of the
curriculum. This feedback forms a part of the baseline data for curriculum
improvement.
Curriculum Evaluation
Countries report a variety of strategies for curriculum evaluation such as analysis of
curriculum documents with respect to policy statements; validation conferences with
relevant stakeholders, consultations with teachers, and pilot studies in a few school
settings.
Mechanisms used for curriculum evaluation
The participating countries reported a variety of mechanisms and major tools for
curriculum evaluation. The most common are internal and external evaluations, pilot
studies of curriculum programs prior to implementation, and research and reviews
conducted by various agencies to look into the effectiveness and impact of curriculum
implementation, through consultations with various stakeholders, administration of
achievement tests to assess performance of students, reports from school inspectors, and
government reviews.
Use of results of national curriculum evaluation
Results of national curriculum evaluations are mainly used to provide information for
curriculum revision and improvement of standards; improve the quality of teaching and
learning at the school and national levels; address pressures from political, social, and
economic groups and ensure balance; and improve programs for the educationally
disadvantaged.
Monitoring of Local Curriculum

None of the countries reported any fully locally controlled curriculum. However, in
cases where there is a local curriculum, it is assumed that it is developed within the
framework of the national or state curriculum. Implementation of such curriculum is
monitored by concerned authorities (local school board/district/ province/state).
Student Assessment for Curriculum Monitoring
Some countries use national achievement studies to evaluate the curriculum. Table 16
below shows the types of assessment, how often it is administered, and at what grade
level.
Student assessment for curriculum development is a combination of school-based,
national, and international tests. National tests are administered annually or periodically
for selected levels (elementary, lower or upper secondary education). Most countries
participate in international testing programmes.
TABLE 16. Student Assessment for Curriculum Monitoring
Country
Type
Frequency
Grade level
Australia
International assessment
(IEA)
State-wide
School based
(continuous)
Every year
Years 3, 5 (7) in some states

All levels
China
National assessment
Once in the last 10

years
Primary; upper secondary
Fiji
National assessment
Every 5 years
Grade 6, 7, 10, 12, 13
France
International and national Every 2 years for

tests
Grade 3, 6 Every
year for Grade 10
Grade 3, 6, 10 for all + sample

for other grades
Germany
(Bavaria)
National exams
Grade 10
India
National (NCERT)
Indonesia
Every year
School boards
Varying period in 10 Grade 5, 8, 10 , 12

years
Year-end, national
3 times a year for

each grade
Japan
National assessment
Every 10 years
Primary + lower secondary
Lao PDR
National,
classroom/school visits,
performance tests
Once in 2 years
Grade 1-3, 6
Malaysia
School based
End of year
All grades
National assessment
(IEA)
Every year
Grade 6, 9, 11
New Zealand National, achievement,

(IEA)
Every year
Year 4, 8
Philippines
National assessment
Every year
Grade 6, year 4
Republic of
Korea
National SAT
Every year for 0.5% Grade 4, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11 for NL

of
and Maths; 4,6,7,8, 10 for ST
and SS; 7,8, 10,11 for English
Sri Lanka
N/A
N/A
Thailand
School based
National (proposed)
Year-end, quarter-end Grade 6, 9 12

Every 2 years
Primary and secondary
United States State-wide

(New York)
Every year
N/A
Primary and secondary
Uzbekistan
School based continuous Every year

(ADB)
For all levels
Vietnam
National assessment
School-based
From primary to upper

secondary
Every year
Research and Development

Analysis of research and development projects over the last 10 years indicated that
they focused on the effectiveness of the curriculum; student performance (proficiency in
languages in France, India, and Lao PDR); mathematics and science (Japan, India, and
Korea); effectiveness of teaching/learning materials such as studies on the use of
textbooks (Sri Lanka and China); and studies on specific content areas such as reforms
in vocational education (Uzbekistan); and action research on the teaching of ethnic
language (Lao PDR); and choice of elective subjects (Malaysia).
Research is undertaken at the institutional, national, local, and international levels,
and the findings are used to improve the curriculum. Examples of research and studies
can be found in Table 17.
TABLE 17. Research Undertaken by Countries

Country
Research/Studies conducted
Australia
Studies on literacy, mathematics, science, gender differences, vocational education,

assessment, and outcomes education
China
Experiments on teaching materials; investigation of the implementation of nineyear curriculum
Fiji
N/A
France
Studies on several aspects of all subjects with focus on literacy and role of
mathematics in selection of students
Germany
None
India
Studies on language, math, sciences, social science, work experiences, technical

and vocational education, population education, values education, general
curriculum
Indonesia
Japan
Third International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS)
Lao PDR
Action Research on Teaching of Lao Language to Children of Ethnic Minorities
Malaysia
Effectiveness of the Integrated Curriculum for Primary/Secondary Schools, Trends

in Choice of Elective Subjects of Upper Secondary Students
New
Zealand
Factors Affecting School Progress, Evaluation of Teacher Development Programs,

National Monitoring Projects, Curriculum Implementation, Assessment Resource
Bank
Philippines Survey of Outcomes of Elementary Education, Impact Study of the Elementary

Curriculum, Monitoring and Evaluation of New Secondary Education Curriculum
Student Achievement in the New Secondary Education Curriculum,
Responsiveness of the Teacher Education Curriculum to the Secondary Education
Curriculum
Republic of Needs Analysis, Evaluation of Current Curriculum, International Comparative
Korea
Studies on Curriculum Reforms
Sri Lanka
Studies on Textbooks, Teaching Effectiveness of Mother Tongue, Studies on the

GCE Examinations
Thailand
Effectiveness of Primary School Curriculum, Implementation of the Secondary

School Curriculum Thai Children Potentiality
United
States
Not available
Uzbekistan Study on Social and Economic Conditions for Education, Reforms in Vocational
Education
Vietnam
Effectiveness of School Curriculum from Primary to Upper Secondary
Summary and Conclusion

This section provides a general summary of the trends that emerged from a
consideration of the country reports. During the group and plenary discussions. This
summary identifies general directions for curriculum policy and implementation being
considered by many participating countries. The conclusions have been grouped under
four headings that reflect the main sections of the country reports.
Curriculum Policies
During the last decade various efforts have been made in each country to revamp their
education systems. The following general trends were reported by many countries:
There is an on-going commitment to curriculum policy review and development
to meet the challenges of the changing technological, social, economic, political,
national, and global environments. Curriculum policies of participating countries
emphasized the goals of social cohesion, economic well-being, and personal
development.
Countries appear to be developing curriculum, qualifications, and schooling
frameworks and structures that are able to respond effectively both to national and
international exchanges and more local needs.

Participating countries recognize the importance of developing curriculum
frameworks that ensure the learning of core content while providing opportunities for
greater choice of elective subjects.

Participating countries recognize the importance of a holistic approach to the
curriculum. This kind of approach emphasizes the balance between mental, emotional,
physical, and spiritual dimensions. Countries also mentioned the need to include childcentered and activity-based learning and teaching approaches that foster creative
thinking and problem-solving, and encourage self-directed learning.

Curriculum policy development, and/or approval, is retained centrally in most
countries. However, there exists a trend to consult a wide range of stakeholders in
policy development, and to devolve decision making on implementation issues to the
local level.
Curriculum Design
Every country has to make decisions regarding the overall approach to curriculum
design as well as to the subject area that will be included in the school curriculum. The
following general trends were reported by many countries.
A trend was identified to move from content-based to varying combinations of
competency and content-based curriculum frameworks that ensure the acquisition of
both knowledge and skills.
The curriculum frameworks are being modified to include a range of new subject
areas. These may be either integrated into existing subjects such as additional foreign
languages. A significant degree of continuity of subjects offered was observed between
primary and lower secondary levels in countries.
The curriculum overload was perceived to result from a variety of reasons, including
too much content, too many subject areas, and the inappropriate early introduction of
some content. There was also reported pressure from the community, lobbyists, and
politicians to include subjects to meet immediate and emerging needs.
Curriculum Implementation
Effective strategies for the implementation of curriculum policies are required to
ensure that teachers are able to develop and teach according to the planned curriculum.
The following general trends were reported by many countries:

The provision of professional development to help teachers understand content
and pedagogical changes is usually supported by central and state governments.
Increasingly, however, teachers are expected to undertake professional development as
an integral part of their professional role.

The supply of textbooks at primary and lower secondary levels is generally
government or state funded while supplementary material is often developed and
distributed by both government and private sources. The use of information technology
to disseminate curriculum information is increasing and the utilization of a wide variety
of media is apparent.
There is evidence of increasing flexibility in curriculum requirements to enable
schools to make more decisions on the best way to implement curriculum policies and
to take account of local circumstances and needs.
The lack of quality curriculum resources, inadequate infrastructure and facilities,

underqualified teachers, and the rate and extent of curriculum changes remain key
implementation issues for many countries.

In many countries, the priority is to enhance the capacity of teachers and schools
to undertake on-going school-based assessment. There appear to be three main purposes
for this focus: to enable schools to review more effectively learning and teaching
programs; to monitor student progress; and to provide internal components for public
examination.
Curriculum Monitoring and Evaluation
There are a number of ways in which the national curriculum frameworks can be
monitored and evaluated. The following general trends were reported by many
countries:
The range of strategies to monitor and evaluate the curriculum include
participating in international surveys such as the Third International Mathematics and
Science Survey; using examination results; conducting inspection and supervision; and
using feedback from surveys, reviews, and studies. Only a small number of countries
reported the use of systematic research to monitor the curriculum.

They agree on the importance of continuous efforts to revise their curriculums to
meet the challenges of the new age, and on the usefulness of international projects such
as this study as a forum for sharing ideas.
Reprinted from An International Comparative Study of School Curriculum (Tokyo:
National Institute for Educational Research, 1999)
QUESTION # 2Updated on September 2, 2015

Source
Filipinos are known to be competitive in the international community. However, our current
education system hinders us from becoming even more competitive.
Starting in the 2012-2013 school year, the education system of the Philippines was enhanced
from the ten years of basic education to a 12-year program through an initiative called the K-12
Education Plan sponsored by the Department of Education.
The implementation of the K-12 plan in the Philippine Basic Education Curriculum is the key to
our nations development. Though the government faces many problems as it implements the
program over the course of several years, it is a necessary improvement since increasing the
quality of our education is critical to our nation's success.
See below some ways that the K-12 education plan will be beneficial for the Philippines
according to Isagani Cruz (2010) in one of his columns in a local newspaper.
. Sufficient Instructional Time
With K-12 education, students will have sufficient instructional time for subject-related tasks,
making them more prepared in every subject area. With the old system, Filipino students were
consistently behind on achievement scores.
In 2008, for instance, international test results revealed that Filipinos were behind compared to
other countries when we finished dead last in math.
2. More Skilled and Competent Labor Force
Another reason to support K-12 education is because the graduates of this program will be more
prepared to enter the labor force. High school graduates of the 10-year curriculum were not yet
employable since they were not competent or wellequipped enough for the workplace.
In addition, high school graduates of the 10-year curriculum are not yet 18. With the new
curriculum, senior high school students can specialize in a field that they are good at and
interested in. As a result, upon graduation they will have the specific job-related skills they need
even without a college degree. When they graduate from high school, these young people will be
18 and employable, adding to the nations manpower.
3. Recognition as Professionals Abroad
Finally, with K-12 education, Filipino graduates will be automatically recognized as
professionals abroad because we are following the international education standard as practiced
by all nations.
There will be no need to study again and spend more money in order to qualify for international
standards. With a K-12 education, Filipino professionals who aspire to work abroad will not have
a hard time getting jobs in their chosen field. Furthermore, they will be able to help their families
in the Philippines more with remittances, property purchase, and small businesses.
K-12 Education Will Help Filipinos Gain a Competitive Edge

Though Filipinos are known to be competitive in the international community, our current
education system hinders us in becoming more competitive among other countries. The K-12
education plan offers a solution to that problem.
However, it is undeniable that there will be problems that arise as we implement the program,
which could include a lack of budget, classrooms, school supplies, and teachers. That said, the
long-term effects of K-12 education will be very beneficial to us Filipinos.
Therefore, we must support the K-12 educational plan to help improve our educational system
and our economy. Remember that change in our society starts with education.
QUESTION 3
Thank you, Dr. Huxley, for inviting me to deliver this lecture.

The Philippines desires to follow in the footsteps of Singapore, an exemplary nation that
embodies the dividends that good governance can bring. Hence, since Philippine President
Benigno Aquino III took office in 2010, he has taken on an agenda of good governance which
has been the key to the countrys recent economic resurgence.
Good Governance in the Philippines
In 1965, when Singapore had just started out as an independent country upon its separation from
Malaysia, the Philippines was already quite advanced. Data show that the total exports of the
Philippines at that time were more than the total exports of Korea and Taiwan combined.
However, after around thirty years of mismanagement, we have lost our way from being the
second largest economy in Asia (next to Japan) to being one of the underdeveloped nations in the
regional bloc.
In 2010, we have finally seen a change in the Philippine destiny Benigno Aquino III, with his
staunch pursuit of good governance, was elected President. Ten years before his administration,
the Philippines grew at an average of only 4.5% despite rosy prospects in the global market.
However, just three years into his term, President Aquino has already taken the average growth
rate to 6.3% even despite global upheavals. In 2013, we grew at 7.2%, the countrys second
highest annual growth rate under the current administration. This puts us just behind China, the
fastest growing economy in Asia.
Although the Philippines has had sixty straight quarters of growth since the end of the 1997
Asian financial crisis, those levels of growth were still insufficient. They still were not enough
for a country with a population growth rate of over 2% a year. That is why we needed to move
growth up a notch, which is what the current administration has been aiming to do.
Many do not see the potential that good governance can bring to a developing nation, perhaps
because its benefits can only be seen at the margins.
For example, in the case of the Philippines, better governance has allowed us to gain more
confidence from the financial markets. Increased confidence has resulted in lower borrowing
costs not only for the government but also for the private sector, such as households and
businesses. Because of this, we have reduced interest payments from over 30% of our budget,
right after the 1997 Asian financial crisis, to now just 16.6%. Higher interest savings have
enabled us to redeploy a significant portion of our budget to more productive areas. The
President has dedicated that to investment in our people through increases in spending of
education, healthcare, and safety nets for the poorest of the poor.
The Philippines is the youngest country in Asia with an average age of twenty-three. However,
for us to realize the demographic dividend, we need to ensure that our people are educated and
trained to be productive economic participants of the Philippines and ASEAN. That is the reason
why one focus of this administration is investing in people (the other focus being investing in
infrastructure).
Another gain of better governance is that our own people have become more confident in the
future and in the Philippines. We have seen improved compliance with tax laws, leading to an
improvement in our tax effort (tax revenues as a percentage of GDP) by one percentage point.
This may seem like a small percentage but imagine the significant amount of funds that we can
now allocate to more productive investment expenditures. Imagine the bigger space we have
created to enter a virtuous cycle of fiscal management. For the first three quarters of 2013, our
tax effort has stood at 13.7%. However, we are hopeful that we can achieve 16% at the end of the
Presidents term in 2016.
Confidence in the future and in the Philippines encourages people to start investing long-term.
Whereas borrowing rates used to be at double-digits, they are now at much lower rates and at
fixed rates for longer terms. People are now able to buy houses for their families since investing
has become more affordable. This clearly shows that benefits of good governance trickle down to
even individual households.
Better governance also benefits our businesses. In the past, they were content with two-, three-,
or five-year plans. With a change in outlook, dynamics, risk profile, and perspective, they are
now committing to longer-term projects which are now more attractive from their standpoint. For
example, companies that were never involved in public-private partnerships are now investing in
such partnerships developing infrastructure. More and more companies are now entering the
hospitality industry and are making major strides in that area.
These examples explain President Aquinos principle of good governance is good economics.
Even despite the difficult global economic environment, we have continued to reap benefits of
growth because of our main drivers, namely consumption, as spurred by our people, and
infrastructure, spurred by investment.
Both these drivers are sustainable since, unlike resource-dependent emerging market countries,
the Philippines holds a strong current account position. In fact, our reserves continue to grow
from historic high to historic high. Another assurance of sustainability is our well-managed fiscal
situation. Our deficit is less than 2% of GDP and our debt-to-GDP ratio is down to lower levels.
This is reflected in the market premiums of Philippine credit default swaps (CDS), which is
another measure of investor preference. We are tracking that of Malaysia, an A-rated credit
country.
However, there is a sentiment against emerging markets wherein individual countries are lumped
together as if there is only one kind of emerging market country. As a result, the Philippine peso
has been depreciating. I believe there is no fundamental reason as to why this depreciation
should occur. I would even say the peso is undervalued given the Philippines impressive growth
and macroeconomic environment. Inflation may have experienced an uptick, because of more
expensive imports due to the depreciation of our currency, but it is still within the policy range of
the government.
The Philippine president only has one six-year term. When President Aquino leaves his post in
2016, we want to ensure that the achievements we have made in the past three years will be
sustained by the succeeding administration. Hence, our challenge now is to institutionalize
changes.
One way is through legislation we are changing laws, making it more difficult to regress to old
habits.
Let me give a few examples on this. We have been protecting domestic airlines in our country
and yet we have been yearning to promote tourism; clearly, these are conflicting objectives.
Hence, early on in his term, President Aquino opened up the skies outside of Metro Manila
where the true beauty of the Philippines can be found. In fact, we now have Middle Eastern
airlines operating daily flights to Clark International Airport, just north of Manila. Another
example of legislative reform in the administration is the passing of the Reproductive Health Bill
in 2012. After sixteen years of deadlock between the government and other groups, we have
finally made significant progress through this passing of the bill.
Our strong current account position and fiscal situation can support our consumption and
infrastructure investment, which are our primary drivers of growth. Since the Philippines has
lessened its dependence on exports and things beyond our control, we are confident that we can
sustain our record-high growth rates for more years.
The Upsides of the Philippines
When I look at the Philippines, I see a country with more upsides than downsides.
Earlier on, I mentioned resource-driven countries as a comparison. In fact, the Philippines, the
fifth most mineralized nation in the world, was once a resource-driven country. In the mid 60s,
copper was at very high levels. We were a major exporter in 1965 because of the largest copper
mines that you can find in our country. However, when you analyze our growth in 2013, you will
see that the contribution of mining activities went down by around 12%. The reason for this was
we slowed down mining by no longer approving new exploration permits. The government
wanted to make sure that mining is done on a win-win and a sustainable basis.
We also wish to create a map of the country which determines where we will allow or disallow
mining. By the end of the year, we will make a new law identifying these Go and No-Go
zones. For example, there is a group of islands in the west of the Philippines called the Palawan
islands which McKinsey called to be a potential Maldives of the East. It has around 2,000 islands
that are not only breathtaking but also rich in minerals. However, if you wish to tap the tourism
potential in that area, you cannot have mining go hand in hand with it.
In line with this, we also plan to mandate transparency in our extractive industries and improved
profit sharing. When mineral prices rise again, which I believe will happen given that minerals
are finite resources, hopefully mining activities can help contribute to an additional percentage to
the Philippines annual growth. In fact, at the time when prices were quite high, a mining project
down south of the Philippines was forecasted to have added at least one percentage to our growth
every year.
Another upside in our country is found in tourism. A country of Singapores size is getting more
than fifteen million tourists a year, and yet the Philippines hardly gets about five million. If you
look at the world map, you will notice that among all ASEAN countries, the Philippines sits at
the center of the coral triangle. Another geographical advantage that we should capitalize on is
that we are second to Indonesia in terms of length of coastline. Our coastline boasts about 36,000
kilometers of pristine beaches. In fact, ours and Indonesias (about 50,000 kilometers) are both
larger than the United States coastline.
Since President Aquino arrived, we have more than doubled tourist arrivals in our country. This
is a vast improvement but we believe we are still just scratching the surface. Let me mention one
of my pet projects aimed at encouraging tourism. It concerns the Post Office Building in Manila,
which is as beautiful if not more beautiful than the Fullerton Building. Unfortunately, it is still a
dilapidated post office. I hope one of these days we can bid this building out and develop it so we
may attract more tourists to that area.
We are confident that as we construct more airports and as our businesses build more facilities,
we will prove to the world that indeed it is more fun in the Philippines. We are very excited about
the potential of tourism in our economy.
Let me talk about agriculture. When President Aquino took office, we were the worlds number
one rice importer, and yet there really is no reason why we should take this number one spot. We
may be an archipelago but we do have very fertile land, with four million hectares devoted to
rice production. The problem lies in the average yield it is only at around four tons per hectare,
which is less than what we need. Through better irrigation, better use of technology, and a better
location (i.e. moving away from disaster prone areas), we have been able to reduce the land area
necessary to plant rice.
As we continue to make improvements in irrigation and infrastructure of agriculture, we believe
that this sector can help accelerate development in the country. Thirty percent of our people are
involved in agriculture, and yet it only accounts for twelve percent of GDP there is a clear
disparity. This is the reason why poverty is rampant in agricultural areas. Hence, I look at this
potential in agriculture, in improving production efficiency and in uplifting those in poverty, as
an upside.
The southernmost part of our country, called Mindanao, is close to Brunei, Malaysia, and
Indonesia. It is the second largest island of the Philippines, and an area that is not as often hit by
typhoons. Mindanao offers so much potential for our country but unfortunately is hampered by a
secessionist movement. That is why we are thankful that our President, through his exercise of
political will, is about to conclude the peace agreement in Mindanao. In fact, we have signed and
moved on to the next phase translating to law. Once we do so, we will be able to unleash the
potential of the region, which happens to be a fertile, developed, and beautiful land that is
contiguous to other ASEAN nations.
We are hopeful that once we turn these upsides into reality, we will be able to sustain growth
rates of 7-8%. If we are to deal with poverty, we have to grow at those levels.
ASEAN Integration
One other upside for the Philippines is our proposed integration with ASEAN in 2015. I am very
excited about what ASEAN can become if we all work together to make this economic
community into a reality.
If looked at as a single country, ASEAN will be among the top ten economies in terms of
population, and probably among the youngest with an average age of twenty-seven years old. It
is important to note that economies are about people. They are the ones who consume, travel,
invest in houses, and have aspirations for their children. They are the engines for growth and
that excites me. We are not only young; we are also increasing in prosperity. Disposable incomes
across the region are actually increasing.
The ASEAN is in the right place of the world for the next thirty to fifty years. An Ernst & Young
study estimates that two-thirds of the worlds middle class will be from our region in Asia by
2030. Again, the young and the middle class are the drivers of growth. However, we cannot
capitalize on these opportunities if we do not do the right things. In the case of the Philippines,
we need to invest in educating our young people.
We also need to open up and make doing business in the Philippines easier. Education without
opportunities will result in the same challenges that the Philippines faces today where many of
our people leave the country to work elsewhere.
We can ease doing business in ASEAN countries by simplifying rules, investing in infrastructure,
and increasing connectivity. However, these are key challenges for ASEAN because of the vast
infrastructure and development gap between its member nations. We have both the richest and
the poorest nations in the world. We are also not contiguous, giving us challenges in terms of
geography.
Obviously, connectivity is not just about physical connectivity. It is also about harmonizing
standards and the regulatory environment. We may have not completely succeeded in this aspect
but we have made progress.
The Philippines has been in the electronics industry for the longest time although we have stayed
in the lower end of the semiconductors industry. We have been told that this is not sustainable
since the cluster is not complete. Fortunately for us, electronics was one of several industries that
ASEAN integrated early. Now, our electronics industry is not just the Philippine electronics
industry it is now part of the wider ASEAN electronics industry. We are moving semiconductors from Manila to Penang or Singapore, as easy as moving goods within the US. We use
a super green lane and electronic lodging, have harmonized forms, and have no duties.
When you look at where ASEAN is now in terms of intra-ASEAN trade, we are only at about
25% of total trade. Keep in mind that we are now about to enter integration. In the case of the
European Union, in 1992, they were already at over 60% intra-EU trade. By comparing the
ASEAN situation with the European Union situation, you will see that there is still room for
improvement. We need to trade more within ASEAN.
I believe that encouraging trade involves not just participation of national governments, but more
importantly, of businesses as well. Businesses will boom if ASEAN integrates successfully but
this is not possible without their participation. A regal example is Nestl. When ASEAN was
conceptualizing a single market, Nestl proposed a series of projects across ASEAN that will not
be subject to tariff. The great thing about this idea was that there were no losers. Nestl was
specializing in each area of the ASEAN regional bloc. Companies should consider looking into
that model, rather than the model of having a supersized facility in one area making everyone
else a consumer.
That is the challenge for the private sector to become a catalyst for integration itself. It will be
a more daunting challenge for smaller sections of the private sector but this is where the
government can step in to facilitate the sharing of information.
Outside of the market for goods, ASEAN also has an opportunity for labor. In an integrated
ASEAN, the Philippines will be the second largest in population and, I would think, the most
mobile population. Therefore, opening up labor markets is going to be crucial if we are to realize
the potential of economic integration. In the case of Singapore, Malaysia, and even Thailand,
they are practically at full employment needing extra labor capacity to grow. For example,
Thailand is going to Indochina to find labor resources. In an integrated ASEAN, mobility of
labor will be important.
It will be a challenge to trade without integration of financial markets, which is something we
need to work on. For example, and maybe I am wrong, I am not aware of any ASEAN bank that
has branches in all ten ASEAN countries. If we are to integrate, our banks must be at the
forefront of opening up the markets since they are the ones who facilitate the flow of
information. We should also have harmonization of regulatory standards, such as disclosure
requirements, and of credit rating agencies. We have a credit rating agency in the Philippines and
its counterparts in other ASEAN markets, but can you compare them as apples to apples?
Integration of financial markets will be an essential step in supporting economic integration. In
fact, the whole ASEAN region is a reserve surplus area. We actually create reserves and yet we
send these abroad, outside ASEAN. Then, we have investment managers across the world who
determine whether or not we deserve to receive our own money as investment. Somehow, the
credit rating system depressed the rating of our region, increasing the risk premium our own
money faces in coming back to our region. That is why I think it is important to recycle our own
reserves as close to home as possible. However, that will not happen without integrating first
these capital markets. Otherwise, no capital market would be deep enough and none will have
the liquidity. One of our goals then must be to brand ASEAN as a distinct class of investment
opportunities.
Based on a study by the Asian Development Bank, infrastructure investments will need an
estimated sixty billion dollars a year at least for the next ten years. When you look at the reserves
of the region, we have that money, probably close to a trillion dollars in reserves, but none of
which is easily accessible to fund infrastructure investments. That is the goal behind the ASEAN
Infrastructure Fund administered by the ADB. It is still very small, with about half a billion
dollars, but it is a start. We need a bold move among ASEAN countries agreeing to allocate, for
example, 5% of reserves and working with the ADB or another entity to pool this into a bigger
infrastructure fund. Infrastructure development will allow us to compete in a global environment
as we increase the efficiency and effectiveness of our supply chains, at least infrastructure and
process-wise.
Although businessmen and women move easily across Manila, Kuala Lumpur, or Singapore, the
rest of our population still see ASEAN as foreign. One way to address this is by integrating our
educational systems and by having similar standards. Second, we can encourage schools to have
cross-ASEAN relationships. Third, we increase cross-enrollment, perhaps through conscious
funding for educational opportunities within ASEAN. Without knowledge or familiarity of our
own region, it will be easier for the ASEAN youth to trade with Europe or the US since they
have more information about them.
ASEAN has potential, and 2015 is already less than a year away. However, I look at 2015 not as
the time of integration but as a time of harmonization and convergence.
True integration, I believe, is still quite far. It is essential to have time first for harmonization and
convergence, so we can match expectations with reality to avoid frustrating one another. We have
to accept the reality that the ASEAN way takes more time than the European Union way simply
because the member nations of ASEAN are more disparate and different from one another in
terms of stages of development. We have to accept that although we can reap countless benefits
from integration in the future, we have to strive much harder to achieve them. We have to ensure
first that our institutions, our standards, and our people grow to be harmonized.
For instance, we still do not have a common customs border, which will be a hurdle especially
when the Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP) becomes a reality. TPP, from where I stand, is a
challenge to ASEAN centrality, and therefore a challenge to ASEAN itself. In TPP, there are four
members who can benefit from a very large market and there is the large market that can get a
backdoor through these four members. This is why I have been espousing the idea to the other
non-ASEAN members of TPP that ASEAN should be invited as a TPP member, rather than
individual countries. This is the case in the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership
(RCEP) where the whole ASEAN region is the leader with six non-ASEAN countries as its
partners. These partnerships outside our region are beneficial if we engage others properly.
Therefore, the more conscious we are of one anothers challenges, the more likely we will
succeed at integration, and the more likely we will reap the rewards of an integrated market.
Dr. Huxley, I hope I was able to fruitfully share with you some of my thoughts on the Philippines
and the ASEAN. For those who have not been to Manila, I hope you visit soon. It is the best time
to visit since the typhoons are a few months away. The Philippines continues to grow but without
the typhoons, we could have been growing faster. But unfortunately for us, this is the reality we
face.
This is my last point; all of us must start talking about how we can more effectively share the risk
and the consequences of climate change. What happened to the Philippines last year with
Typhoon Yolanda (Haiyan) is an ominous warning that climate change is real. Of the five
deadliest typhoons in the Philippines, three happened in the past three years. I believe we should
all work together to make sure there is risk sharing, not just through aid or assistance but through
additional mechanisms. More than risk sharing, there must be a collective effort to face climate
change whether the ASEAN has integrated or not. Since ultimately, all of us are vulnerable to
these consequences.
With one eye to the future and another eye to the benefits of the present, we should work
together to strive for a united community. By working together, we can make the benefits of
integration a more attainable reality.

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NATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

socioeconomic and cultural backgrounds.

Exchange experiences with one another for mutual benefit.

socioeconomic conditions, educational systems, and other related matters of the

Social/economic/political/cultural contexts of curriculum policies

preserve cultural heritage, e.g., in Australia, Germany.

Lao PDR, Malaysia.

Australia, New Zealand, the United States, Uzbekistan.

disabilities), e.g., in Sri Lanka, the United States, India.

understanding and development of a oneworld view, promotion of civic and moral

developed compulso education

technology, curriculum ry subject has changed includes

Yr. 11 and internal and ing.

technology, plan for 9- of

great Emphasis is Three levels of

technology, framework exam

assessment test in classes 3

revised for change to

grades 1-8. include

examinable. framework ent

Conversatio undergoing moral

Curriculum in classes lower

Reduction No change. Final

primary and schools.

Emphasis Developmen Continuous Attempts

more t of parallel and

curriculum curriculum electives structure for comprehens standards tests

secondary secondary courses, and evaluation

technology Secondary new

learn- ing at level.

of Increased Comprehens National

course assessments school

"The world teacher

for use by created.

Move from More

curriculum ry subject into

selfmanagin inclusion of National exams

Establishme assessment 11 and 13.

Philippi Introduction Identified

level (from giving

elementary and school

253 national Continuous No change.

compulso design their assessment through school

and hygiene learning

primary and control. School

outcomes. constraint standards

benchmark in bipolar readiness of year.

s of every developm school.

change Move from No

grades 1-3. curriculum in

compulso introduced. comprehens

natural and primary

initiating Agencies consulted

State Education Ministry

universities, teachers, students parents, other

Development Local government, teachers unions, research

Unit, Ministry of Education institutions,

nongovernmental agencies, teachers

Education; National educational organizations, teachers

Institute for School Education (can propose

and teachers, individual teachers (no involvement

Training, State Councils for of parents and students)

Training and State Boards of