Lone

Peak Physics

By April Atkin, Matthew R. Bell, Erin Chorak, Tom Erekson, Heather Riet, and Brad Talbert,
using parts from the Modeling Curriculum from ASU.

Unit 1Scientific Reasoning and Graphing

Scientific Reasoning
Scientific reasoning is developed through experiments and processing data. In order to
conduct an experiment, we must have at least one independent variable and one dependent
variable. The independent variable is the one that you can control. Independent starts with
I so I can change it. The dependent variable depends on how the independent variable
changes. When gathering data, we must collect at least 6 data points. When graphing data,
we graph the independent variable on the xaxis, and the dependent variable on the yaxis,
unless otherwise specified by your teacher. The graphic below is a visual way to remember
which variable is graphed on which axis.

Graphing
Graphs are a vital part of scientific communication. They show data, as well as trends and
general patterns. They are used in all branches of science, and you will see them in
scientific papers, news articles, ACT questions, business publications, finances, and in the
medical field. It is important to understand how graphs work, and how to read them.
Graphs contain the following:

Title:
Every graph needs an informative title pointing to what kind of information is shown.
Most often the title will be (Whats on the YAxis) vs. (Whats on the XAxis). In the
graph shown, the title is Force vs. Mass.
Axes Labels with Units:
The x and y axes need to have labels as well as separate unit labels given in
parentheses. In the graph shown, the yaxis is labeled as Force with units of Newtons
(N), in parentheses. The xaxis is labeled Mass with units of kilograms (kg), in
parentheses.

Scale:
Each axis must be properly scaled, typically from zero out to include the largest data
point for that axis. The distance between each tick mark on an axis should represent
the same interval. For example, the largest y data point (or largest force) is 5 N, so the
yaxis is scaled from 0 to 5. In this case, each tick mark represents 1 N. The largest x
data point (or largest mass) is 0.5 kg, so the xaxis is scaled from 0 to 0.5. In this case,
each tick mark represents 0.1 kg.
Data Points:
Your graph should include at least six data points, represented by dots. For our graph,
the data points are red dots.
Best Fit Line:
A best fit line is a line that best represents the data. The best fit line shows us where we
would predict new data to fall.

Graph Types
Graphs come in several different shapes or types. By identifying the type of graph by its
shape, we can tell the relationship between the x and y variables.

Writing the Equation for a Line

The equation that represents a linear line is y=mx+b. The y represents the variable on the
y axis. Be sure to use the variable instead of the unit. In the graph above, the y axis is
labeled Weight (lbs). The variable is weight and the unit is lbs. or pounds. In the
equation, W can stand in for y. Variables in the equation do not need unit labels.

The x in the equation y=mx+b represents the variable on x axis, in this case Age. A may be
used for x. M for months should not be used as a variable in your equation. Your equation
to represent a best fit line should not include the variables x and y unless that is the
official label on the axis.

The b in the equation y=mx+b represents the yintercept. This is the point where the best
fit line crosses the yaxis. It is a number and therefore must include a unit. The number is
approximated by looking at the graph, and the unit can be found on the yaxis. For this
graph of Weight vs. Age, the yintercept is about 5lbs, meaning that when the xaxis, or age,
reads 0 months, the yaxis, or weight, is 5 lbs. This is the physical meaning of the y
intercept. Just putting 5 alone is not enough. Any number must be labeled with a unit.

The position of the yintercept can tell you a lot about the best fit line. Checking to see if
the yintercept makes logical sense can help you determine which shape line makes the
best fit line. For example, you could think that the graph should be a parabola with a y
intercept of 0. In this case, that would be read as at 0 months, the baby weights 0 pounds.
This yintercept doesnt make sense so the best fit line probably isnt a parabola. A straight
line best fit would make more sense with a yintercept of 5lbs, or at 0 months the baby
would weigh 5lbs.

The m in the equation y=mx+b represents the slope of the best fit line. The slope should be
placed in parentheses with units. To calculate the slope, pick 2 data points that are on the
best fit line and use them to calculate the rise and the run. The rise is the change in y
between the 2 points and the run is the change in x between the 2 points. For example, on
the graph, lets say we pick the points (3,20) and (5,30). The rise is the difference on the y
axis, so it is 30lbs 20lbs which equals 10lbs. The run is the difference between the 2
points on the x axis (you run horizontally) which is 5m3m or 2 months. The slope is rise
divided by run, or rise over run, making it 10lbs/2months or 5lbs/month. In the equation,
it should be represented by (5lbs/m) using the unit labels as given in the graph. The
physical meaning of the slope is that for every one month of age, the weight increases by 5
lbs, or 5 pounds per month.

The specific numbers and variables should then be substituted into the equation y=mx+b to
create an equation specific to this graph: W=(5lbs/m)A+5lbs. Notice the slope in entirely
enclosed with parenthesis so that it is distinguishable from the variable representing X.
Also notice that only the slope and the yintercept have unit labels.

The 5% rule
The 5% rule is a way of determining if the yintercept is significant to the equation or
negligible due to calculation errors. Negligible means it is insignificant or you can neglect it
because it is of a small enough value. In order to determine how small is small enough to
call it zero, we use the 5% rule. There are 2 basic methods to applying the 5% rule, either
one works and may be used for your lab reports.
5% Rule Method #1: 5% as cutoff point

In this first method, you want to find the ymax value. This is the maximum value in the y
direction from your data. For the Weight and Age graph, the graph maximum is 50 but the
data only goes to 40. We will use the 40 as our ymax value.
Take the ymax value and multiply it by .05 which is 5% of that value. If we take 40 pounds
and multiply it by .05, we get 2 lbs. 2lbs is the cutoff point. This point determines w hat is
big and what is small. Anything above 2lbs is considered big or significant and anything
below 2lbs is considered small or insignificant or negligible. Exactly 2lbs can be
considered negligible.
In the graph shown above, we determined the actual yintercept to be 5lbs. 5lbs is
considered big according to the 5% rule. This means that the yintercept of 5lbs is
important and has meaning. It cannot be neglected in your conclusions final equation. The
final equation for this graph is still W=(5lbs/m)A+5lbs.
5% Rule Method #2: Calculate percent of yintercept
Method #2 finds the percentage of the yintercept with respect to the ymax value. Take
your yintercept value and divide by ymax value. To get the percentage, you have to
multiply by 100. In our example here, the yintercept value is 5lbs. and the ymax value is
40lbs. 5lbs/40lbs = .125. multiply by 100 and you get 12.5%. 12.5% is clearly larger than
the 5% error allowed and therefore, our yintercept is significant. If the percentage was
smaller than 5%, it would be considered negligible.

Linearization
Linearization is a method of writing equations for graph shapes that arent linear. See
Appendix A for instructions on using linearization with Logger Pro.


Steps for Linearization:

1. Graph your data, and identify the graph type and proportion. In Fig. 1, the graph is a
topopening parabola, so that y is proportional to x2, or, more accurately, distance is
proportional to time2.
2. To linearize, we need to graph the proportion by graphing y vs. x2 Create a new
column of data for whichever part of your proportion you dont already have. In our
case, we need to create a data column for x2 or time2. To do so, we will square every
value from our original time data column in a new third column. See Fig. 2.
3. Graph the data from your proportion. The data should be graphed in the same
position or on the same axis as it was in the original graph. For example, distance is
still graphed on the yaxis like the last graph, and time2 is now graphed where time
was on the xaxis. See Fig. 3.
4. The new graph (Fig. 3) of distance vs. time2 should be linear. Because it is now
linear, you can use y=mx+b to write the equation. However, instead of x, we have
graphed x2, so the new basic form becomes y=mx2+b. Using this form, the equation
for our original graph becomes d=(3 m/s2)t2.

Math Skills
Isolating Variables: necessary math skills
With the wide variety of equations and variables used in physics, it is vital that you know
how to isolate variables and rearrange equations to get the desired results. The rules of
numbers and math relationships must be followed as you rearrange equations. The
following properties may be helpful as you work with equations in physics.
Distributive Property: distribute or factor numbers 4x8 = 4(x2)
Associative Property: rearrange groupings

Addition Example (a+b) + c = a + (b+c)

Multiplication Example 2(3x) = (2*3)x = 6x

Commutative Property: rearrange order, move around

Addition Example: AB+C = C +AB

Multiplication Example: 5*A/B = A*5/B = (1/B)*A*5 = A/B*5 where B is always in
the denominator while A and 5 are always in the numerator.

In order to solve for the single variable you want in the equation, remember you must do
the same thing to both sides. Here are some helpful steps.
1. Isolate the term with desired variable (add/subtract)
2. Put it in the numerator (multiply/divide)
3. Undo what has been done to it to get it completely alone (+ x / 3 etc.)
Examples:
A/(2B2) =CDE

solve for D

A/(2B2) +E = CD

added E to both sides to get the CD alone

(A/(2B2)+E)/C = D Divide both sides by C to get D completely alone

D = (A/(2B2)+E)/C = A/(2B2C)+E/C by the distributive property with both answers being
correct and useful with numbers.

There can be many ways to isolate a variable. It doesnt matter which way you do it, as
long as you follow the rules of math to get the correct answer.

A/(2B2) =CDE

Solve for B

1/(2B2) =(CDE)/A

Divide by A

1/B2 =2(CDE)/A

Multiply by 2

B2/1 =A/(2(CDE))

Invert both sides to get B in the numerator

B2 = (A/(2(CDE)))

Square root both sides to get B alone

B = (A/(2(CDE))) OR B= (A/(2CD2E))

OR

A/(2B2) =CDE

Solve for B

1/(2B2) =(CDE)/A

Divide by A

1/B2 =2(CDE)/A

Multiply by 2

1 = 2(CDE)
B2 A

Set it up like this to Cross Multiply (Fishy )

A = B2*2(CDE)

Cross Multiplied

A/(2(CDE)) = B2

Divide by the 2(CDE) part to get B2 alone

(A/2(CDE)) = B2

Square root to get B completely alone

B = (A/(2(CDE))) OR B= (A/(2CD2E))

This is the same answer as above.

If we have numbers, we can now plug them in to solve for B. A = 18, C = 3, D=2, E=4.
Practice by correctly plugging them in your calculator. B should equal 3.

Significant Figures
Not all numbers are created equally. Some zeros are considered significant and others
insignificant. All nonzero digits are considered significant (19). Significant zeros are
measured zeros, while insignificant zeros are simply placeholders to tell if the number is
big or small. For example, for 1 million, I can either measure 1 more than 999,999 and that
is exactly 1,000,000. or I can measure about 1 and it is a big 1 like as in 1 million. There are
4 rules to help you determine if zeros are significant. To designate that a digit is significant,
we will underline it.

1. Sandwich Rule If a zero is in between any 2 nonzero numbers

Ex: 101, 100001 10.01 (decimal points do not impact it)
2. Before/Leading Zeros Any zero before a nonzero digit is insignificant
Ex: 012 0.023
3. Trailing/After With A zero after a nonzero digit is significant if a decimal point is
present
Ex: 12.0 0.00340 300.
4. After without A zero after a nonzero digit is not significant if a decimal point is
not explicitly expressed
Ex: 300

*Remember all NonZero digits are significant
Practice problems:
204.0
0.320
990
1030.00
70.083
2300.

Measuring Rule
Usingthecorrectnumberofsignificantfiguresisimportantinmeasuringproperly.Themeasuringdeviceyou
areusingsignificantlyaffectshoweffectivelyyoucanmeasuresomething.Themeasuringrulesaysto
estimatetothetenthbetweenthemarkingsonyourmeasuringdevice.
Intheexamplebelow,wehaveameterstickwiththecentimetersandmillimetersclearlymarked.To
estimatethelocationofpointB,welookatwhatweknowandthenestimateonemoredigit.Becauseitisa
meterstick,pointBisclearlybetween0.013mand0.014m.Wecanmeasuremoreappropriatelyby
estimatingtothe1/10thofamillimeter(thesmallestmarkingonthemeterstick)andsaythatBisatlocation
0.0133mor0.0134m.Eitheransweriscorrectbecausethelastdigitisanestimate.ForpointA,thecorrect
measurementwouldbe0.0050mor0.0051m,not0.005m.

Scientific Notation
Numbers can be expressed in scientific notation which always has a single nonzero digit, sometimes
followed by a decimal, multiplied by 10 to an exponent. Ex: 3.0 x 104 , 6.1202 x 106. A positive exponent
denotes a larger number where the decimal point is moved to the right and a negative exponent denotes
a smaller number where the decimal point is moved to the left.

3.0 x 104 is the same thing as 30000

6.1202 x 106 is the same things as 0.0000061202
1030.00 can be written as 1.03000 x 103

Scientific notation shows the importance of significant figures. The x10 to the exponent part has is not
counted in the significant figures because it merely tells how big or small the number preceding it is. The
amount of zeros themselves or moving the decimal point doesnt impact the precision of measuring the 3,
just the size of the 3 (as in a small three, 0.00003 or a large three, 300).
Scientific notation can also help distinguish how many significant figures are present when other
methods cannot do so accurately. For example, 2000 can be written as 2 x 103 if it has 1 significant figure,
2.0 x 103 if it has 2 significant figures, 2.00 x 103 if it has 3 significant figures, etc.

Units
In physics, we use what is called the S.I. Unit system, which is the most common international system. For
every variable, there is a base unit, as well as a standard set of prefixes that tell you what scale you are
using. The common prefixes we will use in this class are nano, milli, centi, and kilo.

Prefix
nano

Definition
1/1,000,000,000 * base unit

milli

1/1000 * base unit

centi

1/100 * base unit

kilo

1000 * base unit

Example
1 nanometer=1/
1,000,000,000 meter, OR
1,000,000,000 nanometers =
1 meter.
1 millimeter= 1/1000 meter,
OR 1000 millimeters = 1
meter.
1 centimeter = 1/100 meter,
OR 100 centimeters = 1
meter.
1 kilometer= 1000 meters
OR 1/1000 kilometer = 1
meter

There are many other prefixeshowever, we will mostly be using these. The following is a list of
variables we will use during the first two units, as well as the standard unit we will use for those
variables.
Variable
Distance
Mass
Time

Standard Unit (abbreviation)

Meter (m)
Kilogram (kg)*
Second (s)

*The base unit for mass is gram, but in physics the standard unit is kilogram.

Unit 1: Scientific Reasoning and Graphing Summary

Identify the independent and dependent variables in a given experiment.
Identify the relationship being studied in a given experiment.
Identify factors that must be held constant in a given experiment.
Create a graph from a table of data.
Draw a best fit line or curve on a graph of data.
Find the equation of a linear graph. (using correct variables & units where needed)
Explain the physical meaning of the slope and intercept of graphed data.
Recognize the shapes of three nonlinear graphs (topopening parabola, sideopening parabola,
inverse).
Linearize a nonlinear graph if it is one of those 3 shapes.
Identify the number of significant digits in a given measurement.
Read a measurement instrument to the proper number of significant digits.
Round an answer to the proper number of significant digits after performing the following
mathematical calculations on measured data: Addition/Subtraction, Multiplication/Division, or
Averaging Data.

Chapter 2: Constant Velocity

Motion is an important part of how the universe works. Motion affects us daily. Car manufacturers try to
create cars that can move reliably and comfortably. Animals in the wild survive by being able to move
faster than their predator. Communications systems, like TVs and phones, depend on satellites moving
perfectly in their orbits. Although the motion of a single object can be complex, (think of the flight
pattern of a bee, for example) this chapter will focus on simplified motion: constant velocity.

Position, Distance, and Displacement

Position is a description of where you are. We typically represent position with the letter x. An easy way
to remember that is to think of a map; x marks the spot. It marks a location, not a direction or how far
you have Traveled. It is often measured as a distance from a chosen zero point known as the origin.

For example, latitude is a measurement of how north or south you are from the equator. The equator in
this case is the origin or zero degrees latitude. Our position in Utah Valley is approximately 40 degrees
north of the equator. That is our position as measured from the origin.

Distance is is a measurement of how far you have physically Traveled. Examples of distance are the miles
recorded on your car, the number of steps you take as measured by a pedometer, how many meters you
swim at a swim meet, or how far the earth travels around the sun in a year.

Displacement is a measure of how far you are from where you started. Unlike distance, it isnt a measure
of total length traveled, but rather is a measure of how far you currently are from the starting point.
Displacement also includes the direction of travel. We use positives and negatives to express direction.
Positive is typically used to mean forward and negative is typically used to express backward.

Comparing distance and displacement: If you travel 3 steps forward and 2 steps back, your distance
Traveled is 5 steps because that is the total number of steps taken. However your displacement is 1 step
forward, because that is how far away you ended from where you began.

Lets look at a scenario: Your mom hands you a todo list before you are allowed to go to your friends
house. She asks you to pick up the laundry from the dry cleaner, purchase a bottle of mustard for the
BBQ later that night, then drop off your little brother at soccer practice before going to your friends
house to play. (see the map on the right) When looking at the map, we can see that the total distance you
would have to travel is 6.2 miles. However, your displacement would only be 2 miles south since your
ending position (your friends house) is only 2 miles south of your starting position (your home).

Scalars and Vectors

When talking about motion, it is important to understand the difference between scalars and vectors. A
scalar is just a number. For example, after running errands I notice that the mileage on my car changed by
4 miles. That doesnt include information about what direction I went, or if I have turned, or anything
outside of the simple fact that I moved 4 miles. Alternatively, a vector is also a number, but includes
direction. You could say that you are 2 miles north of home, which is a vector because it is a number and
includes direction.

When comparing distance and displacement, there are two major differences between them. The first
difference, as previously mentioned, is that distance is the total length an object has traveled, whereas
displacement is the measurement of how far the ending point is from the beginning point. The second
difference is that distance is a scalar and displacement is a vector.

Speed vs. Velocity

Students are already familiar with speed and velocity. Speed and velocity are similar in that they both say
how fast an object is travelling and are often used interchangeably. However, in this context, we will
distinguish the two to emphasize their different meanings for a deeper understanding of motion.

Speed is a scalar. It describes the distance that an object goes in a specific amount of time. Average speed
can be found by dividing the distance Traveled by the amount of time that it took to travel. In essence, the
speed of an object communicates to us how far it would go in a set amount of time.

Velocity describes the displacement of an object in a specific amount of time. It is very similar to speed,
but it is a vector because it depends on displacement instead of distance. It includes direction, which
means velocity could be either positive or negative.

Average Speed vs. Average Velocity

While running the 400 meter dash, a runner can complete one loop around the race track in 50 seconds.
If we wanted to find the average speed and velocity of the runner, we could use the following equations:

From the previous section, we learned to find the distance by looking at the total length that the runner
has Traveled, which would be 400 meters. To calculate the runners average speed, we divide the 400m
by 50s. 400m/50s=8m/s

Since most tracks are an oval, the finish line is in the same place as the starting line. The runner is in the
exact same position at the end of the race so his displacement is 0 meters. To find the runners average
velocity, we divide the displacement by his time, which gives us 0m/50s=0m/s.
note: It is often confusing to think about the runner sprinting for 50 seconds, yet calculate his
average velocity to be 0 m/s. To conceptually think about why he could be running, yet still have an
average velocity of 0 m/s, look at the picture on the right. As the runner is sprinting to the right, we can
consider that direction to be positive. Once he turns the corner, he is now running to the left, which is the
opposite direction as before, so it is considered negative. When calculating the average velocity, the
positive velocity to the right would cancel with the negative velocity to the left, giving us a total average
velocity of 0 m/s.

Graphs
To analyze motion, it is useful to use graphs. To begin, lets look at a position versus time graph
with position on the yaxis and time on the xaxis. As we read the graph from left to right, time is moving
forward. As we read the graph from bottom to top, the object is moving farther away from the origin in
the positive direction.
For example, in graph 1, as time proceeds (to the right) the line moves up, meaning that the object is
moving away.


In Graph 2, the object moves a little differently. The object starts at position 0 meters, and then for the
first two seconds, the object is moving away from the origin. At 2 seconds the object is 4 meters away
from the origin in the positive direction. Then from 2 seconds to 3 seconds, the object stays at a position
of 4 meters away from the origin. From 3 to 5 seconds, the object moves from 4 meters to 0 meters. It is
moving in the negative direction.

From these descriptions, you can see that we are starting to pull information about the speed and velocity
from the graphs of the position. In the first graph, we can see that the object is continually moving
forward because its position is increasing at a constant rate.

In the second graph, the position increases, stays constant, then decreases back to zero. This tells us that
the object first moves forward (positive displacement and velocity), pauses, then moves backwards
(negative displacement and velocity).

From the position graphs, we can infer the velocities of the objects. In the first graph, the object moves
2m in the first second. In the following second, it travels an additional 2m. Since the graph has a constant
slope, we can easily see that the object is constantly moving an additional 2m for each second that it
travels. From that observation, we can infer that the velocity of the object is 2m/s. Notice how the
equation is actually just calculating the slope of the line for the first 2 seconds: Slope=rise/run so Slope
=4m/2s which equals 2m/s. Therefore, we can conclude that the slope of a Position v. Time graph is
velocity!

Another important piece of information we need to look at on graphs are the yintercept. Yintercepts
are always the starting condition of the object, so for position graphs, the yintercept represents the
starting position.

Velocity/Time Graphs

Velocity/Time graphs can be read just like Position/Time graphs, except that we are looking at the
velocity of the object rather than the position. When we look at the following graph, we can see an object
moving forward at a constant velocity. We know it is a constant velocity since the slope of the line is 0,
meaning the velocity is not changing. The yintercept is 5 m/s, which represents the starting velocity.

I the next graph, we can see how the object changes to different velocities. It begins by traveling 1 m/s
forward for 3 seconds, which we know since the yintercept is 1m/s. It stops for an additional 3 seconds,
then travels backwards with a velocity of 2m/s.

One interesting feature of velocity graphs is that we can identify the displacement of the object by
calculating the area under the velocity graph. For example, in the next graph, we can see that the object
travels forward at 4 m/s for 3 seconds, then slows down for 5 seconds and travels 1 m/s. We can
calculate the displacement of the object by calculating the area under the graph. The easiest way is to
break the graph into two sections: 1) the area under the first part of the graph (the first 3 seconds) and 2)
the area under the second part of the graph (from 38 seconds). Since these are both rectangular shapes,
we calculate the area by multiplying the base by the height. The first section has an area of 4m/s X
3s=12m. The second section has an area of 1m/s X 5s=5m. So the total displacement of the object is
12m+5m=17m.

Motion Maps

Motion maps are another way to visualize motion. Imagine an airplane traveling through the nights sky.
Attached to the airplane is a light which flashes briefly each second. Since it is dark, we cannot really see
the plane flying, but we notice the blinking light traveling as time progresses. A motion map resembles
that blinking light. We draw one dot to represent the position of a moving object for each second it
travels. We draw an arrow attached to the dot to represent the direction and velocity of the object; the
longer the arrow, the faster the dot is moving.

In the image above, notice how each dot is evenly spaced and the arrows are the same length. That
means that the object is traveling at a constant velocity to the right. If a car were moving to the left at
constant velocity, the photo of the car traveling and motion map might look like this:

To read a motion map, we start on the bottom level and follow the arrows. To avoid confusion, each time
the object stops or turns around we make the next dot appear above the previous dot. (imagine how
confusing it would be to see all those dots and arrows overlapping each other.) If the object stops, we
draw a dot without an arrow. If it stops for multiple seconds, we draw multiple dots without arrows with
each dot above the previous dot.

In the above motion map, if we assume that each tick mark is one meter we see an object moving to the
right at 1.5 m/s for 6 seconds. It stops for one second, then turns around and moves to the left at 2 m/s
for an additional 4 seconds.

Unit 2: Constant Velocity Summary

Youshouldbeabletodeterminetheaveragevelocityofanobjectintwoways:

a. determining the slope of an x vs t graph.

b. using the equation v= x/t

Youshouldbeabletodeterminethedisplacement(x)ofanobjectintwoways:

a. finding the area under a v vs t graph.

b. using the equation x=vt.

Givenanxvstgraph,youshouldbeableto:

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

describe the motion of the object (starting position, direction of motion, velocity)
draw the corresponding v vs t graph
draw a motion map for the object.
determine the average velocity of the object (slope).
write the mathematical model which describes the motion.

Givenavvstgraph,youshouldbeableto:

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

describe the motion of the object (direction of motion, how fast)

draw the corresponding x vs t graph
determine the displacement of the object (area under curve).
draw a motion map for the object.
write a mathematical model to describe the motion.

Distinguishbetweendistanceanddisplacement.

Distinguishbetweenaveragespeedandaveragevelocity

Unit 3Constant Acceleration

Kinematics Graphs (Position, Velocity, & Acceleration vs. Time)

X vs. T graphs:

The slope of a position vs. time graph is the velocity.

A linear x vs. t graph indicates constant velocity. A curvy x vs. t graph indicates that the velocity is
changing (the object is accelerating).
If the graph is curvy, use a pencil as a tangent line. If the slope of the tangent line is getting more
positive, then the velocity is getting more positive. If the slope of the tangent line is getting more
negative, then the velocity is getting more negative.

V vs. T graphs:
The slope of a velocity vs. time graph is the acceleration.
The area under a velocity vs. time is the change of position (x, also known as displacement).
If the velocity is getting closer to zero, then the object is slowing down. If the velocity is getting
further away from zero, then the object is speeding up.
Velocity graphs will be linear, because we will only be studying objects with constant acceleration.

A vs. T graphs:

The area under an acceleration vs. time is the change of velocity (v).
Acceleration vs. time graphs will be horizontal for us, because we will only be studying objects
which have a constant acceleration.

Examples of Graphs
Example 1:

Notice the x vs. t graph starts with a not steep slope and it gets steeper (more and more
positive). This indicates that the object begins very slowly (at rest) and gets faster and faster as it
moves to the right (positive direction).
This means the v vs. t graph should begin at v=0, and get more and more positive.
The a vs. t graph is the slope of the v vs. t graph. Positive slope on v vs. t means a constant positive
acceleration.

Example 2:

Notice the x vs. t graph starts with a steep, positive slope and it gets less steep (more and more
negative). This indicates that the object begins very quickly and gets slower and slower as it
moves to the right (positive direction).
This means the v vs. t graph should begin at some positive value, and get closer and closer to zero.
(more negative)
The a vs. t graph is the slope of the v vs. t graph. Negative slope on v vs. t means a constant
Negative acceleration.

Example 3:

Notice the x vs. t graph starts with a not steep slope and it gets steeper (more and more
negative). This indicates that the object begins very slowly (at rest) and gets faster and faster as it
moves to the left (negative direction).
This means the v vs. t graph should begin at v=0, and get more and more negative.
The a vs. t graph is the slope of the v vs. t graph. Negative slope on v vs. t means a constant
negative acceleration.

Example 4:

Notice the x vs. t graph starts with a steep, negative slope and it gets less steep (more and more
positive). This indicates that the object begins very quickly and gets slower and slower as it moves
to the left (negative direction).
This means the v vs. t graph should begin at some negative value, and get closer and closer to zero.
(more positive)
The a vs. t graph is the slope of the v vs. t graph. Positive slope on v vs. t means a constant positive
acceleration.

Example 5: More complex examples

Notice there are two different motions occurring here.
For the first half, the object begins at rest (slope of tangent = 0 on x vs. t graph), and gets faster
(slope gets steeper).
For the second half, the object moves with a constant velocity (slope does not change on x vs. t
graph).
V vs. T and A vs. T graphs correspond to both halves of the motion represented on the X vs. T
graph.

Example 6:

Notice there are two different motions occurring here.
For the first half, the object begins at rest (slope of tangent = 0 on x vs. t graph), and gets faster
(slope gets steeper).
For the second half, the object is moving to the right (slope of tangent line is positive on x vs. t
graph), and it slows down (slope of tangent is getting less steep), ending with a velocity of zero.
V vs. T and A vs. T graphs correspond to both halves of the motion represented on the X vs. T
graph.

Derivation of Kinematics Equations

The derivations of the commonly used kinematics equations is not a necessary part of physics but helps
connect the equations and provides a greater depth of understanding of the basic principles. AP physics
students should have a full understanding of these relationships.

Starting with a basic position time graph of an acceleration object, we can make a velocity time graph.
This vt graph will be the basis for deriving all 4 equations.
1. Derivation of v = vo + at
Looking at the velocity time graph, we can write an equation for this
linear line. Starting with the base equation y=mx+b, we can substitute
the variable in the standard vt graph. The y axis represents the velocity,
the slope of a velocity time graph is the acceleration (a), the x axis is for
time, and the yintercept is the initial velocity.
y=mx+b
v=at+vo or v = vo + at


2. Derivation of d= (vo+v)t

To find displacement for an accelerating object, we can use the area under the velocity time graph. When
we look at the graph, we can see that this is a trapezoid. In order to find the area, we take the average
velocity and use d=vavet. Looking at the images above, we can see that using the average velocity cuts a
triangle out of the top right and can be placed to fill the missing triangle at top left. The purple triangle in
the middle image represents this movement. The image at right, shows how d=vavet is the same area as
the trapezoid in the first image.

3. Derivation of d = vot + at2

We know that the area under a vt graph represents the displacement. We need to find the area under the
curve of the graph that is above left. In this case, it isnt just a triangle so we need to find the area in 2
different sections as divided in the graph above right. The area of the bottom rectangle (in gold) is just
base * height and so we can calculate it with the basic equation d=vot, as vo is the height of this rectangle.
To find the area of the triangle above the rectangle, use the equation A=bh. The area is d and the height
is the difference between the initial velocity and the final velocity (vvo) making the equation d= t (v
vo).
The total area or displacement is now d= vot + t (vvo). The (vvo) part looks familiar because we have
seen that phrase in the definition of acceleration:
or
. To isolate the (vvo), multiply
both sides by t to get a*t = (vvo). This now makes the equation d= vot + t (vvo) into the more standard
equation d= vot + t*a*t, or d= vot + at2.
4. Derivation of v2=vo2+2ad
The dont need t equation takes a little manipulation to get out of the graph and previous equations.
Lets start with v=vo+at and solve for t, since that is what we are going to substitute out of the equation.
v=vo+at

Subtract vo

vvo= at

divide by a

t = (vvo)/a
We plug this t=(vvo)/a into the equation d= (vvo)t for t and simplify it.

Using Kinematics Equations

Step 1: Draw a picture including all the numbers given.

Step 2: Write the 5 variables: vo, v, a, d, t.

Step 3: Identify what you know.

Step 4: Put a question mark by what you are looking for.

Step 5: Identify which equation to use by noticing which variable is not needed. Write this equation.

Step 6: Substitute numbers into the basic equation.

Step 7: Solve.

Example: The driver of a car moving at 20 m/s slams on the brakes, and comes to a stop in 4
seconds. What is the cars acceleration?

Step 1:

Step 2

vo =
v =
a =
d =
t =

Step 3

vo = 20 m/s
v = 0 m/s
a =
d =
t = 4 s

Step 4

vo = 20 m/s
v = 0 m/s
a = ?
d =
t = 4 s

Step 5

dont need d.
v = vo + at

Step 6

0 = 20 + a(4)

Step 7

20 = a(4)
5 m/s2 = a

Unit 3: Constant Acceleration Summary

1.

You should be able to determine the instantaneous velocity of an object in three

ways:
a. determining the slope of the tangent to an x vs t graph at a given point.
b. using the mathematical model v= vo + at
c. using the mathematical model v2 = vo2 + 2ad

2.

You should be able to determine the displacement of an object in three ways:

a. finding the area under a v vs t curve
b. using the mathematical model d= vot + at 2
c. using the mathematical model v2 = vo2+ 2ad

3.

You should be able to determine the acceleration of an object in five ways:

a. finding the slope of a v vs t graph
b. using the mathematical model a = v/t
c. rearranging the mathematical model d= vot + at 2
d. rearranging the mathematical model v= vo + at
e. rearranging the mathematical model v2 = vo2 + 2ad

4.

Given a x vs t graph, you should be able to:

a. describe the motion of the object (starting position, direction of motion,
velocity)
b. draw the corresponding v vs t graph
c. draw the corresponding a vs t graph
d. draw a motion map for the object (including v and a vectors)
e. determine the instantaneous velocity of the object at a given time

5.

Given a v vs t graph, you should be able to:

a. describe the motion of the object (direction of motion, acceleration)
b. draw the corresponding x vs t graph
c. draw the corresponding a vs t graph
d. draw a motion map for the object (including v and a vectors)
e. write a mathematical model to describe the motion
f. determine the acceleration
g. determine the displacement for a given time interval

Chapter 4: Balanced Forces

What exactly is a force?
We all came to Physics with certain ideas about what a force is. For the purpose
of this class, we will define a force as an interaction between two objects
that results in a push or a pull. There are two important aspects of this
definition. First, there must be two objects involved in order for a force to be
present. Second, there are many types of interactions between objects. Forces
only deal with interactions that result in a push or a pull.
There are two types of forcescontact forces and long-range forces.
Contact forces occur when two objects in direct contact (touching) result in a
force.
Some examples of contact forces include:

Friction (Ff)a contact force between a surface and an object, always

parallel to the surface, and opposing motion.

Normal (FN)a contact force between a surface and an object, always

perpendicular to the surface.

Tension (FT)a pulling force along strings, ropes, cables, etc.

Applied Force (F)a contact force applied by another object or person

that is not Friction, Normal, or Tension.
Long-range forces result when a force is exerted over a distance, without direct
contact.
Some examples of long-range forces include:

Gravity (Fg)the force between any two objects with mass. (Usually the
force between the Earth and an object.) Fg=mg

g=10 N/kg for objects near the Earth's Surface.

Electric force- we wont be using this one yet.

Magnetic force- we wont be using this one yet either.

Newtons First Law: Objects in motion will remain in motion (with constant
velocity) unless acted upon by unbalanced forces.
Newton set out to find the relationship between forces and motion. He concluded
that forces can produce changes in motion. If forces acting on an object are
balanced, then there should be no changes in the motion. Therefore, changes in
motion occur only when forces are not balanced.
Just what do we mean by balanced? Well, forces are balanced if the UP forces
equal the DOWN forces and the LEFT forces equal the RIGHT forces. We need to
look at the up, down, left, and right components of forces as we analyze these
situations.

Force Components
When a force is at an angle, then it is part vertical and part horizontal. We call
these parts the components of the force.
For example, the following force could be described as part right and part up.
We can draw a triangle with legs in the horizontal and vertical directions. Label
these Fx and Fy (the x and y components of force F).
This forms a right triangle. There are special properties of right triangles that
we can use to find these force components.
Trigonometry:
The longest side of a right triangle is called the hypotenuse. It is the side
that does not touch the right angle. The two sides that form the right angle
are called the legs of the triangle. The leg that touches a given angle is
called the adjacent side. The leg that is opposite the given angle is
called the opposite side.
There are three special ratios (fractions) that relate the angle to the sides.

Sin=Opp/Hyp
Cos=Adj/Hyp
Tan=Opp/Adj
The Pythagorean Theorem can be used on right triangles to find the third
side if two sides are known: Adj2+Opp2=Hyp2

Example: A 30 N force acts at a 27 angle.

Draw the triangle.

Label the sides and known angle.
Use sin, cos, or tan to find missing side.

cos27=Fx/30
30cos27=Fx
26.7N=Fx
sin27=Fy/30
30sin27=Fy
13.6N=Fy

Solving Balanced Force Problems

1.
2.
3.
4.

Draw the force diagram. (line up axes, choose a direction for positive)
Write out U=D and L=R. Leave room to work underneath.
Identify the Up, Down, Left, and Right components of forces.
Plug in numbers, find values of components, Solve for unknown values.

Example:
You pull a 50 kg box across the floor with a 200 N force, directed 30 above the
horizontal as shown.
How much friction is present?
How much normal force is present?

Solution:
Step 1:

Step 2:

U=D

L=R

Step 3:

FN+FTy=Fg

Ff=FTx

FN+FTy=500

Ff=FTx

Step 4:

Let's find FTy and FTx .

cos30=FTx/200
200cos30=FTx
173N=FTx
sin30=FTy/200
200sin30=FTy
100N=FTy
So, FN + 100 = 500. FN = 400 N.
Ff = FTX = 173 N.

Ff = 173 N.

Ramp Problems
We often encounter objects that are on ramps or inclines. When this occurs, the
only thing we need to remember is that the object would accelerate along the
ramp. Lets choose to make the surface of the ramp our x-axis. Then

perpendicular to the surface would be our y-axis. (This is especially convenient

since friction is parallel to the surface and normal is perpendicular to the surface.)
Ramp problems often involve finding x and y components of the force of gravity.
(FGX and FGY) When drawing the triangle for this force, remember to begin with
the FG, then draw the legs of the triangle so they line up with your x and y axes.
The angle between FG and the y-axis will be the same as the ramps angle
measured from the horizontal.
In the example below, I chose downhill to be the positive X direction (because
that is the direction the block would accelerate if it does!).
So, to find FGX you would use the sine of 30, and to find FGY you would use the
cosine of 30.

Once you have figured out how to find FGX and FGY you would be able to use U=D
and L=R with balanced force problems.
Because Fg=mg, we can always find Fgx and Fgy on a ramp problem:

Fgx=mgsin

Fgy=mgcos

Chapter 5: Unbalanced Force Models (Newton's 2nd Law of Motion)

Newton's Laws of Motion

1.Objectsinmotionwillremaininmotionwithconstantvelocityunlessacteduponbyunbalancedforces.(This
meansthatifanobjectisnotaccelerating,thentheforcesactingonitmustbebalanced.)
2.F=ma.(NetForce=MassxAcceleration)
3.Foreveryactionforcethereisanequalandoppositereactionforce.

Newton's 2nd Law

Newton'sSecondLawisthemainfocusofUnit5.Inthelabwedeterminedthatwhentheamountofforceis
increased,theaccelerationalsoincreases.Wefoundthatasthemassincreased,theaccelerationdecreased.
ThisrelationshipwasquantitativelydeterminedtobeF=ma,wheretheforcewasactuallytheNETFORCE
actingonthesystem.

FindingthenetforceoccursinoneoftwowaysFirst,astheequationstates,youcouldfindtheNETFORCEby
takingtheobjectsmasstimeacceleration.Second,youcouldfindtheNETFORCEbyanalyzingtheindividual
forcesactingonanobject.Todothis,

BeginwithaForceDiagram.
Identifythedirectionthesystemwillaccelerate.
Lineuponeofyourcoordinateaxeswiththeacceleration.
Decideadirectionforpositive.
Adduptheforces(orforcecomponents)thatlieinthepositivedirection.
Subtracttheforces(orforcecomponents)thatlieinthenegativedirection.

Finding the NET FORCE by looking at forces:

Supposethereisatugofwarinwhichoneteampullstotherightwith500Nofforce,andtheotherteam
pullstotheleftwith450Nofforce.Ifthediagramrepresentsthissituation,F1=450NandF2=500N.SotheF
=F2F1.TheNETFORCEwouldbe50Ntotheright(takingrighttobepositive,weget500N450N=50N).


SupposeF1=95NandF2=75N.WhatwouldtheNetForcebe?
Sincethereismoreforcetotheleft,we'llgoaheadandcallLEFTthepositivedirection.
ThismeansthatF=F1F2.
SoF=9575=20NtotheLEFT.

Finding the NET FORCE by taking Mass x Acceleration

WeknowthatNewton's2ndLawstatesthattheNetForce=MassxAcceleration,soifweknowthemassand
theaccelerationofanobject,wecanfindtheNetForcebysimplymultiplyingthetwonumberstogether.
Forexample,supposea50kgobjectisacceleratingat2.5m/s2.WhatNetForcemustbeactingontheobject?
F=ma
F=(50kg)(2.5m/s2)
F=125N

Newton's 2nd Law and Kinematics

YouhavenoticedthattheformulaforNewton's2ndLaw(F=ma)includesacceleration.Wehavedealtwith
accelerationbeforeUnit3tobespecific!Welearnedhowtofindvariousdescriptorsofmotionforanobject
usingtheKinematicsEquations.Belowaretheequations.Remember,therearefivekinematicsvariables
initialvelocity(vo),finalvelocity(v),acceleration(a),displacement(d),andtime(t).Onceyouknowanythree
ofthese,youcansolveforeitheroftheothertwo.

Solving Unbalanced Force Problems

Thestepsinvolvedinsolvingunbalancedforceproblemsareverysimilartothoseforsolvingbalancedforce
problems.Let'sreview:

Review:
SolvingBalancedForceProblems:
1.Drawaforcediagram.
2.WriteUp=DownandLeft=Right
3.IdentifytheUp,Down,Left,andRightcomponentsofforces.
4.Pluginknownvalues,drawtrianglestofindmissingcomponents,solve.

New:
SolvingUnbalancedForceProblems:
1.Drawaforcediagram.Identifythedirectionitwillaccelerate.Lineuponeofyouraxeswiththeacceleration.
2.WriteF=ma(forthedirectionitaccelerates)
3.IdentifytheUp,Down,Left,andRightcomponentsofforces.
4.Pluginknownvalues,drawtrianglestofindmissingcomponents,solve.(Thismayinvolveusingkinematics
equations.)

Example1:Youpusha20kgboxtotherightwithaforceof50N.If15Noffrictionarepresent,whatisthe
accelerationofthebox?

Drawtheforcediagramshowntotheright.
Becausethereismoreforcetotherightthanthereistotheleft,itwill
acceleratetotheright.Sowemakerightthepositivedirection.
F=ma

FFf=ma
5015=20a
35=20a
35/20=a
1.75m/s2=a

Example2:Youattacharopetoa20kgbox,andpullittotherightwithaforceof50Natanupwardangleof
25.If15Noffrictionarepresent,whatistheaccelerationofthebox?

Drawtheforcediagram.

Becausethereismoreforcetotherightthanthereistotheleft,itwill
acceleratetotheright.Sowemakerightthepositivedirection.Notethat
itacceleratestotheright,soweonlyneedtoconsiderforces
(components)thatarerightorleft.TheappliedforceFisatanangle.We
onlyusethepartofitthatistotherightwecallthehorizontal
componentoftheforceFx.TofindFxweneedtodrawatriangle,labelit,
andthenusetrig(sine,cosine,ortangent)tofindit.

F=ma
FxFf=ma
(F=50N,=25)
(cos25=Fx/50)
(50cos25=Fx)
(45.3N=Fx)
FxFf=ma
45.315=20a
30.3=20a

30.3/20=a
1.52m/s2=a

Example3:HowfarwilltheboxinExample2travelin8.0secondsifitbeganatrest?
Forthisproblemwewillhavetousekinematics,afterweusedF=matofindtheacceleration.
vo=0m/s
v=(don'tneedv)
a=1.52m/s2
d=???
t=8.0s

d=vot+at2
d=08+(1.52)(8.02)
d=97.3m

Friction
Whenwefirstlearnedabouttheforceoffriction,welearnedthatitisacontactforcebetweenanobjectanda
surfacewhichisalwaysparalleltothesurface,andresistsmotion.Thisisanaccuratedefinition.Remember,
though,thatthereisanotherforcewelearnedaboutthatresultsfromthesameinteractioncontactbetween
anobjectandasurfacetheNormalForce.Becausethetwoforcesresultfromthesameinteraction,theyare
verycloselyrelated.AsaresultthereisafairlysimpleformulathatrelatesFrictionandNormalforces.Friction
isequaltoanumber(knownasthecoefficientoffriction,or)timestheNormalForce.

Ff=FN
Thecoefficientoffrictionisanumber,usuallylessthanone,thathasnounits.Forexample,ifacertain
situationhadaNormalforceof50N,andwas0.4,thentofindtheforceoffriction,youwouldsimplyplug
intotheformulaandmultiply:Ff=(0.4)(50)=20N.

Youcanrearrangethisformulatosolveforaswell.

=Ff/FN

Static Friction vs. Kinetic Friction

Thereareactuallytwodifferentkindsoffrictionstaticfrictionandkineticfriction.Staticfrictionoccurswhen
thesurfaceandtheobjectareatrest,relativetoeachother.Thereisnomotionbetweenthesurfaces.Kinetic
frictionoccurswhenthesurfaceandobjectmoverelativetoeachotherthinkofitastheobjectslidesalong
thesurface.Kineticfrictionisalwayslessthanthemaximumpossiblestaticfrictionforanygivensituation.

Becausetherearetwodifferentkindsoffriction,therearetwodifferentcoefficientsoffrictiontoo.The
coefficientofkineticfriction(k)isusedforkineticfriction,andthecoefficientofstaticfriction(s)isusedfor
staticfriction.

Staticfrictionisaninterestingkindofforce,becauseitwillbasicallymatchanopposingforceuptoits
maximumvalueofsFN.(KineticfrictionisalwaysequaltokFN.)Thefollowingexamplewillhelpyou
understandthis:

Example4:A6kgblockisatrestonaleveltablewiths=0.50.Ifyoupushonittotherightwith10Nofforce,
howmuchfrictionispresent?

TheNormalForcewillequaltheForceofGravityinthisexample.(Fg=mg=(6)(10)=60N)
Themaximumpossiblestaticfriction,then,issFN=(0.50)(60)=30N.
Soifyoupushwith10Ntotheright,willtherereallybe30Noffrictionpushingleft?Noway.Itwillmatch
your10Npush,sothestaticfrictionwillbe10Ntotheleft.Inordertomaketheblockmove,youneedto
overcomestaticfriction.Justhowhardwouldyouhavetopushittogetitmoving?Well,itneedstobeonlya
negligibleamountabovesFN,whichinthiscasemeans30N.Onceyoupushwith30N,youovercomestatic
friction,andtheblockbeginstomove.Thenkineticfrictiontakesover.Ifyoucontinuetopushwith30N,the
blockwillaccelerate.

Example5:A6kgblockatrestbeginsslidingonaleveltablewithk=0.30whenyoupushonittotheright
with40Nofforce,howfastwillitbemovingafter4.0seconds?


WefirstwillneedtouseF=matofindtheacceleration.
Thenwewillusekinematicstofindthedisplacement.
F=ma
FFf=ma
Ff=kFN=(0.30)(60)=18N
4018=6a
22=6a
22/6=a
3.67m/s2=a
Nowforthekinematicspart...
vo=0
v=???
a=3.67m/s2
d=(don'tneedd)
t=4.0seconds

v=vo+at
v=0+(3.67)(4.0)
v=14.7m/s

Ramp Problems:
Weoftenencounterobjectsthatareonrampsorinclines.Whenthisoccurs,theonlythingweneedto
rememberisthattheobjectwouldacceleratealongtheramp.Letschoosetomakethesurfaceoftheramp
ourxaxis.Thenperpendiculartothesurfacewouldbeouryaxis.(Thisisespeciallyconvenientsincefrictionis
paralleltothesurfaceandnormalisperpendiculartothesurface.)

Rampproblemsofteninvolvefindingxandycomponentsoftheforceofgravity.

(FGXandFGY)Whendrawingthetriangleforthisforce,remembertobeginwiththeFG,thendrawthelegsof
thetrianglesotheylineupwithyourxandyaxes.TheanglebetweenFGandtheyaxiswillbethesameasthe
rampsanglemeasuredfromthehorizontal.

Intheexamplebelow,IchosedownhilltobethepositiveXdirection(becausethatisthedirectiontheblock
wouldaccelerateifitdoes!).

So,tofindFGXyouwouldusethesineof,andtofindFGYyouwouldusethecosineof.

OnceyouhavefiguredouthowtofindFGXandFGYyouwouldbeabletouseU=DandL=Rwithbalancedforce
problems.

BecauseFg=mg,wecanalwaysfindFgxandFgyonarampproblem:

Fgx=mgsin

Fgy=mgcos

Example5:A7.5kgblockisreleasedfromrestona24rampthathas16Noffriction.FindtheAcceleration.
Thenfindhowlongitwilltaketoslide1.2mdowntheramp.

F=ma
FgxFf=ma
Fgx=mgsin=(7.5)(10)(sin24)=30.5N
FgxFf=ma
30.516=7.5a
14.5=7.5a
14.5/7.5=a
1.93m/s2=a

NowwewillusethisAccelerationwithakinematicsequationtofindhowlongitwilltaketoslide1.2meters.


vo=0
v=(don'tneedv)
a=1.93m/s2
d=1.2m
t=???

d=vot+at2
1.2=0t+()(1.93)(t2)
1.2=0.965t2
1.24=t2
squarerootbothsidestoget't'byitself.
1.11s=t

Multiple Object Systems

Inthelabweperformed,wehadacartonahorizontaltrack,withastringloopedoverapulleyandaweight
hangingofftheend,asshownabove.Problemsofthisnatureusuallyinvolvefindingtheaccelerationand
maybethetensioninthestring.Thereareactuallyacoupleofdifferentwayswecouldapproachamultiobject
system.
Single System Approach:
ThefirstmethodwewilldiscussiswhatIcallthesinglesystemapproach.Inthisapproach,wetreateach
objectofthesystemcollectivelyasasinglesystem.Identifythedirectioneachobjectacceleratesandcallthat
positive.Thenlookonlyforforcesthateitheraddtoortakeawayfromtheacceleration.Applytheseforcesto
F=ma,andbesuretousetheentiremassofthesystemasthem.

Example6a:A5kgblockisonahorizontaltable(=0.05).Alightstring(meaningwecanneglectitsmass)
attachedtothecartisplacedoverafrictionlesspulley,anda0.7kgmassisattachedtotheotherend.Find
theAccelerationofthesystem.

Identifythedirectioneachpartofthesystemaccelerates.
Drawalinearoundthesystem.NotethattotherightforblockAisthesamedirectionasdownisforblockB.

IdentifytheEXTERNALforcesactingONthesystem...notethatTensionisanINTERNALforcewhenwechoosea
singlesystemapproach.

Inthisexample,FgAandFNAdonotaffecttheacceleration,sotheNetForceisjustFgbFfA.
F=ma
FgbFfA=(mA+mB)a
7(0.05)(50)=5.7a
4.5=5.7a
0.79m/s2=a


Two System Approach:
ThesecondmethodwewilldiscussiswhatIcallthetwosystemapproach.Inthisapproach,wetreateach
objectofthesystemindividually,sotherearetwodifferentsystemsyouneedtoworkwith.Identifythe
directioneachobjectacceleratesandcallthatpositive.Followthestepsofsolvingforceproblemsforeach
objectseparately...eventuallyyoureachapointwheretherearetwounknownvaluesTensionand
Acceleration.

SolvingtwoequationswithtwounknownsissometimesreferredtoasaSystemofEquationsinamathclass.
Whilethereareavarietyofmethodsofsolvingsystemsofequations,Iwillteachyoujustone
Substitution/Elimination.Inthismethod,yousolveoneoftheequationsforoneofthevariables,then
substitutethatintotheotherequation.Forexample,solveoneequationfortheTension,thenpluginwhat
yougetintotheotherequationwhereyouseeTension.

Example6b:A5kgblockisonahorizontalfrictionlesstable.Alightstring(meaningwecanneglectitsmass)
attachedtothecartisplacedoverafrictionlesspulley,anda0.7kgmassisattachedtotheotherend.(=0.05)
FindtheAccelerationofthesystem.

Identifythedirectioneachpartofthesystemaccelerates.Thiswillbethepositivedirection.

Drawaforcediagramforeachseparateobjectinthesystem.Rememberthedirectioneachoneacceleratesis
thepositivedirection.

NowdoF=maforeachobjectseparately.Hereiswhatthatlookslike

ObjectA:
F=ma
FTFfA=mAa
FT(0.05)(50)=5a
FT2.5=5a
NowsolvethisoneforTension:FT=5a+2.5

ObjectB:
F=ma
FgBFT=mBa
7FT=0.7a

NowplugintheTensionfromObjectA:
7(5a+2.5)=0.7a
75a2.5=0.7a
4.5=5.7a
0.79m/s2=a
Noticethatwegottheexactsameanswerusingthetwosystemapproachthatwegotduringthesinglesystem
approach.

FindingtheTension:
Whetheryouusedasinglesystemapproachoratwosystemapproachtofindtheacceleration,inordertofind
theTensioninatwobodysystem,youneedtosplitthesystem,andlookatapartofthesystemwhichdoes
haveatensionforce.TakeobjectBforexample.Nowthatyouknowtheacceleration,findingthetensionis
fairlyeasy.

ObjectB:
F=ma
FgBFT=mBa
7FT=(0.7)(0.79)
7FT=0.553
7=0.553+FT
6.45N=FT

*Thesameapproachcanbeappliedtoblockspushingagainsteachotheraswell.Useeitherasinglesystem
approachoratwosystemapproachtofindtheacceleration,thensplitthemuptofindthecontact(pushing)
forcebetweenthem.

Example7a:AstudentpushesonBlockA(5kg)totherightwitha75Nforce.BlockBhasamassof12kg.
(=0.2)FindtheAccelerationofthesystem.

Singlesystem


Itacceleratestotheright,soourNetForcewillbeRightminusLeft.(NotetheNormalForcehereequalsthe
combinedweightofthetwoblocks.)
F=ma
FFf=(mA+mB)a
75(0.2)(170)=17a
7534=17a
41=17a
2.41m/s2=a

Twosystem
ThereisacontactforcebetweenBlocksA&B.We'llcallthecontactforcethatApushesonBFABandthe
contactforcethatBpushesonAFBA.Noticethatthisisanactionreactionpair,sotheyareequalinmagnitude
andoppositeindirection.Intheequations,wedealwiththedirectionbychoosingtheaccelerationtobethe
positivedirection,sotheimportantthingtorecognizehereisthatFAB=FBA.

F=ma
FFfAFBA=mAa
75(0.2)(50)FBA=5a
65FBA=5a
65=FBA+5a
655a=FBA

F=ma
FABFfB=mBa
FAB(0.2)(120)=12a
FAB24=12a

NowplugintheContactForce(FAB)fromblockA:
(655a)24=12a
6524=17a
41=17a
2.41m/s2=a

Wecanfindthecontactforcebypluggingthisaccelerationintoeitherequationofthetwosystemapproach:
655a=FBA
65(5)(2.41)=FBA
52.95N=FBA

or

FAB24=12a
FAB24=(12)(2.41)
FAB24=28.92
FAB=52.92N

(Theveryslight(negligible)differenceisbecauseofroundingtheacceleration.)

Unit 6: 2Dimensional Motion

Freefall Kinematics
Ifwecanconsiderairresistancetobenegligible,thenobjectsfallundertheinfluenceoftheforceofgravity
only.Suchasituation,wheregravityistheonlyforceactingonanobject,issometimescalledfreefall.Objects
infreefallacceleratebecauseofgravity.

F=ma
Fg=ma
mg=ma
g=a
(recallthatg=10m/s2neartheEarth'ssurface)

Kinematics Equations

Abovearethekinematicsequationsthatyouhavealreadylearned.Let'sreviewhowtousethem.
1.Writeoutthefivekinematicsvariables:v0,v,a,d,andt.
2.Identifywhichofthesevariablesyoualreadyknow.Putanarrowtoindicatedirection.
3.Putaquestionmarkbytheoneyouarelookingfor.
4.Theonethatremainsistheoneyoudon'tneed.Selecttheappropriateequation,pluginwhatyou
have,andsolveit.

Example1:Astudentdropsawaterballoonfromtheroofofabuildingthatis12meterstall.Howlongwould
someoneonthegroundhavetogetoutofthewayifhenoticeditthesametimeitwasdropped?
V0=0
V=
A=10m/s2
D=12m
T=???
(Note:Itwasdropped,soyouknowvo=0.ItisonEarth,soyouknowtheaccelerationofgravitywillbe10m/s2
downward.Now,thedirectionofeachvariableisimportant!Ifeverythingisthesamedirection,asinthiscase
everythingisdownward,thenyoucancallthatdirectionpositive.Ifthereareupsanddownsinthesame
problem,thenyoumustchooseadirectiontobenegative.Iusuallycalluppositiveanddownnegativeinsuch
cases.Forthiscurrentproblem,though,Iwillgowithdownbeingpositive,aseverythingisdown.)Wedon't
needV,soweused=v0t+at2

d=v0t+at2
12=0+(10)t2
12=5t2
12/5=t2
(12/5)=t
1.55seconds=t

Solving Quadratic Equations

Example2:Astudentthrowsawaterballoon(withanupwardvelocityof6m/s)fromtheroofofabuilding
thatis12meterstall.Howlongwouldsomeoneonthegroundhavetogetoutofthewayifhenoticeditthe
sametimeitwasdropped?
Vo=6m/s(makeposi ve)
V=
A=10m/s2(makenega ve)
D=12m(makenega ve)

T=???

Again,wedon'tneedV,soweused=vot+at2
HerewehaveUPandDOWNmixedinthesameproblem,sowegowithUPisPOSITIVE,andDOWNis
NEGATIVE.ThismakesA=10m/s2andD=12m.
(Note:thewaterballoonbeginsattherooflevel,andendsontheground.Thedintheseequationsisthe
displacementwhichishowfaritendsupfromwhereitbegan.Sonomatterhowhighitwasthrown,itends
up12mbelowwhereitbegangivingitadisplacementof12mdownward.)
d=vot+at2
12=6t+(10)t2
12=6t5t2

Thisiswhatwecallaquadraticequation.Whiletherearemanywaystosolveaquadraticequation(andyou
canuseanymethodyouknowthatworks),wewillbeteachingyoutousetheQuadraticFormula.Todothis,
wefirstneedtogettheequationinSTANDARDFORM(soitlookslikeAt2+Bt+C=0).WefindwhatA,B,andC
wouldbe.Thenthesolutionis:

5t26t12=0
(soA=5,B=6,C=12)

t=2.26sort=1.06s
Negativetimewouldnotmakesense(howcananythinghappenbeforethestudentreleasesthe
balloon?),soweusethepositivevalueof2.26seconds!

Anotherwaytosolveaquadraticequationwouldbetographit,andfindthezeroes(theplaceswherethe
graphcrossesthetaxis).Thiscanbedonefairlyquicklyonagraphingcalculator.Iwilldemonstratehowtodo
thisforaTI84calculator.

Using a Graphing Calculator to Solve Quadratic Equations

Ifwestartwith:5t26t12=0

HittheY=button(upperleft)Clearoutanyequationshere.
OnY1=,type5X^26X12(calculatorsuseXasthehorizontalvariable)
HittheGRAPHbutton.(Youmayneedtoadjustyourwindowsetting.ZOOMthen6shoulddoit.)
LocatewherethegraphcrossestheXaxis.(ThisiscalledaZEROoranXintercept)
Hit2ND,thenCALC,thenchoose2:ZERO.
ItnowshowsacursoronthegraphandasksforaLeftboundpoint.
MovethecursorwiththeleftorrightarrowtomakesureitistotheLEFToftheXinterceptyouwanttofind.
HitENTER.
MovethecursorwiththerightarrowtomakesureitistotheRIGHToftheXinterceptyouwanttofind.Hit
ENTER.
Itnowasksforaguess.JusthitENTERagain.
IttellsyouthevalueoftheZERO(Xintercept)inthelowerleftcorner.

Projectile Motion with Horizontal Launch:

Objectsthatmovebothhorizontallyandverticallythroughtheairarecalledprojectiles.Forourpurposedin
thisclass,wewillconsiderairresistancetobenegligible.Sotheonlyforceactingonaprojectileistheforceof
gravity.Gravitypulls(accelerates)objectsdownward,towardtheEarth.Thereisnohorizontalforceactingon
aprojectile,sothismeansthatthereisnohorizontalacceleration!

Typicalprojectilemotionproblemsinvolveseparatingthehorizontalaspectsofmotionfromthevertical.
Horizontally,thereisnoacceleration,sothehorizontalvelocityisconstant!Thismeansthathorizontallyyou
alwaysusetheconstantvelocityequation,D=VT.

Vertically,projectilesacceleratedownwardattheaccelerationofgravity(10m/s^2forobjectsnearEarths
surface).

Tosolveprojectilemotionproblems,firstseparatehorizontalandvertical.Writeoutthekinematicsvariables
undereachD,V,TforhorizontalandV0,V,A,D,Tforvertical.Fillinwhatyouknow,beingsuretopay
attentiontodirectionontheverticalside.UsuallyyouendupsolvingforTIME,astimeistheonevariablethat
isthesameforbothhorizontalandverticalmotion.Usethetimeyoufoundononesideoftheproblemto
solvetheotherside.

Whenanobjectislaunchedhorizontally,weimmediatelylearnthattheinitialvelocityintheverticaldirectionis
zero.Itisnotmovingverticallyatthebeginningoftheproblem.

Example3:A1.2kgballrollshorizontallyat5m/s.Itrollsofftheedgeofa0.94mhightable.Howlongdoesit
taketohittheground?Howfarfromthebaseofthetablewillithittheground?

Horizontal

Vertical

D=

V0=0

V=5m/s

V=

T=?

A=10m/s^2down

D=0.94mdown

T=?

Startwith:

D=V0T+AT^2

0.94=0+5T^2

0.188=T^2

0.434s=T

Then:
D=VT
D=(5m/s)(0.434s)=2.17m

Projectile Motion with Angled Launch:

Notallprojectilesarelaunchedhorizontally.Whenanobjectislaunchedatanangle,theonlydifferenceisthat
weneedtodrawatriangle,anduseourtrig(sin,cos,tan)tofindthehorizontalandverticalcomponentsof
thatinitialvelocity(VX&VY).

VX=constanthorizontalvelocity,VY=verticalstartingvelocity.

Otherthanthat,youapproachtheproblemjustasyouwouldanyprojectilemotionproblemseparate
horizontalandvertical,writeyourvariables,pluginknownvalues,solvefortime,etc.

Chapter 7: Work, Energy, & Power

Spring Force
Considerwhathappenstoaspringwhenyouapplyaforcetoit.Itwillstretch.Thefartheryoustretchit,the
greatertheamountofforcewithwhichthespringpullsback.WhentherelationshipofSpringForcevs.Stretch
isgraphed,weseealineargraph.TheslopeofthisgraphiswhatwecalltheSpringConstant.Thesymbolkis
usedtodenotethespringconstant.TheequationofthelineargraphisFspr=kx.Thisrelationshipisknownas
HookesLaw.

Work

Constant Force, Same Direction

Inajuniorhighphysicalscienceclassyoumayhavelearnedabouttheconceptofwork.Inthatsettingwork
wasdefinedbytheformula:Work=ForcexDistance.Thisequationisaccurate,butonlyunderspecific
conditions.TakingForcetimesDistancewillonlygiveustheWorkiftheForceisconstantandinthesame
directionastheDistance.Soifa20Nforceispushingtotherightonaboxthatmoves3mtotheright,then
wecanseethattheworkdonewouldbe(20N)(3m)=60Nm.Thisbasicformulaisaccuratebecausetheforce
wasconstant,anditwasinthesamedirectionasthedistance.

Constant Force, Different Direction

Whathappenswhenwehaveaconstantforce,buttheforceisnotinthesamedirectionasthedisplacement?
Insuchacaseweneedtofindthecomponentoftheforcethatisinthedirectionofthedisplacement,andthen
wecanmultiplythosetwoquantitiestogether.Theparallelcomponentofaforcecanbefoundbytakingthe
cosinemultipliedbytheforce.Fx=Fcos.SoWork=(Fcos)(d),orasitismorecommonlywritten,W=Fd
cos.Thisformulaworksforanyconstantforce.TheangleintheformulaistheanglebetweentheForce
vectorandtheDisplacementvector.(Recallthatavectorisaquantitythathasbothmagnitudeanddirection.)

NonConstant Force
Sonowweknowhowtocalculatetheworkdonebyaconstantforce,evenwhenitdoesntlineupwiththe
displacement.Buthowdowefindtheworkdonebyanonconstantforce?LetsconsidertheSpringForceas
anexampleofanonconstantforce.Weknowthatthefartheryoustretchaspring,thegreatertheforcethe
springexerts.Inthisway,theamountofforceactuallychangeswiththeamountofstretching.Ifwewereto
createagraphoftheSpringForcevs.theStretch(displacementorxofthespring),wewouldseealinear
graph.FindingtheareaundertheFvs.Xgraphwillgiveyoutheamountofworkdone.Thismethodworksfor
allforces,whethertheyareconstantornot.

W=Fd(constantforce,forceinsamedirectionasdisplacement)

W=Fdcos(constantforce,=anglebetweenFandd)
W=AreaunderFvs.Xgraph(anyforce)

Workisonewaythatenergycanbetransferredintooroutofasystem.Theamountofworkdoneisequalto
theamountofenergytransferred.Letslearnaboutenergynow

Energy
Energyhasbeendefinedastheabilitytodowork,usingourmathematicaldefinitionofwork.Thisistrue,but
doesnotreallytellthewholestory.Forourpurposes,wedefineenergyasaconserved,substancelikequantity
withthecapabilitytoproducechange.Energycanbestoredinvariousforms.Youhaveprobablyheardabout
severaloftheseformsofenergy:KineticEnergy(Ek),GravitationalPotentialEnergy(Eg),ElasticEnergy(Eel),
DissipatedEnergy(Ediss),ChemicalEnergy,NuclearEnergy,ElectromagneticEnergy,etc.

Ananalogythatmayhelpyouunderstandenergystorageistothinkofenergylikemoney,andenergystorage
likebankaccounts.Youcanstoremoneyinacheckingaccount,savingsaccount,certificateofdeposit(CD),
moneymarketaccount,etc.Moneycanbetransferredfromoneaccounttoanother.Inmuchthesameway,
energycanbetransferredfromoneformtoanother.TheunitweuseforenergyintheSI(metricsystem)isthe
Joule.ThesymbolweusefortheJouleisthecapitalletterJ.Sotransferring100JofenergyfromKinetic
EnergytoGravitationalPotentialEnergyisliketransferring$100fromcheckingtosavings.Theamountofstuff
remainsthesame,onlywhereitisstoredhaschanged.

Kinetic Energy
KineticEnergy(Ek)istheenergyofmotion.Movingobjectshavekineticenergy.Theformulaforcalculating
kineticenergyis:
Ek=mv^2

Inthisformulaitisimportanttohaveunitsinputcorrectlymassinkg,velocityinm/s,energyinJoules.

Gravitational Potential Energy

GravitationalPotentialEnergy(sometimescalledsimplyGravitationalEnergyorjustPotentialEnergy)isenergy
storedinanobjectbyvirtueofitspositionwithinagravitationalfield.Thatisafancywayofsayingthatthe
higheranobjectisthemoregravitationalenergyithas(becauseitwouldhavefartheritcouldfall).The
formulaforcalculatinggravitationalpotentialenergyis:

Eg=mgh

Here,misthemassinkg,gistheaccelerationduetogravity(inm/s2),andhistheheightinmetersabovezero.
Theconvenientthingaboutgravitationalpotentialenergyisthatyoucanpickthelocationofzeroheighttobe
whereveryouwantit.Oftenthemostconvenientplacetoputzeroheightisthelowestpositioninaproblem.
Soifabookislifted1.5maboveatable,makethetableyourzeroheight(insteadofthefloor,forexample).

Elastic Energy
Elasticenergyistheenergystoredinelasticsubstances,likespringsorrubberbands.Forthisunit,welltreat
allelasticsubstancesasiftheybehavedlikesprings.Theformulaforcalculatingtheelasticenergyis:
Eel=kx^2

Inthisformula,kisthespringconstantinN/m,xisthestretch(ordisplacementfromequilibrium)inmeters.
ThisformulacanbefoundbytakingtheareaundertheFvs.xgraphforaspring.Wecanseethatthework
doneisequaltotheenergytransferred.

Dissipated Energy
Energycanbedissipated,whichisafancywayofsayingthatitbecomesspreadoutintotheenvironment.This
isusuallydonethroughheat,butwecanoftencalculatetheamountofdissipatedenergybylookingatthe
amountofworkdonebycertainforces,suchasfriction.Theworkfrictiondoesequalstheamountofenergy
dissipated.

Conservation of Energy
TheLawofConservationofEnergystatesthatenergycannotbecreatedordestroyed,butonlychangefrom
oneformtoanother.Simplyput,thiscangiveusaformulatousetosolveproblemsinvolvingconservationof
energy:
InitialEnergy=FinalEnergy

Inthisunitwearefocusingprimarilyonmechanicaltypesofenergy(kinetic,gravitational,elastic,dissipated).

Energy Bar Graphs

Wecancreateenergybargraphstohelpusrepresenttheinitialandfinalenergiesofagivenproblem.In
mechanicaltypesofproblems,therearethreetypesofenergythatcouldbepresentinitially:Kinetic,
Gravitational,andElastic.Representeachoftheseonabargraphtoshowtheinitialenergyofasystem.We
knowasystemhaskineticenergywhenitismoving.Weknowasystemhasgravitationalenergywhenitisata
heightabovezero(andwechoosezeroheighttobethelowestpointinaproblem).Weknowasystemhas
elasticenergywhenaspringorotherelasticmaterialiseitherstretchedorcompressed.

Wedothesameforthefinalenergy.However,thereareacoupleofimportantdifferencesforfinalenergy.
Someoftheenergymayhavebeendissipatedbyfriction,soafourthenergytype(Dissipated)isavailablefor
thefinalenergy.Itisalsopossiblethatenergyhasbeenaddedtoasystembymeansofwork.Whenthatisthe
case,thereismorefinalenergythantherewasinitialenergy.Werepresentthisonanenergybargraphby
writing+W(meaningpositivework)inthespacebetweentheinitialenergybargraphandthefinalenergy
bargraph.Thisrepresentsanenergyflowdiagram,whereweaccountforenergythathasbeenaddedtoa
systemthroughwork.Theamountofworkdonewillexactlyequaltheamountofenergyaddedtothesystem.
(Rememberthatweaccountforlossofenergyfromasystemthroughdissipatedenergy.)Sointhisway,the
bargraphhelpsusvisuallyseehowtosetupourconservationofenergyequation:
Ei+W=Ef

Solving Conservation of Energy Problems

Solvingconservationofenergyproblemsisprettystraightforwardonceyouhavecorrectlyidentifiedtheinitial
andfinalenergyofasystemonanenergybargraph.

Example1:A7kgboxislocated6mabovethegroundonahill.Ifitisreleasedfromrest,andthereisno
friction,howfastwilltheboxbemovingatthebottomofthehill?

Drawtheenergybargraph:Inthiscasetheboxbeginswithgravitationalenergyonlyitisnotmoving,and
therearenosprings,butitisabovethelowestpositionintheproblem.Theboxendswithkineticenergy
onlyitisnowatthelowestpoint(zeroheight)soitnolongerhasanygravitationalenergy.

Ei+W=Ef
Eg(initial)=Ek(final)
mgh=mv^2
(7)(10)(6)=(7)(v^2)
420=3.5v^2
120=v^2
10.954=v
11.0m/s=v(3sigfigs)

Solving Conservation of Energy Problems Involving Dissipated Energy

Whenfrictionispresent,therewillbedissipatedenergy.Thereareacoupleofdifferentwaystofinddissipated
energy.Oneistofindtheworkdonebyfrictionorotherforces.
Example2:A1.2kgtoycarismovingat3.0m/swhenithitsastretchofcarpet.Thecoefficientoffrictionon
thecarpetis0.6.Howfastwillitbemovingaftertraveling2.5macrossthecarpet?

Ei+W=Ef
Ek(initial)=Ek(final)+Ediss

mvo^2=mv^2+Wfric
Wfric=Ff*d=*mg*d
(1.2)(3.0^2)=(1.2)(v^2)+(0.6)(1.2)(10)(2.5)
5.4=0.6v^2+1.8
3.6=0.6v^2
6=v^2
2.45m/s=v

Example3:A1.4kgrockisdroppedfrom30maboveapoolofwater.Itreachesthewaterwithaspeedof20
m/s.Howmuchenergywasdissipatedbyairresistance?

Ei+W=Ef
Eg(initial)=Ek(final)+Ediss
mgh=mv^2+Ediss
1.4*10*30=*1.4*20^2+Ediss
420=280+Ediss
140J=Ediss

Power
Powerisdefinedastherateatwhichworkisdone,orinotherwords,therateatwhichenergyistransferred.A
rateisameasureofsomethingperunittime.TheformulaforPowerlookslike:Power=Work/time.Nowif
work=forcexdisplacement,thenwecouldwritethisasPower=ForcexDisplacement/time.Butwe
rememberthatDisplacement/time=velocity,soPowercouldalsobecalculatedusingPower=Forcex

Velocity.Alotofpowerproblemsinvolvechangingheightinacertainamountoftime.Sothechangeinenergy
wouldbeachangeingravitationalpotentialenergyinacertaintime.Thisgivesusanequationforpowerof:P
=mgh/t.AnyoftheseequationswillgiveyouthesameanswerforPowerifyouusethemcorrectly.Lookfor
theonethatiseasiesttousebasedonwhatinformationisgiventoyou.PowerismeasuredinJoulesper
second(J/s).ThisisgiventhespecialnameoftheWatt.OneWatt=OneJoulepersecond.Soa100Wlight
bulbconsumes100Jofelectricalenergypersecond!

P=W/t
P=E/t
P=mgh/t
P=Fv

Example:Jonny(65kg)runsupaflightofstairs,gaining6.3metersinheight.Heaccomplishesthis
tremendousfeatin2.7seconds.Howmuchpowerdidheproduce?

P=E/t
P=mgh/t
P=(65)(10)(6.3)/2.7
P=1520Watts
(3sigfigs)

Chapter 8: Momentum

Momentumisameasureofthequantityofmotion.MomentumcanbefoundbytakingMASSxVELOCITY.Itis
importanttonotethatbecausevelocityisavector(havingbothmagnitudeanddirection),momentumisalsoa
vector.Thedirectionofthemomentumvectoristhesameasthedirectionofthevelocityvector.Thesymbol
usedformomentumisp.

EquationforMomentum(ofasingleobject):p=mv

Example:A0.4kgrockismovingat12m/s.Whatisthemomentumoftherock?

P=mv

P=(0.4kg)(12m/s)=4.8kgm/s

Impulse
Whenthevelocityofanobjectchangesitsmomentumalsochanges.Thechangeofmomentumiscalled
impulse.TheabbreviationofImpulseistheletterJ.Rememberthatchangemeansfinalvalueminusinitial
value,andhasthesymboldelta().

Impulse=p=mv=Ft

p=(pfinalpinitial)
mv=m(vvo)

Averyimportantconcepttorememberwithimpulseisthatthedirectionmatters!!!Iftheinitialvelocityisto
theright,andthefinalvelocityistotheleft,thenoneofthosedirectionsmustbenegative.

Example:A0.2kgballisthrownat18m/stowardsabatter.Thebatterhitstheballstraightbackat24m/s.
a. Findtheimpulseontheball.

b. Ifthebatandballwereincontactfor0.04seconds,findtheaverageforceexertedbythebatonthe
ball.

a.Impulse=mv
Impulse=(0.2)(24(18))Ifthefinalvelocityispositive,thentheinitialvelocitymustbenegativesinceitsintheopposite
direction!

Impulse=(0.2)(42)
Impulse=8.4kgm/s.

b.Impulse=FT
8.4kgm/s=F(0.04s)
F=210N.

Findingtheimpulseusuallyreferstothechangeofmomentumofasingleobject.Intheexampleabove,we
foundtheimpulseontheball.

Conservation of Momentum
Wecanfindthemomentumofasystemofobjectsbyfindingthemomentumofeachindividualpartofthe
system,andaddingthemtogether.Inaclosedsystem(definedasasystemonwhichthereiszerooutsidenet
forceacting)theinitialsystemmomentumwillbeequaltothefinalsystemmomentum.

Anotherwaytothinkaboutthisisthatthereissomekindofeventlikeacollisionoranexplosion.Thesystem
momentumbeforetheeventwillequalthesystemmomentumaftertheevent.

Pinitial=Pfinal

Remember,

Pinitial=m1v1+m2v2(initial)

Pfinal=m1v1+m2v2(final)

Example:A3.2kgblockismovingat4m/s.Itcollideswitha4.2kgblockwhichwasinitiallyatrest.Ifthefirst
blockcontinuesmovingforwardat1.2m/s,howfastdoesthe4.2kgblockmoveafterthecollision?

Pinitial=Pfinal

m1v1+m2v2(initial)=m1v1+m2v2(final)

(3.2)(4)+(4.2)(0)=(3.2)(1.2)+(4.2)(v)

12.8+0=3.84+4.2v

8.96=4.2v
2.13m/s=v

Example:An80kgastronaut,initiallyatrest,firesajetpackwhichexpels100gramsofhotexhaustat850m/s.
Howfastwilltheastronautmove?(howfastmeansthespeed,whichmeanstheanswershouldbeabsolute
value)

Pinitial=Pfinal

m1v1+m2v2(initial)=m1v1+m2v2(final)

(80kg)(0m/s)+(0.100kg)(0m/s)=80v+(0.100)(850)

0=0.100v+0.85

0.85=0.100v

8.5m/s=v

Sotheastronautmovesat8.5m/safterfiringthethrusteronhisjetpack.

Example:A10,000kgtruckmoveseastat15m/s.A1,500kgcarmoveswestat25m/s.Theycollideheadon,
andsticktogether.Howfastandinwhatdirectiondoesthecombinedtruckcarmoveafterthecollision?

Pinitial=Pfinal

m1v1+m2v2(initial)=(m1+m2)v(final)

(10,000)(15)+(1500)(25)=(10,000+1500)v
(noticethatifEASTispositive,thenWESTmustbenegative)

150,00037,500=11500v

9.78m/s=v(noticethepositiveanswermeanstheymoveEAST)

Chapter 9: Waves

Types of Waves
Awaveisadisturbancewhichcausesenergytobetransportedfromonelocationtoanother,withoutatransfer
ofmass.Therearetwotypesofwaves:mechanicalwaves,andelectromagnetic(EM)waves
Mechanical Waves
Mechanicalwavesareproducedbyadisturbanceinamedium.Themediumisthematerialthroughwhichthe
waveistraveling.Themediumoscillatesbackandforth,whichcausesenergytobetransportedfromone
locationtoanother.Someexamplesofmechanicalweavesareoceanwaves,soundwaves,andearthquake
waves.
Therearethreetypesofmechanicalwaves:
TransverseWavesInatransversewave,theparticlesofthemediumaremovingperpendiculartothewave
motion.Example:thewaveatafootballgame.
LongitudinalWavesInalongitudinalwave,theparticlesofthemediumaremovingparalleltothewave
motion.Example:soundwaves.
SurfaceWavesInasurfacewave,theparticlesofthemediumaremovingbothperpendicularandparallelto
thewavemotion,inacircularmotion.
Electromagnetic Waves
EMwavesarecreatedbyoscillatingelectricandmagneticfields.EMwavesdonotrequireamediumtotravel.
SomeexamplesofEMwavesarelight,radiowaves,microwaves,infrared,ultraviolet,xrays,andgammarays.

Wave Properties
CrestorpeakThehighestpointinawave,furthestfromtherestposition.
TroughThelowestpointinawave,furthestfromtherestposition.
Period(T)Theperiodistheamountoftimeittakesforonewavetopassagivenposition,inunitsofseconds.
Periodiscalculatedusingtheequation

T=time/wavesorT=1/f
Frequency(f)Thefrequencyisthenumberofwavesthatpassbypersecond,inunitsofHertz.Frequencyis
calculatedusingtheequation

f=#waves/timeorf=1/T
Wavelength()Thewavelengthisthedistancebetweentwosuccessiveidenticalpointsonawave,inunitsof
meters.

Amplitude(A)Theamplitudeisthemaximumdisplacementofthemediumfromtherestposition,orhalfthe
distancebetweenapeakandatrough.
Wavespeed(v)Thespeedofthewaveiscalculatedbyusingtheequation

v=forv=/T
Wave Interactions
The Doppler Effect
TheDopplerEffectoccurswhenthereisarelativevelocitybetweenthesourceandobserverofawave.Thereis
anequationtodescribethiseffect:

fobs=observedfrequency
fact=actualfrequency
v=velocityofthewave(i.e.speedofsound,speedoflight)
vobs=velocityoftheobserver
vsource=velocityofthesource

IntheDopplerEffect,weusepositivevelocitiesfortowardsmotion,andnegativevelocitiesforawaymotion.

WhentheDopplerEffecthappenswithlight,wesaythatthelightisredshiftedorblueshifted.Redshiftiswhen
thesourceoflightismovingawayfromtheobserver,andblueshiftiswhenthesourceoflightismoving
towardstheobserver.
Reflection
Reflectionoccurswhenawavehitsabarrierandbounces,changingdirection.TheLawofReflectionstatesthat
theangleofincidenceisequaltotheangleofreflection.Examples:mirrorsandechoes.
Refraction
Refractionoccurswhenawavechangesthemediumitistravelingthrough.Awavewillbendasitgoesfrom
onemediumtoanother.Examples:astrawthatlooksbentinaglassofwaterandrainbows.
Diffraction
Diffractionoccurswhenawavehitsabarrierorsmallobstacle.Thewavewillbendaroundthebarrier.
Examples:wavesspreadingastheytravelthroughaslit,orbeingabletohearsomebodyaroundthecorner.
Interference
Interferenceisaresultofwavesmeetingandinteracting.Therearetwotypesofinterference.Constructive
interferenceoccurswhenwavesmeetpeakontopofpeak,ortroughontopoftrough.Peaksaddtogether,to
makealargeramplitudethaneitherwave.Destructiveinterferenceoccurswhenwavesmeetpeakontopof

trough.Peakandtroughaddtogether,tomakeasmallerpeakortrough.Examples:deadspotsinan
auditoriumandnoisecancelingheadphones.
Beat Frequency
Beatfrequencyisaresultofinterference.Whentwosoundwaveswithclosefrequenciesareplayedatthe
sametime,thewavesinterfere,andabeatisheard.Thereisanequationtodescribethiseffect:

fbeat=|f1f2|
f1andf2arethetwofrequencies.Becausetheequationcallsfortheabsolutevalueofthedifference,itdoes
notmatterwhichfrequencyisf1orf2.

Electromagnetic Waves
Properties of Electromagnetic Waves
Electromagneticwavesaremadefromelectricandmagneticfieldsoscillatingperpendiculartoeachother.
Electromagneticwavesdonotneedamediumtotravel.Allelectromagneticwavestravelatthesamevelocity
inavacuum.Thespeedoflightinavacuumisc=3x108m/s.
Lightisformedaselectronsjumpdownenergylevels.Asenergyisabsorbedbyatoms,theelectronsinthe
atomjumpuptohigherenergylevels.Thisisunstableelectronswanttobeatthelowestenergylevel
possible.Asanelectronjumpsbackdowntoalowerenergylevel,itreleasestheextraenergyasaphoton.A
photonisalittlepacketofenergy.Lightismadeupofastreamofphotons.
EM Wave Equations
Thereisanequationdescribingtherelationshipbetweenthespeedoflight,wavelength,andfrequency:

c=f
Noticethatthisisnotanewequation.Thisisthesamewavespeedequationweusedabove,butvhasbeen
replacedwithc,becauseallelectromagneticwavestravelatthespeedoflight.Thisequationtellsusthat
frequencyandwavelengthareinverselyrelated.
Thereisanequationdescribingtheenergyofasinglephotonbasedonitsfrequency:

E=hf
h=6.626x1034Js
histhesymbolforPlancksconstant.Itistheratiobetweenenergyofaphotonandfrequencyofaphoton.
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
Theelectromagneticspectrumistherangeofpossibletypesorsizesofelectromagneticwaves.Theorderand
someoftherelationshipsareshown.

Chapter 10: Newtons Universal Law of Gravitation & Coulombs Law

Newtons Universal Law of Gravitation
IsaacNewtonwasthefirstpersontorealizethattheforceresponsibleforobjectsfallingtowardstheearthis
thesameforceresponsibleforkeepingthemooninorbitaroundtheearth.Thus,heunifiedthelawsof
gravitationintooneuniversallaw.

Fg=forceofgravity
G=6.67x1011Nm2/kg2
m1=massofobject1
m2=massofobject2
d=distancefromcenterofobject1tocenterofobject2

Coulombs Law
CharlesCoulombdiscoveredtherelationshipbetweentheelectricforce,charge,anddistance.

Fel=electricforce
k=9x109Nm2/C2
q1=chargeofobject1
q2=chargeofobject2
d=distancefromcenterofobject1tocenterofobject2

The Ones Trick

Thistrickisusedtoseehowchangingoneormoreofthemasses,charges,ordistancewillaffectthe
gravitationalorelectricalforce.Inessence,youchangeeveryvariabletoone,exceptfortheone(s)youare
changing.Thenyouwillbeabletoeasilyseehowthosechangesaffecttheforce.
Examples:
Whatwouldhappentothegravitationalforceifmass1wasdoubled?
Letsstartbylookingatthegravitationalforceequation:

Nowwewanttochangeallofthevariablesontherightsidetoone,exceptformass1.Becauseweare
doublingmass1,wewillchangeittoatwo(doubleisx2).Itwilllooklikethis:

Thiswouldsimplifyto:

Thattellsusthattheoriginalgravitationalforcewouldbemultipliedby2.

Whatwouldhappentotheelectricalforceifthedistancebetweenthemwastripled?
Letsstartbylookingattheelectricalforceequation:


Nowwearegoingtoreplaceeveryvariableontherightsidetoaone,exceptforthedistance,whichwewill
changetoathree,sinceitisbeingtripled:

Thissimplifiesto:

Thattellsusthattheoriginalelectricforcewouldbemultipliedby1/9,ordividedby9.

Whatwouldhappenifcharge1wasdoubled,andthedistancebetweenchargeswashalved?
Letsstartwiththeelectricforceequation:


Nowwewillreplaceeveryvariableontherightsidewithaone,exceptforcharge1,whichIwillchangetoa2,
andthedistance,whichIwillchangetoa,sinceitisbeinghalved.

Thisbecomes:

Thissimplifiesto:

Thattellsusthattheoriginalelectricforcewouldbemultipliedby8.

Appendix A: Instructions for Linearizing on LoggerPro

1. OpenupLoggerPro
2. Insertyourdataintothetwocolumns(rememberingthatindependentgoesonXwhile
dependentgoesonY)
3. Renamecolumns
i. RightclickontheXorYbox,gotoColumnOptions,clickonDataSetX
ii. Renametoappropriatename,shortname,ANDunits.ClickDone
iii. RepeatiandiiforDataSetY.
4. Identifytheshapeandproportion.Figureoutwhatneedstogoinyourthirdcolumnofdata,
basedonwhichdatafromyourproportionthatyoudonthave.
5. Toaddthethirdcolumn,clickDatafromthetopbar,andselectNewCalculatedColumn
6. RenameanddefinetheNewCalculatedColumn
i. Rename,putinshortname,ANDunits.
ii. Intheequationbox,writehowthecolumnneedstobecalculated.(Forexample,ifI
wantedtosquaremyPressurecolumn,IwouldhitthebuttonVariables(Columns),
selectPressure,andthen,intheequationbox,typea^2afterPressure)
iii. ClickDone.
7. Addanewgraphwithyourlinearizeddata,byclickingInsertonthetopbar,thenclickGraph.
8. ClickCTRL+Rtoarrangeeverythingnicelyonyourscreen.
9. Iftheaxesarelabeledincorrectly(andtheyprobablywillbe),changewhatdatagoesonwhich
axis.
i. Rightclickonthenewgraph,andclickGraphOptions.
ii. HittheAxesOptionstab.
iii. UnderYAxisColumns,selectthedatayouwantontheYAxis,andunselectthedata
thatyoudont.
iv.
UnderXAxis,thenColumn,clickonthedropdownmenuandselectthedatayouwant
onyourXAxis.
v.
Clickdone.
10. Yoursecondgraphshouldlooklinear!Yourealmostdone.Inthetopbar,clicktheLinearFit
button.Ithasnowordsunlessyouhoveroverit.Itlookslikeabluecurvewitharedline,with
anR=underneath.
11. Aboxshouldpopupnexttoyourfit,whichwillhavetheequationforyourline(andcurve!)
WITHUNITS!(Itgivesyoutheslopeandinterceptseparately,butyoucaninserttheminto
y=mx+brealeasy,right?)Itsfantastic.

Appendix B: How to Write a Lab Report

Youwillberequiredtowritemanylabreportsinthisclass.Whenscientistsconductanexperiment,they
communicatetheirfindingsthroughawrittenreport.Wewillbemodelingthisscientificpracticethroughour
useoflabreports.Ourlabreportswillhaveseveralspecificsections.Yourlabshouldhaveeachoneofthese
sections,andlookroughlylikethis.
Purpose:Thelabspurposewillstatewhatrelationshipyouarelookingforinthelab,includingwhichofyour
twovariablesistheindependentvariable,andwhichisthedependentvariable.ForexampleThepurposeof
thislabistofindtherelationshipbetweenforce,theindependentvariable,andacceleration,thedependent
variable.
Apparatus:Theapparatusissimplyadrawingofyourlabsetup,withlabelsshowingwhateachpieceof
equipmentis.Forexample,

Procedure:Thepointoftheproceduresectionistotellhowyougatheredyourdata.Youshouldstateagain
whichofyourvariablesistheindependentvariableandwhichisthedependentvariable.Apersonwhomissed
thelabshouldbeabletoreadyourprocedureandrepeatyourstepstodothelabthemselves.Sayyouwantto
changetheangleofyourpumpkinlauncherandseehowitaffectsthedistancethepumpkinwillfly.Hereis
whatyourproceduremightlooklike:
1. Iwillbechangingtheangleonmylauncher,soitistheindependentvariable.Iwillbe
seeinghowangleaffectsthedistance.Therefore,distanceisthedependentvariable,
becauseitdependsontheangle.
2. Loadpumpkinintolauncher.
3. Setlaunchangleto10degrees.
4. Launchpumpkin.
5. Usemeasuringtapetomeasurethedistancefromthefrontedgeofthelaunchertothe
centerofthepumpkin.
6. Recorddistanceandangle.
7. Repeatsteps26withangles20,30,40,50,and60degrees.

Data:Theonlythinginthissectionshouldbearawdatatable.Makesurethatyourdatatableislabeledand
includesunitsinparentheses.Rememberthatyouneedsixdatapoints.
Position(m)
1
2
3
4
5
6

Time(s)
5
10
15
20
25
30

DataAnalysis:DataAnalysisshouldincludethefollowingsubsections.
Graph:Insertyourgraphhereorstatewherethegraphcanbefound(i.e.seeattached).Makesure
thatyourgraphmeetsalloftherequirementscoveredinUnit1.
Calculations:Thisiswhereyouwouldincludeanycalculationsmadetogetfromyourrawdatatoyour
calculateddata.Includeyourcalculateddatatablesherewithanexplanationofthecalculationsmade,
andanexamplecalculation.Forexample,sayyoumeasuredtheradiusofacircle,butyouwantto
graphthecircumferenceofthecircle.Youwillneedtocalculatethecircumferencedatafromyour
radiusdata.
Radius(m)
Circumference(m)
1
6.28
2
12.6
3
18.9
4
25.1
5
31.4
6
37.7
Inordertogetfromradiustocircumference,Iusedtheequationcircumference=2**radius.For
example,foraradiusof3m,mycircumference=2**3=12.57m.
Relationship:Twothingsshouldbestatedhere1)thegraphshape,and2)theproportionbetween
theindependentanddependentvariables.Forexample,Thegraphwasaninversegraph,which
meansthatpressureisproportionalto1/volume.
Equations:Thisiswhereyouwillincludetheequationforyourgraph.Thisfirsttimeyouaddressthe
equation,itshouldincludeayintercept.Besurethatyourequationmeetstherequirementscovered
inUnit1.Forexample,d=(43m/s)t+0.02m.Noticethatpropervariableswereused,theslopeisin
parentheseswithunits,andtheyintercepthasunits.
5%Rule:Thisiswhereyouwillshowthecalculationstodecideifyouryinterceptissignificantor
negligible.Remember,ifyouryinterceptisnegligible,itissmallenoughtobeconsideredzero.
Rememberthetwomethodsforcalculatingifyouryinterceptissignificantornot.Method1)0.05x
[highestyvalue]=___[#]___<or>[youryintercept].Ifyouryinterceptis<the#,itsnegligible,and

ifyouryinterceptis>the#,itssignificant.Method2)[youryintercept]/[highestyvalue]=___[#]___
<or>0.05.Ifyour#is<0.05,itisnegligible,andifyour#is>0.05,itissignificant.
Letssaythatyouryinterceptis0.0522m,andthatyourhighestyvalueis1.87m.Isyouryintercept
negligibleorsignificant?Letsfindout!
Method1)0.05x1.87=0.0935,whichis>0.0522(myyintercept).Therefore,theyinterceptis
negligible.
Method2)0.0522/1.87=.0279,whichis<0.05.Therefore,theyinterceptisnegligible.
Sincetheyinterceptisnegligible,itisconsideredequivalenttozero.ThismeansthatwhenIstate
myequationintheconclusionIwillnotincludetheyintercept.
Conclusion:Yourconclusionshouldaddressthefollowingincompletesentences:

Relationship:Restatetherelationship(graphshapeandproportion)inyourconclusion.
Discussionofnewtermsandrelationships:Youwillalwayslearnnewtermsandvocabulary.Explain
whatyoulearned.Forexample,IlearnedabouttheKelvintemperaturescale.Kelvinisastandard
unitfortemperatureinscience.IlearnedthatthewaytoconvertdegreesCelsiustoKelvinistoadd
273tothetemperatureinCelsius.
Equations:Thistimeyourequationshouldreflecttheresultsofyourcalculationsfromthe5%Rule.If
youfoundyouryintercepttobesignificant,includeitwithyourequation.Ifyoufoundyouryintercept
tobenegligible,donotincludeitwithyourequationhere.
Physicalmeaningofslope:Thisiswhereyouwilldiscusstheslopeandwhatitmeansintermsofthe
experiment,notintermsofthegraph.Forexample,Ourslopeis3.00g/cm3.Thismeansthat1cubic
centimeterofthesubstancehasamassof3.00grams.Thismeansthat3.00g/cm3isthedensityof
thesubstance.
Discussionof5%Rule:Youdonotneedtorestateorshowyourcalculationsagain.Explainwhetheror
notyouryinterceptissignificantornegligible,andwhy.
Physicalmeaningofyintercept:Thisiswhereyouwilldiscusstheyintercept(evenifitiszero)and
whatitmeansintermsoftheexperiment,notintermsofthegraph.Ouryinterceptwasnegligible,
whichmeanswecanconsiderouryintercepttobe0m/s.Thismeansthatourstartingvelocitywas0
m/s.
Discussionoferror:Letsbehonestyoumadeamistakesomewhereinthelab.Evenifyouwereable
tocorrectit,discussanyerrorsthatoccurredduringthelab.Therewillalwaysbesomethingforyouto
talkabout.
Everydaylifeexample:Giveanexampleofwhereyouwouldseetheconceptsfromthelabinan
everydaylifesituation.Becreative!Forexample,Thislabwasaboutcollisionsandimpulse.Itisa

collisionbetweenmeandmylittlebrotherwhenIkaratechophiminthehead.Iexertanimpulseon
mybrotherwhenIkaratechophim.