FLUID MECHANICS NOTES

BASIC PHYSICS 1 (FMAX 0111)

Fluid dynamics
1. In this chapter we will discuss the properties of fluids in motion which is called fluid

dynamics or if the fluid is water is called hydrodynamics. In general, there are shear
forces between layers of fluid that move past each other and between the moving fluid
and the boundary surfaces. This property of fluids is called viscosity, and the shear
forces, which are frictional in nature, are called viscous forces.
2. In the last chapter we discussed the properties of fluids at rest. Their central feature was
the lack of shear forces between layers of the fluid and between the fluid and the
boundary surfaces. Partly as a consequence of that fact it was found that the pressure in
a container of fluid varies only with the vertical depth of the fluid.
3. We will first consider the properties of nonviscous fluid motion, and then the case of
viscosity. Before doing either, however, we discuss the nature of fluid motion itself.
4. Fluids in motion occur in our everyday experience: the water moving through the pipes
of a house; hot air moving through the heating ducts of a building; water flowing
slowly in a quiet river and winds moving clouds through the sky.
5. We can distinguish two main types of fluid flow. If the flow is smooth, such that
neighboring layers of fluid slide by each other smoothly, the flow is said to be
streamline or laminar flow. The flow pattern at any point stays the same from moment
to moment. In this kind of flow, each particle of the fluid follows a smooth path and
these paths do not cross over one another (Figure 4a).
6. Above a certain speed, which depends on a number of factors, the flow becomes
turbulent. The turbulent flow is characterized by erratic, small, whirlpool-like circles
called eddy currents or eddies (Fig.4b). The flow pattern at any given point will change
over time.

Figure 4
Equation of Continuity
1. Consider the flow tube of Figure 5. (If we trace the streamlines of the fluid of
steady flow that pass through a small cross-sectional area through which some of
the fluid is flowing, we get what is called a stream tube or flow tube).
2. We assume that areas at each end are small and are chosen perpendicular to the
direction of flow at each end. Let vl and v2 be the velocities of the fluid at the two
ends. The mass of fluid that flows into one end of the tube in a given time interval
must be the same as the mass that flows out the other end in the same time interval.
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This follows from the conservation of mass, and the fact that for steady flow the
mass inside the flow tube between the two ends must remain constant.

Figure 5
3. Suppose that a short time interval t elapses. All particles that are to the left of the
surface A1 within a distance v1 t of it will pass through the surface in this time
interval, as shown in Figure 6.
4. The volume of fluid entering the tube is thus
V1 = v1 t A1 ... (11.17)
and the mass is given by
m1 = 1 V1 = l v l t A1...(11.18)
where 1 is the density of fluid at A1.
5. Similarly, the amount of mass leaving the tube through A2 is
m2 = 2 V 2 = 2 v2 t A2 ...(11.19)
where 2 is the fluid density at A2.
6. From m1 = m2, we get the equation of continuity

1 1 A1 2 2 A2 ...(11.20)
If the fluid is incompressible ( does not change with pressure), we have

1 2 and (11.20) reduces to

1 A1 2 A2 ...(11.21)

Figure 6
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Bernoulli's Equation
1. We now turn to the question of how the pressure behaves in a flowing fluid. Again we
will assume an incompressible fluid with constant density .
2. Consider the flow tube in Fig.7. Let us apply the work-energy theorem to the fluid
that at a given instant of time lies between points 1 and 2.
3. This fluid constitutes our system, and everything else is external to it. At the end of a
time interval t, our system (the same fluid) lies between points 1' and 2'.
4. Since we are ignoring viscosity, the only forces other than gravity doing work on our
system are those due to the pressure of the fluid to the left of our system at point 1 and
to the right of our system at point 2.
5. The force on our system at point 1 is P1A1, acting to the right. During time t that force
acts through a distance v1 t, yielding the positive work, WI = P1A1v1 t. But A1v1 t
= V1, the volume moved through in time t, so W1 = PI V1.

Figure 7
6. The force from the fluid to the right of our system at point 2 is just P2 A2 acting to
the left. In time t the fluid boundary moves a distance v 2 t to the right. The work
done is thus
W2 = - P2 A2 v2 t = -P 2 V 2
7. The net work done by all forces other than gravity is thus Wfluid = P l V 1 - P 2 V 2.
Since the fluid is assumed incompressible, V1 = V 2 (Remember that the volume of
fluid that passes through A1 in the time t equals the volume that passes through A2 in
the same time interval). Calling this common volume V, we have
Wfluid = P1 V P2 V ...(11.22)
8. Work is also done on the fluid by the force of gravity

W3 m g h2 h1 ...(11.23)

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where h1 and h2 are heights of the center of the tube above some arbitrary reference
level. This term is negative because the motion is uphill against the force of gravity.
9. The net work done on the fluid is thus

Wnet W1 W2 W3 ...(11.24)
Wnet P1 V P2 V m g h2 m g h1 ...(11.25)
10. According to the work energy principle, the net work done on a system is equal to its
change in kinetic energy. Thus,

1 2 1
mv2 m v12 P1 V P2 V m g h2 m g h1 ...(11.26)
2
2
11. The mass m is given as V so that (11.26) becomes

1
1
V v22 V v12 P1 V P2 V V g h2 V g h1 ...(11.27)
2
2
12. Divide by V will reduce to

1
1
v22 v12 P1 P2 g h2 g h1 ...(11.28)
2
2
which we rearrange to get

P1

1
1
12 g h1 P2 22 g h2 ...(11.29)
2
2

13. This is Bernoullis equation. Since points 1 and 2 can be any two points chosen
along a tube of flow, Bernoullis equation can be written as

1
P 2 g h constant ...(11.30)
2
14. A special case of interest is that in which the cross-sectional area on one side of a
stream tube is very large compared to the other side. An example is a tank with a
small opening on the side or bottom of a tank (Figure 8).
15. The speed of the water emerging from the hole is equal to the speed acquired by a
body falling freely through the vertical distance h (h1 h2). This result is known as
Torricellis theorem.

Figure 8

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