Lecture Outline

Definitions & theorems of Boolean

algebra
Boolean functions
Canonical & standard forms
Digital Logic Gates
Integrated Circuits

Boolean Algebra & Logic

Gates

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Boolean Algebra

Boolean Algebra

Any deductive mathematical system

can be defined with a set of
elements, a set of operators that act
on these elements, and a number of
unproved axioms or postulates
The postulates form the basic
assumptions from which it is possible
to deduce the rules, theorems and
properties of the system
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Boolean algebra is a structure

defined by:
A set of elements
Two binary operators (+ and )

Provided that the following

postulates are satisfied:

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Boolean Algebra

Boolean Algebra

For x, y, z, elements of the set, the following

should hold:
1.
2.
3.
4.

5.
6.

Thus we can define a two-valued boolean algebra

using the following:

Closure with respect to + and

An identity element (e) exists: (x+e=x, xe=x)
Commutative with respect to + and :
x+y=y+x, xy=yx
is distributive over + and + is distributive over
x(y+z)=(xy)+(xz)
x+(yz)=(x+y)(x+z)
For every element x in the set, there exists an element
x such that x+x=1 and xx=0
There exist at least two elements x,y such that xy
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Boolean Algebra

x+y

xy

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Boolean Algebra

Then a two-valued boolean algebra can be defined

since all the required postulates hold (verify
using the truth tables):
1. Closure is obvious
2. Identity elements (0 for +, 1 for )
3. Commutative law holds (look at the truth
tables)
4. Distributive law holds (construct truth table)
5. x+x=1, xx=0
6. Two distinct elements 0 and 1

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A set of two elements {0, 1}

Two binary operators {+, } which operate on the set of
elements as follows:

Basic theorems of Boolean algebra:

1. x+x=x
2. xx=x
3. x+1=1
4. x0=0
5. (x)=x
6. x+xy=x (note that x+xy=x+y)
7. x(x+y)=x
These theorems can be proven both algebraically
and with the help of truth tables
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Boolean Algebra

Boolean Functions

Operator precedence:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Consist of:
Binary variables
The constants 0 and 1
The logic operation symbols

parentheses
NOT
AND
OR

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For a given value of the binary

variables, the function can be equal
to either 1 or 0

Boolean Functions

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Boolean Functions

Example: F1=x+yz
A Boolean function can be
represented with the help of a
unique truth table
A list of combinations of 1s and 0s
assigned to the binary variables and
a column that shows the value of the
function for each binary combination
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F1

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Boolean Functions

Boolean Functions
A Boolean function can be
represented in many algebraic forms
We always look for the most simple
form
By manipulating a Boolean
expression using Boolean algebra
rules, it is possible to obtain a
simpler expression and reduce the
number of gates in the circuit

A Boolean function can be

transformed from an algebraic
expression into a circuit diagram
composed of logic gates:

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Boolean Functions

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Boolean Functions

Consider the function:

F2=xyz+xyz+xy
This expression can be simplified as
follows:
F2=xyz+xyz+xy
=xz(y+y)+xy
=xz+xy

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Boolean Functions

Boolean Functions
The complement of a function can be
calculated using DeMorgans
theorem:
Two variables:
(x+y)=xy
Three variables:
(x+y+z)=xyz

(xy)=x+y
(xyz)=x+y+z

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The generalised DeMorgans states

that the complement of a function is
obtained by interchanging AND and
OR operators and complementing
each literal (a single variable within a
term that may be complemented or
not):
(A+B+C+D++F)=ABCDF
(ABCDF)=A+B+C+D++F

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Canonical & Standard Forms

Canonical & Standard Forms

Consider two binary variables x and y

There are four possible product (AND)
combinations of these variables:
xy, xy, xy, xy
Each of the AND terms is called a
minterm or a standard product
n variables can be combined to
provide 2n different minterms

Consider two binary variables x and y

There are four possible sum (OR)
combinations of these variables:
x+y, x+y, x+y, x+y
Each of the OR terms is called a
maxterm or a standard sum
n variables can be combined to
provide 2n different maxterms

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Canonical & Standard Forms

Obtaining minterms:

Canonical & Standard Forms

Obtaining maxterms:

Minterms

Maxterms

Terms

Designation

xyz

m0

xyz

m1

xyz

m2

xyz

m3

xyz

Terms

Designation

x+y+z

M0

x+y+z

M1

x+y+z

M2

x+y+z

M3

m4

x+y+z

M4

xyz

m5

x+y+z

M5

xyz

m6

x+y+z

M6

xyz

m7

x+y+z

M7

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Canonical & Standard Forms

If a Boolean function is expressed as
a sum of minterms or a product of
maxterms, it is said to be in a
canonical form
There is a standard process of
deriving a Boolean function in either
of these canonical forms directly from
the truth table of the function
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Canonical & Standard Forms

x

F1

Selected
Terms

m1

m4

m7

F1=m1+m4+m5+m6+m7=
F1=m1+m4+m7=xyz+xyz+xyz

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Canonical & Standard Forms

x

F1

Selected
Terms

M0

M2

M3

M5

M6

Canonical & Standard Forms

Notation for sum of minterms and
product of maxterms expression:
F1(x,y,z)=(1,5,7)=(0,2,3,5,6)

F1=m1+m4+m5+m6+m7=
F1=M0M2M3M5M6=(x+y+z)(x+y+z)(x+y+z)(x+y+z)(x+y+z)

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Canonical & Standard Forms

Canonical forms are not the ones with
the least number of literals, since, by
definition, each term must contain, all
variables either complemented or
uncomplemented
In a standard form, a Boolean
function may contain any number of
literals
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Canonical & Standard Forms

There are two basic standard forms
for a Boolean functions:
Sum of products
Product of sums

If a Boolean function is expressed in

neither of these forms, then we say
that it is in a non-standard form

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Canonical & Standard Forms

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Digital Logic Gates Positive &

Negative Logic

Digital Logic Gates

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Canonical & Standard Forms

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Digital Logic Gates Positive &

Negative Logic

Integrated Circuits (ICs)

A silicon semiconductor crystal, called
a chip, containing the electronic
components for constructing digital
gates
Various gates are interconnected
inside the chip
Chip is mounted on a ceramic or
plastic container and connections are
welded to external pins

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Integrated Circuits (ICs)

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Integrated Circuits (ICs)

Levels of integration:

Levels of integration:

Small Scale Integration (SSI): <10 gates

per chip
Medium Scale Integration
(MSI):10<gates<1000 per chip, perform
elementary digital operations (decoders,
adders, multiplexers

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Large Scale Integration (SSI): thousands

of gates per chip, processors, memory
chips, programmable logic devices
Very Large Scale Integration (MSI):
millions of gates per chip (!), large
memory arrays, complex microcomputer
chips. These are the devices that have
revolutionised the computer system
design technology
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Integrated Circuits (ICs)

Integrated Circuits (ICs)

Digital Logic families parameters:

Digital Logic families:

Fan-out: maximum number of standard

outputs that can be supported
Fan-in: number of inputs available
Power dissipation: power consumed by
the gate
Propagation delay: transition delay time
from input to output
Noise margin: maximum external noise
voltage allowed

TTL
ECL
MOS
CMOS

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Computer-Aided Design (CAD)

Homework

How does anybody go about

designing a VLSI circuit with millions
of gates?
Computer-Aided Design specialised
tools automate the design process for
VLSI design
Hardware Description Language

Solve the problems indicated by your

instructor:
Due in by next weeks lecture
Write clearly and explain the solution
process

Resembles a programming language

Describes digital hardware
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