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Introductions
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Photosynthetic Tissue
Chloroplasts are the sugar producing cells (mainly found in
leaves).
The chlorophyll in
these cells enables
the process of
photosynthesis to
occur.
Dormant Ramsay
cutting
Section showing the small, thin
walled cells of the cambium
The large sieve tube cells and the
thick-walled fibre cells of the
phloem and xylem,
The ray cells which in the xylem
contain starch grains and
pith
Medullary rays
bark
phloem
Root distribution
and function
Main roots, lateral roots and
feeder roots.
Feeder roots are formed
regularly during the growing
season, short lived, and
provide the large absorption
surface needed to supply the
vine with its nutrients and
water.
Root distribution
and function
Each root has at its end a
yellow coloured region
less than 2.5 cm long
containing the absorption
zone below this is the
zone of elongation
growing point
root cap
Zone of
maturation
Zone of
elongation
Zone of cell
division
Root functions
Anchorage
Water and nutrient absorption
Dissolved nutrients in the soil solution are absorbed by the
roots and diffuse into the vascular tissue (xylem)
Uptake of these nutrients depends on their concentration and
mobility in the soil, the uptake rate of the particular grape
variety and the soil temperatures (optimum 25-30oC).
Role of mychorrizal fungi
Root functions
Storage of reserves
In late summer and autumn, carbohydrates are transferred for
storage in the root system to provide food reserves for the
future seasons growth.
Hormone production
Hormone production (gibberellin and cytokinin) by the roots
influences growth and development of the shoots and clusters
of the grapevine.
Root Distribution
Most of the roots are
concentrated in the
top metre of the soil
directly under the
vine canopy.
Apical meristem
Shoots
A shoot is the succulent stem
bearing the leaves, tendrils and
flower clusters (inflorescences) all
of the information required to
grow a shoot is contained within a
bud.
Leaf Function
Leaves undergo a gradual transition from
importing photosynthetic products to export (at
approximately 30-50% of the maximal size). Full
leaf expansion may take between 30 to 40 days.
Photosynthetic products from grapevine leaves are exported to the developing
apex and clusters.
Following harvest/fruit removal, the majority of photosynthates are directed
towards and stored in the roots.
Leaf fall or senescence normally begins in late autumn when minerals are
translocated (remobilised) back into the canes and trunk.
Formation of grapevine
flowers (3 stages) - Anlagen
Anlagen (uncommitted primordia)
May develop into inflorescence primordia,
tendril primordia or shoot primordia.
Hormones
Giberellin (GA) applied to inflorescence
primordia can convert them to tendril like
structures.
Cytokinin can be used to induce inflorescence
formation in place of tendrils.
Stages in inflorescence development, May 2006 (left) and August 2006 (right) (Heaslewood, PowerPoint Presentation)
Formation of grapevine
flowers (3 stages)
Flower formation
The final stage is
flower formation
when the
inflorescence
primordia
differentiate to
form the flowers.
Excess/lack of vigour
High and low temperatures
Exposure to wind
Nutrient deficiencies
Water stress
Carbohydrate availability
Berry Development
Appearance of berries at 10 day intervals revealing
the two successive sigmoid growth curves of a grape
berry, named berry formation and berry ripening.
Three generalised x-axes are shown, days after
flowering, approximate juice Brix values during
ripening and developmental growth stages using the
modified E-L system.
The key growth stages and the approximate timing
of the accumulation of major solutes are shown.
Top sketch indicating the relative activity of phloem
and xylem transport into the berry.
At bottom, scale drawings of anatomical features in
the longitudinal sections of developing grape seeds
at days, 4, 14, 28, 42 and 98 days after flowering
(Coombe and Iland, 2004).
Berry Anatomy
The grape berries are made
up of skin, pulp, and seeds.
The skin of grape berries
acquires different colours at
differing stages in the
growth cycle.
Pigments in the outer layer
called anthocyanins are
responsible for this
colouring
Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis occurs in chloroplasts
Chloroplasts contain photosynthetic pigment which is
capable of absorbing energy from sunlight.
Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis
5th leaf
starts to
transport
Water Status Water availability affects the opening and closing of the
stomata and thus the entry of carbon dioxide into the leaves.
The amount of water available for photosynthesis is determined by,
The rate of transpiration (the capacity of the vine to replace lost moisture),
Humidity (the lower the humidity or the higher the wind speed, the greater
the water loss),
Mineral availability (especially nitrogen, iron and magnesium) which are
required to maintain leaf colour (if leaf chlorosis occurs then the
photosynthetic capacity will be reduced),
Stomata aperture (the opening and closing of stomata).
Practical considerations
The level of light reaching the leaves beneath the outer layer of the vine
canopy is generally less than required for maximum photosynthesis.
When trellising grapevines, the grower should be aiming to maximise the number of
leaves exposed to direct sunlight.
Vines that are stressed and wilt usually need some time to recover their
normal photosynthetic rate.
This is probably because wilting causes some structural damage to the leaf cells.
Translocation
Translocation is the process by which chemical materials and
nutrients are moved in the vine.
Sugars can be exported to the shoot tip, the grape cluster, the root
system and/or other permanent parts like the trunk for storage (sinks).
Stored foods flow in the phloem from the leaves to other parts of the
vine.
Mineral salts, water, etc, absorbed by the roots, flow upwards in the
xylem.
Water moves
through the vine
inside the xylem
vessels carrying
nutrients in
solution.
All minerals entering the vine roots from the soil must be in a water solution
(some ions are absorbed more readily than others)
Mobile nutrients (redistributed from old leaves to
the growing tip and deficiency symptoms evident on old
leaves first) N, P, K, Mg, Mn
Immobile nutrients
Ca, B, Fe,
Transpiration
Water absorbed by the roots is drawn
into the leaves from where it
evaporates in a process known as
transpiration. Nearly all vine
processes are dependent on water.
Up to 98% of water escapes from the
leaves and the stem as water vapour
(natural cooling process).
About 1% is used via photosynthesis
and another 1% is needed to keep the
cells firm (turgid).
Wind; The wind movement over the leaf takes with it the layer of water
vapour accumulated near the surface thus increasing transpiration.
Inadequate soil aeration slows down the water absorption rate of the roots.
This results in slow root growth and if conditions persist, the roots
disintegrate.
Respiration
Involves the breakdown of sugars (formed during
photosynthesis) and starch to release energy.
C6H12O6 + 6O2 > 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy
Respiration enables
Synthesis of complex molecules
Growth and repair of cells
Active transport of materials across
cell membranes
Extra energy for specials cells to
function
Transport of materials in the phloem
Respiration
Energy is stored
Energy is released
Oxygen is produced
Oxygen is used
Water is used
Water is produced
Requires light
If an exposed vine leaf feels cool to touch the vine is transpiring water
through the stomata (when vines are stressed, stomata partially or
completely close, so transpiration ceases and the leaf feels warm).
On a particularly hot day, the leaves may fold to avoid the sun, and tendrils
will appear to wilt.
Berries may become less firm and start to shrivel
Vine Vigour
Vine Appearance
None
Slight
Moderate
to High
High
High to
Very High
36%
30%
25%
20%
15%
14%
10%
9%
5%
6%
0%
Budburst to
flowering
Flowering to Fruit
set
Fruit set to
Veraison
Veraison to
Harvest
Harvest to Leaf
fall
Vineyard Management
Considerations
Vineyard Management
Considerations
Develop an irrigation budget and
determine if additional water needs
to be purchased (if available and cost
benefit warrants additional
purchase).
Monitor vine growth carefully
ensuring irrigation is applied at key
times without encouraging excessive
shoot length.
Salinity
Irrigating with
saline water
(or where soil
salinity is high).
Minimise the use of fertilisers which may add to the salt load
being added to the root zone (some nutrients may be needed to
encourage vine vigour and maintain vine health).
Mound undervine to provide a larger area for roots to explore
(above an existing water table) and apply mulch undervine to
minimise water loss.
If replanting your vineyard consider planting onto salt resistant
rootstocks.
Wind
Vineyard Management
Considerations
Frost
Intensity of frost
events may be higher
due to dry soils,
leading to
consumption of water
for frost mitigation.
Vineyard Management
Considerations
Carbohydrate
reserves
Vines stored
carbohydrate
(sugars and starch)
reserves are lower
Poor root
distribution
Vineyard Management
Considerations
Vineyard Management
Considerations
Flowering
conditions
changed
Vineyard Management
Considerations
Vineyard Management
Considerations
Root
distribution
and health
Nutrient
application
Application of
fertiliser
High
temperatures
Vineyard Management
Considerations
Post harvest
care
Getting ready
for the next
growing
season
Acknowledgements
Funding for the Advanced Viticulture series has been provided by: