MEP 514 Measurements and Control

Dynamic Behavior of a Measurement System

1 Introduction
Measurement systems are often subject to inputs that vary with
time. The purpose of this module is to introduce the student to the
behavior of measuring systems when subjected to time-varying
inputs, such as a step and sinusoidal inputs.
In order to accomplish this task, we start with modeling the
measurement system.

2 Measurement System Model

A measurement system can be represented by a block diagram as
shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1 Measurement system operation on an input signal, F(t), provides the

output signal, y(t).

The dynamic behavior of most measurement systems can be

described by a linear ordinary differential equation of order n:

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With

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Note: In the above two equations, n must be less than m.

3 Zero-Order Systems
A zero-order system is the simplest model of a system for which

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K is determined by static calibration of the instrument.
Figure 2 depicts schematically the response of a zero-order system
to a step input.

Figure 2. Response of zero-order system to a step input

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Most instruments do not exactly "follow" dynamic changes and

hence do not behave as zero-order systems. Resistive sensors (e.g.,
strain gauges) are very near to zero-order behavior, see Figure 3.

Figure 3. Example of a zero-order system

The two main characteristics of a zero-order system are:

1. Behavior is described by a zero-order equation.
2. Response to the input signal is instantaneous.

4 First-Order Systems
A first-order system is a measuring system that is modeled by a
first-order differential equation. This equation is a special form of
Equation (1) above, with n=1. Thus, for a first-order system

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A first-order system is one where energy is stored.
The change in input, see Figures 4 and 5 for step input, is not
seen immediately in the output.
Many instruments follow a first-order behavior. This includes,
for example,
o Thermal systems
o Digital and analog filter
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o capacitors
The analysis of a first-order system provides a parameter, the time
constant, for choosing an instrument. The time constant tells us if
the instrument will respond quick enough to capture changes in the
system. Smaller time constant means faster response.

Figure 4. Dynamic response of a first order system to a step input

As already shown in the last module, the solution to the above

differential equation is given by:

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The first term (KA) on the RHS of Equation (5) represents the
steady component, whereas the second term [(y0-KA)e-t/] represents
the transient response. Here, is the time constant. With the
negative exponent, the transient term is decaying with time,
allowing the output to settle to a final value, as shown in Figure 4
above.
Important Notes:

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1. Do not use Equation 5 blindly. Take care of the initial

conditions. Recall the module of mathematical background,
with the first-order system example.
2. It is better to derive the solution applying the Laplace
transform rather than learning the solution by heart.
4.1.1 Thermal System Revisited
The energy balance equation of the bulb thermometer explained in
the last module is also valid for the thermocouple. For a step input,
this equation reads

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The above first-order linear equation is subject in this example to a
step function U(t), such that (see Figure below)

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Setting

, equation (6) can be put in the form

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Using the Laplace Transform, we get the following solution
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Rearranging Equation 9, we get

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Figure 5a. Dynamic response (y/y) of a first order system to a step input

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Figure 5b. Dynamic response (y/y) of a first order system to a step input.
Note that the slope at t=0 intersects y/y =1. The corresponding value of t/
is t/ =1. At this point, y/y=0.632

Figure 6. First-order response to variation of

Rearranging Equation (10), we get:

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In the above equation, (t) is the dynamic error, and M(t) is the
magnitude ratio.

Figure 7.

Magnitude
ratio and the dynamic error for first order system

4.1.2 Analogy with Electric Circuit

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5 First-Order System Response to Sinusoidal

Input
The following equation models the behavior of a first-order system
subject to a sinusoidal input.

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where is the angular frequency.
The Laplace transform for sin(t) side is given by:

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Substituting and following the solution steps using the Laplace
transform gives the following solution:

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Initial condition

Transient response

Long term SS response

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Defining

= Dynamic error
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= Magnitude ratio

= 1-M

The magnitude ratio is given by

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5.1.1 Time History of Thermocouple
From the above analysis, it is clear that the entire frequency
response characteristics of the thermocouple can be described in
terms of a magnitude ratio and a phase shift.
Note that is the only system characteristic which affects the
frequency response, as will be clear from Equation 15.

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Figure 8. Relationship between a sinusoidal input and output for a first-order

system

5.1.2 Example
A measurement instrument is described by the first-order equation

Calculate the system output.

Solution
Using the Laplace transform and applying the initial condition,

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