Stephanie Chiu

Chapter 13 Outline
Reformation and Religious Warfare in the Sixteenth Century
I.

Prelude to Reformation
A. Christian (or Northern Renaissance) Humains
1. Focus on Religious Simplicity
a. Northern humanists focused on the sources of early Christianity, the
Holy Scriptures and the writings of such church fathers as Augustine,
Ambrose and Jerome. In these early Christian writings, they
discovered a simple religion that they came to feel had been
distorted by the complicated theological arguments of the Middle
Ages.
2. Call for Religious Reform
a. With their belief in the ability of human beings to reason and
improve themselves, the northern humanists felt that trough
education in the sources of classical, and especially Christian,
antiquity, they could instill a true inner piety or an inward religious
feeling that would bring about a reform of the church and society.
3. Reform through Education
a. Christian humanists believed that to change society, they must first
change the human beings who compose it.
b. They supported schools, brought out new editions of the classics,
and prepared new editions of the bible and writings of the church
fathers.
B. Erasmus: Prince of Humanists
1. Emphasis on Inner Piety
a. Erasmus emphasized inner piety and deemphasized the external
forms of religion (such as the sacraments, pilgrimages, fasts,
veneration of saints, and relics). To return to the simplicity of the
early church, people needed to understand the original meaning of
the Scriptures and early church fathers.
2. Praise of Folly: Satire of the Age
a. Written in 1511, in which Erasmus was able to engage in humorous
yet effective criticism of the most corrupt practices of his own
society. He was especially harsh on the abuses within the ranks of
the clergy.
3. Influence of the Protestant Revolt
a. Erasmus program did not achieve the reform of the church that he
so desired. His moderation and his emphasis on education were
quickly overwhelmed by the passions of the Reformation.
b. Erasmus laid the egg that Luther hatched Yet Erasmus eventually
disapproved of Luther and the Protestant reformers. He had no
intention of destroying the unity of the medieval Christian church;
rather, his whole program was based on reform within the church.
C. Thomas More: Christian Conscience of His Age
1. Utopia: Blueprint for a more Perfect Society

II.

III.

a. Written in 1516, described the idealistic life and institutions of the

community of Utopia (Greek for nowhere), an imaginary island in
the vicinity of the New World.
b. It reflects Mores concerns with the economic, social, and political
problems of his day.
2. Henry VIII and Royal Divorce
a. Mores religious devotion and belief in the universal Catholic Church
proved even more important than his service to the king, however.
Always the man of conscience, More willingly gave up his life
opposing Englands break with the Roman Catholic Church over the
divorce of King Henry VIII.
Church and Religion on the Eve of the Reformation
A. Abuses of the Clergy: Pluralism, Absenteeism
1. The highest positions among the clergy were increasingly held by either
nobles or the wealthy members of the bourgeoisie. Moreover, to increase
their revenues, high church officials took over more than one church office.
2. This so-called Pluralism led in turn to absenteeism: church office holders
ignored their duties and hired underlings who often had even less interest
in the job. Complaints about the ignorance and ineptness of parish priests
became widespread in the fifteenth century.
B. Popular Religion
1. Passion for Relics
a. What is striking about the revival of religious piety in the fifteenth
centurywhether expressed through such external forces as the
veneration of relics and buying of indulgences or the mystical path
was its adherence to the orthodox beliefs and practices of the
Catholic church.
2. Thomas a Kempis Imitation of Christ
a. He wrote that truly, at the day of judgment we shall not be
examined by what we have read, but what we have done; not how
well we have spoken, but how religiously we have lived.
3. Indulgences
a. Frederick the Wise, elector of Saxony and Martin Luthers prince,
had amassed over five thousand relics to which were attached
indulgences that could reduce ones time in purgatory by 1,443
years.
b. An indulgence is a remission, after death, of all or part of the
punishment for sin.
Martin Luther and the Reformation in Germany
A. Early Luther
1. From the Peasantry
a. The young Martin began to study law but was not content, not in
small part due to his longstanding religious inclinations.
2. From Law to the Monastery
a. In the monastery, Luther focused on his major concern, the
assurance of salvation. The traditional beliefs and practices of the
church seemed unable to relieve his obsession with this question,
especially evident in his struggles with the sacrament of penance or
confession.
3. Justification by Grace through Faith

IV.

a. The doctrine of salvation or justification by grace through faith alone

became the primary doctrine of the Protestant Reformation. Because
Luther had arrived at this doctrine from his study of the bible, the
Bible became for Luther, as for all other Protestants, the chief guide
to religious truth.
4. Attack on the Sale of Indulgences
a. Luther was greatly distressed by the sale of indulgences; certain that
people were simply guaranteeing their eternal damnation by relying
on these pieces of paper to assure them of salvation.
b. Because of this, he issued his Ninety-Five Theses.
5. Trial at Worms
a. Unable to accept Luthers forcefully worded dissent from tradional
Catholic teachings, the church excommunicated him in January 1521.
He was also summoned to appear before the Reichstag, the imperial
diet of the Holy Roman Empire, in Worms, convened by the newly
elected Emperor Charles V.
B. Development of Lutheranism
1. Urban Phenomenon
a. After a brief period of hiding, Luther returned to Wittenburg in
Electoral Saxony at the beginning of 1522 and began to organize a
reformed church.
b. Lutheranism had wide appeal and spread rapidly. The preaching of
evangelical sermons, based on a return to the original message of the
Bible, found favor throughout Germany.
2. Philip Melanchthon as Theologian
a. He taught Greek and Hebrew and was attracted to Luthers ideas. He
was from a younger generation of Christian humanists.
3. Support for Authority against the Peasants
a. During the Peasants War, Luther saw that to maintain his support
from the German princes, he had to support the states against the
peasants. He told the German princes to smite, slay, and stab to
stupid and stubborn peasantry.
4. Union of Church and State: National Churches
a. Justification by faith was the starting point of most Protestant
doctrines. Since Luther downplayed the role of good works in
salvation, the sacraments also had to be redefined. No longer were
they merit earning works; they were now divinely established signs
signifying the promise of salvation.
German and the Reformation: Religion and Politics
A. Emperor Charles Vs Attempt to Preserve Christian Unity
1. As emperor, he hoped to preserve the unity of the Catholic faith
throughout his empire. However, Charles faced four major roadblocks: The
French, the papacy, the Turks, and Germanys internal situation. As he was
dealing with these problems, Luthers movement was growing and
organizing against the Catholic Forces.
B. Schmalkaldic (Lutheran) League
1. Fearful of Charles intentions, eight princes and eleven imperial Lutheran
cities formed a defensive alliance. The members vowed to assist each
other whenever any one of us is attacked on account of the Word of God
and the doctrine of the Gospel.

V.

C. Peace of Augsburg: Success of Lutheranism

1. The peace put an end to religious warfare in Germany. With this, the
division of Christianity was formally acknowledged and granted
Lutheranism equal standing with Catholicism. This dashed Charles hope
for a united empire.
Spread of the Protestant Reformation
A. Lutheranisms Success in Scandinavia
1. Swedish baro Gustavus Vasa overthrew Christian II of Denmark and made
Sweden independent. As rule of Sweden he took the lead in establishing a
Lutheran Reformation in his country. Meanwhile, Frederick I became the
king of Denmark and encouraged Lutheran preacher to spread evangelical
doctrines. Frederick Is successor, Christian III, installed a Lutheran state
church and also spread Lutheranism to Norway.
B. Ulrich Zwinglis Failure in Switzerland
1. Zwingli was appointed as a cathedral priest in the Great Minister of Zurich.
He began the Reformation in Switzerland. However, his preaching caused
unrest and was debated but his followers often won against the Catholics
who werent used to defending their teachings. However, Zwingli removed
all art from church walls, and removed music from church service as he
saw it as a distraction from the pure word of God. Eventually in October
1531, war erupted between the Swiss Protestant and Catholic cantons.
Zwinglis army was wounded and his enemies killed Zwingli.
C. Radical Reformation: Anabaptists
1. Church as a Body of Believers
a. Anabaptists tried to advocate adult baptism rather than infant
baptism. Each church chose its own minister who led simple services
that contained nothing not found in the early church.
2. Lords Supper as Symbolic Remembrance
a. Anabaptists saw the Lords Supper as a remembrance, a meal of
fellowship celebrated in the evening in private houses according to
Jesus example.
3. Separation of Church and State
a. Unlike the Catholics and other Protestants, they believed in the
complete separation of church and state. No only was government to
be excluded from religion, but it was not even supposed to exercise
political jurisdiction over Christians. Anabaptists refused to hold
political office or bear arms because they took literally the
commandment Thou shall not kill.
4. Fiasco at Munster
a. Munster recognized anabaptists and became a haven for Anabaptists
from the surround neighborhood. Particularly the Melchiorites who
believed that it was the end of the world.
5. Menno Simons and the Mennonites
a. Menno Simons was responsible for rejuvenating Dutch Anabaptism.
He dedicated his life to the spread of peaceful, evangelical
Anabaptism that stress the separation from the world in order to
truly emulate the life of Jesus.
D. Reformation in England
1. King Henrys Divorce and Separation from Rome

VI.

a. King Henry VIII wanted to divorce his wife, Catherine of Aragon but
the pope was unable to grant this annulment. Henrys advisers
advised Henry to obtain annulment in Englands own courts. To do
so, Henry had Parliament abolish papal authority in England.
2. Edward VI and a More Protestant Church
a. Edward was only 9 years old when he inherited the throne. During
his reign, real control of England was passed to a council of regency.
Archbishop Cranmer and other inclined toward Protestant doctrines
and moved the Church of England in a more Protestant direction.
3. Marys Attempt to Restore Catholicism
a. When Mary cam to throne, she intended to restore England to
Roman Catholicism. Her restoration of it was achieved by joint action
of the monarch and Parliament but it roused opposition England
became more Protestant by the end of her reign that it was the
beginning.
E. Calvinism
1. John Calvins Institutes of the Christian Religion
a. It was a masterful synthesis of Protestant thought that immediately
secured his reputation as one for the new leaders of Protestantism.
2. Doctrine of Predestination
a. The idea f predestination was derived from the emphasis on the
absolute sovereignty of God. Calvin said that God had predestined
some people to be saved and others to be damned. According to
Calvin, He has once for determine both whom he would admit to
salvation, and whom he would condemn to destruction.
3. Calvins Geneva and the Spread of Calvinism
a. He took up ministry in Geneva. He achieved major success when the
city council accepted his new church constitution known as the
Ecclesiastical Ordinances.
Social Impact of the Reformation
A. Effect on Families
1. More Positive Attitudes
a. The Catholic Churchs high regard for abstinence from sex made the
clergy preferable to marriage.
2. Place of Women
a. Women were seen as the obedient servant whose chief duty was to
please her husband. The other was to bear children.
3. Home Devotions
a. Protestant reformers called on men and women to read the Bible
and participate in religious services.
B. Education in the Reformation
1. Rise of the German Gymnasium
a. Following Melanchthons example, the Protestants in Germany were
responsible for introducing the second school where liberal arts in
Greek or Latin were combined with religious instruction. The famous
school in Strasbourg served other Protestant schools.
2. Genevan Academy
a. John Calvins Academy was split into a private school and a public
school.
C. Religious Practices and Popular Culture

VII.

1. Decline of Catholic Practices among Protestants

a. The attacks of Protestant reformers on the Catholic Church led to
radical changed in religious practices. The reformation abolished
indulgences, veneration of relics, and saints, pilgrimages,
monasticism, and clerical celibacy. This put an end to numerous
religious holidays.
2. Reform of Social Practices and the Rise of Puritanism
a. Protestants tried to eliminate customary forms of entertainment.
Catholic Reformation
A. New Mysticism: Teresa of Avila
1. The emergence of a new mysticism, closely tied to the traditions of
Catholic piety, was especially evident in the life of the Spanish mystic Saint
Teresa of Avila (1515-1582).
2. She was a nun of the Carmelite order; Teresa experienced a variety of
mystical visions that she claimed resulted in the ecstatic union of her soul
with God.
3. She also believed that mystical experience should lead to an active life of
service on behalf of her Catholic faith.
B. Regeneration of Religious Orders
1. The regeneration of religious orders also proved valuable to the reform of
Catholicism. Old orders, such as the Benedictines and Dominicans, were
reformed and renewed.
2. The Capuchins emerged when a group of Franciscans decided to return to
the simplicity and poverty of Saint Francis of Assisi, the medieval founder
of the Franciscan order.
3. The Capuchins also focused on preaching the Gospel directly to the people
and emerged as an effective force against Protestantism.
C. Rise of New Orders
1. Theatines
a. Founded in 1524, placed their emphasis on reforming the secular
clergy and encouraging those clerics to fulfill their duties among the
laity.
b. They also founded orphanages and hospitals to care for the victims
of war and plague.
2. Oratory of Divine Love
a. Was first organized in 1497, and was not a new religious order but
an informal group of clergy and laymen who worked to foster reform
by emphasizing personal spiritual development and outward acts of
charity.
3. Society of Jesus
a. Ignatius Loyola
i. (1491-1556) He experienced a spiritual torment similar to
Luthers but, unlike Luther, resolved his problems not by a
new doctrine but by a decision to submit his will to the will
of the church.
b. Missionaries Francis Xavier and Matteo Ricci
i. Francis Xavier (1506-1552) was one of the original members
of the Society of Jesus, carried the message of Catholic
Christianity to the East, ministering to India and Japan before
dying of fever.

ii. Although conversion efforts in Japan proved short-lived,

Jesuit activity in China, especially that of the Italian Matteo
Ricci, was more last longing. Poland was largely won back for
the Catholic Church through Jesuit efforts.

VIII.

D. Revived Papacy
1. Paul III and the Council of Trent
a. (1534-1549) Proved to be a turning point in the reform of the
papacy. Raised in the lap of Renaissance luxury, Paul III continued
Renaissance papal practices by appointing his nephews as cardinals,
involving himself in politics, and patronizing arts and letters on a
lavish scale.
b. The Council of Trent met intermittently from 1545 to 1563. The final
doctrinal decrees of the Council of Trent reaffirmed traditional
Catholic teachings in opposition to Protestant beliefs.
2. Paul IV and the Index
a. (1555-1559) He increased the power of the Inquisition that even
liberal cardinals were silenced.
b. He created the Index of Forbidden Books, a list of books that
Catholics were not allowed to read. It included all the works of
Protestant theologians as well as authors considered unwholesome
a category general enough to include the works of Erasmus.
E. Council of Trent
1. Reform of the Catholic Church
a. Moderate Catholic reformers hoped compromises would be made in
formulating doctrinal definitions that would encourage Protestants
to return to the Church.
2. Clear Body of Doctrine
a. The seven sacraments, the Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation,
and clerical celibacy were all upheld. Beliefs in purgatory and in the
efficacy of indulgences were affirmed, although the hawking of
indulgences were prohibited.
Politics and Wars of Religion in the Sixteenth Century
A. French Wars of Religion (1562-1598)
1. Catholics and Huguenots
a. The Calvinists occupied 7% of the French population. 40-50% were
nobles. French Kings made attempts to stop the spread of Calvinism
but had little success.
2. War of the Three Henries (1588-1589)
a. The War of Three Henries occurred when the Valois(Catholic)
monarchy took control of the Catholic Church and looked down upon
Protestantism. The Guises who were supported by the papacy and
government power led the extreme Catholics. Fighting broke out as
the Guise attack Huguenots in the Saint Bartholomews Day
massacre.
3. Henry IVs Conversion and the Edict of Nantes
a. He was the Calvinist leader but after the massacre, his life was
spared only if he turned Catholic. However the fighting continued
and didnt until the Edict of Nantes was issued. It acknowledged
Catholicism as the official religion of France, but guaranteed the
Huguenots the right to worship in selected places.

B. Philip II and Militant Chatolicism

1. Most Catholic King
a. The first major goal of Phillip II was to consolidate and secure the
lands he had inherited from his father, Charles V. The lands included
Spain, the Netherlands, and parts of Italy and the New World.
2. Leader of the Holy League
a. Spains leadership in the Holy League helped repel Muslim attack
and result in a stunning victory over the Turkish fleet in the Battle of
Lepanto. However, Phillips misfortunes came from revolt in
Netherlands and tortured relations with Queen Elizabeth.
3. William of Orange and Dutch Independence
a. Revolt against Phillip II became organized and led by William of
Orange. Him and Dutch pirates known as the Sea Beggars, removed
the duke of Alva and brought an end to the costly revolt.
C. England of Elizabeth
1. Acts of Supremacy and Uniformity
a. Queen Elizabeths religious policy was based on moderations and
comporomise. She wanted to prevent England from being torn apart
over matters of religion. Parliament helped her issue the Act of
Supremacy that states the only suprme governor of this realm, as
well in all spiritual or ecclesiastical things or causes, as temporal.
The Act of Uniformity restored the church service of the Book of
Common Prayer.
2. Mary Queen of Scots
a. Mary Queen of Scots was Elizabeths cousin that was next in line for
the throne. Mary was imprisoned for attempting to kill Elizabeth in
an attempt to gain the English thrown.
3. Spanish Armada
a. King Philip ordered a fleet of warships to invade England. The
armada turned out to be a disaster as they sailed against England in
the confident hope of a miracle.