Climate Responsive PDF

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3.2Designforhotaridzones
EXPANDCONTENTS
DETACH
NOHIGHLIGHTING
Climateresponsivebuilding
3.Designrules
3.0Designmethodology
3.1Generalguidelines
3.3Designforwarmhumidzones
3.4Designfortemperateanduplandzones
3.Designrules
3.2DesignforHotaridzones
Themainpoints:
Collectinformationaboutthelocalclimatefactorsandtherequirementsoftheuser.
Analysethisinformation.
Developtheappropriatedesignconcept.
Function
Whenplanninganynewconstruction,manyfactorshavetobeconsidered.Firstofallthefunctionsofthebuildinghavetobedefinedwhichhaveaprimary
influence on its type, form, size and layout. The requirements or needs of the user such as his expectations with regard to comfort are important
determinants.
Safety
Factorswhichmayimpairthesafetyofthebuildingareveryimportant.Amongsttheseareearthquakes,storms,floodsandtidalwaves.
Economy
Economicaspectsalsoinfluencethedesignanddeterminethetechnicalpossibilitiesandstandardofbuilding.
Ecology
Theadequateapplicationoftheavailablelocalresourcesandmaterialshastobetakenintoaccount.
Climate
A major component are the prevailing climatic conditions insofar, as they influence the indoor comfort conditions. These are the main subject of this
publication.
Climateisformedby
solarradiation
glare
temperatureanditsfluctuations
precipitation
humidity
airmovement
airpollution
sandanddust
Generalinformationabouttheclimateofacountrycanusuallybeobtainedfrommeteorologicalstations.Theparticularmicroclimateatagivensitemay
howeverdiffersubstantially.Itisimportant,therefore,toobservelocalconditions.
Itisalsoimportanttobearinmind,atwhattimeofthedayornight,orduringwhichseason,thestructurewillmainlybeused.
Designapproach
Thebasicstepsinthedesignapproachare:
Informationcollectionaboutthefactorslistedabove.
http://www.nzdl.org/gsdlmod?e=d0000000off0hdl000010000direct10401l11en5020about000100001110utfZz
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Analysisofcollectedinformation.
Developmentofappropriatedesignmeasures.
Withanappropriatedesignandtheselectionofsuitablematerials,anaturalformofclimatecontrolcanbeachieved.Bybeingmerelyselfregulating,this
controlprovides,toagreatextent,protectionfromtheoccasionallyhostileenvironment.
Compared to solutions employing technical equipment, such natural means of climatization are usually very economical solutions, both in terms of
construction and running costs. Nevertheless, the use of modern technical means is under certain circumstances unavoidable in trying to meet todays
requirementsforadequatecomfort.
Newbuildingconcepts
It is necessary to develop new building concepts which include essential energy and climate considerations, but are also linked to the functional,
physiologicalandsociopsychologicalrequirementsoftodayssociety.
Thischapterillustratesthepossibilitiesandmethodsforanaturalformofclimatecontrol.Itprovidesgeneralrecommendationsandrules:inthefirstpart,
suchruleswhicharevalidfortropicalandsubtropicalregionsingeneralandinthesubsequentparts,fortypicaltypesofclimates.
Insomecases,thelocalconditionsdonotcorrespondexactlytothetypicalclimatesdescribed.Therulesrequireameaningfulinterpretation,andsometimes
compromiseswillbenecessary.
Limitationsofpassivemeans
Withthetechnologyavailable,themajorityofresponsestoharshclimaticconditionshasbeenthecreationofartificialenvironments,leadingtoacomplete
dependenceonelectricalpower.Anumberofmechanicaldevicesgeneratingadditionalheathavebeenintroducedintohomes.Withtheincreasinginterestin
tropicalregions,however,muchresearchhasbeendonetoimprovethedesignandmaterialsofthedifferentbuildingcomponents(walls,roofs,openings,
etc.)sothatthisdependencemaybereduced.[124].Nevertheless,itseemsalmostimpossibletofulfiltodayshigherrequirementsandcreateacomfortable,
coolindoorclimateforlivingandworkingduringthehotseasonwithonlytraditionalmethodsandwithoutadditionaltechnicalmeans.Wheresufficient
waterisavailable,itcancontributetocoolingbyintegratinglandscapingintourbandesignandbuildings.
Heating
Ingeneral,activeandpassiveheatingofabuildingiseasierthancooling.Nevertheless,forecologicalreasons,burningofwoodshouldbereducedinmany
regions.
Inmanyplacestoday,awidechoiceofbuildingmaterialsisavailabletomeetspecificneeds,buttheymustbetestedandselectedcarefully.[106]
Hazards
Traditionalstructuresandmaterialsmaynotbesuitableinhazardousconditionssuchasearthquakes,floodsandheavyprecipitations.Occasionalstormscan
generallybedisregardedwhendesigningforcomfortableindoorclimate.However,forsafetyreasons,theydemandafirmstructure.
Maintenance
Oneofthemainproblemsofbuildinginthelongrunispropermaintenance.Thisaspectmustbeconsideredinthechoiceofmaterialsandconstruction
details.
Thehumanfactor
Measurestoimprovetheindoorclimatearemanifold.Someofthemarepurelyconnectedwiththeselectionofasuitablesite,planning,layoutarrangements
andconstructiondetails.Othermeasuresinvolvetheinhabitants,whoshouldtakeanactiveroleintheoperationofthebuildings,e.g.byopeningandclosing
windowsattheappropriatetime,bysprinklingwater,orusingmovableshadingdevicesetc.
Althoughthesecondtypeofmeasuresusinghumansinanactiverolemayappearmoreeffectivethanpurelystructuralmeasures,thelatterareusually
given a higher priority. It must not be overlooked that humans often behave differently from what the designer expects them to do. Also, a proper
understanding and awareness on the part of the inhabitants cannot always be relied upon. Sophisticated and complicated solutions often fail due to such
humanfactors.
Learningfromtradition
Theprinciplesofthermalcontrolthroughtheproperuseofstructureandmaterialsarewellillustratedintraditionalbuildingswhichmeetthedemandsofthe
climate. However, purely traditional solutions also assume a continuity of lifestyles and kinds of work, which seems rather unlikely in many regions.
Particularsolutions,settlementandbuildingforms,alsousingmultistorystructures,havetobefoundfortodaysurbanandtrafficsituations.Acombination
oftraditionalknowledgeandadvancedtechnologymaythereforebenecessary.
A good method, as an approach towards a design concept is to analyse traditional settlement patterns and building types. In addition, settlements are
influencedbymanysocialandculturalfactors,andusuallyrespondinanoptimalwaytothelocalconditions,givingmanyusefulindications.Thisistrue,
especiallyforsolutionsaimingatnaturalclimatecontrol.Factorstobetakenintoaccountaretheuseoflocalconstructionmethodsandavailablematerials,
andthetechnicalabilityofthelocalbuilders.
3.1.1.CLIMATEANDDESIGNINGENERAL
3.1.2.SETTLEMENTPLANNING
3.1.2.1Topographicallocationofsettlements
3.1.2.2Hazards
3.1.2.3Urbanformsandexternalspace
3.1.3BUILDINGDESIGN
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3.1.3.1Orientationofbuildings
3.1.3.2Shapeandvolume
3.1.3.3Typeandformofbuildings
3.1.3.4Immediateexternalspace
3.1.4BUILDINGCOMPONENTS
3.1.4.0Theprinciplesofheatstoragetimelagthermalinsulationreflection,absorptionandemissioncondensation
3.1.4.1Foundations,basementsandfloors
3.1.4.2Walls
3.1.4.3Openingsandwindows
3.1.4.4Roofs
3.1.5SPECIALTOPICS
3.1.5.1Shadingdevices
3.1.5.2Naturalventilation
3.1.5.3Passivecoolingmeans
3.1.5.4Activecoolingdevices
Themainpoints:
Minimizeheatgainduringdaytimeandmaximizeheatlossatnightinhotseasons,andreverseincoldseasons.
Minimizeinternalheatgaininthehotseason.
Selectthesiteaccordingtomicroclimaticcriteria
Optimizethebuildingstructure(especiallyregardingthermalstorageandtimelag).
Controlsolarradiation.
Regulateaircirculation.
3.1.1Climateanddesigningeneral
Climaticconditions
Ingeneral,intropicalandsubtropicalregionsthedaytimetemperatureisuncomfortablyhigh,particularlyduringthewarmerseasonsandinlowaltitude
locations.However,thedifferencesbetweenregionsareimmense,dependingmainlyonthedistancefromtheequatorandonaltitude.
Airhumidityisalsoofgreatimportance.Thisfactorinfluencestheprecipitationpatternandtheamountofsolarradiationthatreachestheearthssurface.
Theinfluenceofacloudcoverismostobvious,butinvisiblehumidityintheatmospherealsoalterstheamountofradiation.Whereaswithdryairconditions
theradiationisstronganddirect,humidairresultsinalessintensebutdiffuseradiationandalsoreducestheamountofreradiationtothenightsky.
Thesefactorsresultinmeantemperaturesthatdifferhighlyfromplacetoplace.Annualanddiurnalfluctuationsalsovarysharply.
(alsoseeChapter2.2)
Designobjectivesandresponse
The main objective of climatic design is to provide comfortable living conditions with a minimum and meaningful input of artificial energy. This also
reducesinvestmentandrunningcostsaswellasecologicaldamage.
Theabovementionedmainpointsaretheframeworkfordesignintropicalandsubtropicalclimateconditions.Theyhavetobeadaptedtoeachclimaticzone
becausethedominantclimaticfactorsdifferhighlybetweenthesezones.Thisleadstodifferentsolutionsforvariousclimatetypes.
Suchsolutionsaredescribedinthecorrespondingchapters.
3.1.2SettlementPlanning
Different factors have to be considered when planning settlements. Transportation means and ways, water access, water supply, available materials and
technicalmeans,infrastructure,socialstructureanddefenseconsiderationsarebutafewofthem.
Inviewofthegeneralgoalofprotectionfromtheharshclimateaswellasrisks,thefollowingmaincriteriahavetobeconsidered:
Themainpoints
Topography,tobenefitfrommicroclimaticvariations.
Orientation,tooptimizesunandwindimpact.
Wind,toachievetherequiredventilation.
Patternandform,tooptimizethereciprocalimpactbetweenbuildings.
Hazards,forsafetyreasons
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Inselectingthelocationforasettlement,themicroclimaticadvantagescausedbytopographicalfeaturesofdifferentsitesshouldbeconsidered.
a)Locationsonslopes,hillsandinvalleys
In general, elevated sites are preferable. Locations at higher altitude have lower temperatures due to the adiabatic phenomenon. The mean temperature
decreasesby1Cwith100maltitudedifference.
Fig3/1
b)Sunorientation
Settlementsarepreferablyplacedonnorthernslopestoavoidexcessivesunexposure,usingnaturalshade.Westslopesshouldbeavoided.Athigheraltitude
southexposuremaightbeadequateforreasonsofpassiveheating.
Fig3/2
Valleybottomsareadditionallyheatedbyreflectionofsunradiationfromthesurroundingslopes.
Fig3/3
c)Windorientation
Locationssituatedatthebottomofvalleysareoftenhandicapped.Airmovementisusuallymuchbetterathigherlocations.Valleystendtohavelowerwind
velocityandhencethecoolingeffectbywindisreduced.
Fig3/4
d)Airpollution
Further negative effects of a site located in a valley can be caused by air pollution, especially when polluting industries are combined with poor air
movement.
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Fig3/5
Undercertaincircumstancestheairmovementinavalleycanbereducedbyinversion.Itoccurswhenarelativelycoolerlayerofairaccumulatesatthe
bottomofavalley.Ifnodynamicwindsprevail,thiscooleraircannotbereplacedbecausethephenomenonpreventsairmovementbythermicwinds.Anair
trapmayresult,andwithit,adangerousincreaseinairpollution.
Fig3/6
e)Locationnearwaterbodiesandgreenareas
Where possible, settlements should be placed near large bodies of water such as lakes preferably on the leeward side and green areas. Water has a
regulatingeffecton the climate because the water temperature is near to the annualmeantemperature.Duetothelargethermalcapacityofwateritcan
absorbsurplusdaytimeheatandreducethenighttimedrop.Theresultingtemperaturedifferencebetweenthelandareaandthewatersurfacefurthermore
producesthermalwinds,whichblowtowardsthelandduringthedayandatnightawayfromtheland.Greenareashavetheadvantageofcoolingbyshade
andevaporation.
Fig3/7
3.1.2.2Hazards
Floodsandlandslides
A threat to building in valleys may be the danger of floods and landslides. Although seldom, even in arid regions heavy rain can occur, causing torrent
streamscombinedwithmassesofmud,rocksandboulders.
Fig3/8
Winds
Inalmostallareas,heavywindsoccurandafirmstructureisrequired.Specialcare,however,hastobetakeninareasthatarethreatenedbyhurricanesand
sandstorms.
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Earthquakes
Despite the fact that earthquakes are not a topic of climatic design, the location of settlements has to be checked for possible earthquake risks and safe
constructionshavetobemade.Theymaybeincontradictiontotraditionaldesignorclimaticconstructionrequirements.
Urbanformsdependstronglyonclimateandaredesigneddifferentlyineachclimaticzone.Basicconcernsaretheprovisionofshadingandairmovement
byalternativemeans.
The urban form cannot change the regional climate, but can moderate the citys microclimate and improve the conditions for the buildings and their
inhabitants.
Theinfluenceoftheclimateontheexternalspaceoftraditionalsettlementscanbewellillustratedbythefollowingexamples:
Settlements for hot, dry climates are characterized by optimal protection against solar radiation by mutual shading, which leads to compact settlements,
narrowstreetsandsmallsquareswhichareshadedbytallvegetation.
Fig3/9Typicalsettlementforhotdryregions
Settlementsforwarmhumidareasarelaidouttomakemaximumuseoftheprevailingbreeze.Buildingsarescattered,vegetationisarrangedtoprovide
maximumshadewithouthinderingnaturalventilation.
Fig3/10Typicalsettlementforwarmhumidregions
Althoughmodernrequirementsareoftenincontradictiontotraditionalpatterns,theiradvantagesshouldbeadaptedasfaraspossible.
Theuseofvegetationinlandscaping
Designs using vegetation in the urban environment are of functional, aesthetic as well as climatic importance for its radiation absorbent surface and its
evaporativeandshadegivingproperties.Thevegetationinandaroundcitiesalsohasdefiniteeffectsonairmovement.
Vegetationisdesirablebothforprovidingshade,thusreducingthetemperatureinsuchshadedareas,andforreducingtheeffectsofstrongsolarradiationon
thewallsofbuildingsandstructures.Also,byformingathickbarrieroffoliage,thevelocityofstrongwindisreduced.Thefoliageofdifferenttypesof
woodedland(e.g.hedges)actsasafilterandpurifiestheatmospherebykeepingdowndust.
Advantagesofvegetation
Landscapingusingvegetationhasmanyadvantages:
Itimprovesthemicroclimatebothoutdoorsandindoors.
Itcheckshotanddustywindsinaridregions.
Throughthetranspirationofleavestemperaturesarelowered.
Itsshadelowersdaytimetemperaturesandheatemissionatnightisalsoreduced,thusresultinginmorebalancedtemperatures.
Itbalancesthehumidity.Duringprecipitationmuchofthefreewaterisabsorbedandduringdryperiodswaterisevaporated.
Plantsofferlongtermenergysavingfreeofcost,bothinfinancialandinecologicalterms.
Inhotaridareaswithlimitedwaterreserves,plantswithhighwaterrequirementsmaynotbepossible,butplantsadaptedtolocalconditionsarealways
advantageous.
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Moreover, plants increase the value of indoor and outdoor living space. Outdoor space becomes a more useful area and can accommodate a variety of
functionswhicharenotpossibleinabarrenarea.
ThecoolingeffectofvegetationcanbeillustratedbythefollowingmeasurementswhichweretakeninSouthAfrica:
Slateroofinthesun
43C
Concrete surface in the

sun
35C
Shortgrassinthesun
31C
Leaf surface of tree in

shade
27C
Shortgrassinshade
26C
[12](alsoseeFig3/94inChapter3.2.2.3)
Selectionofplantspecies
When selecting the plant material, it is strongly advisable to consult local plant nurseries about their stocks and their experiences. The suitability and
performanceofplantsdependshighlyonthespecificlocalconditions:
theclimaticalfactors,temperature,airhumidityetc.
soilcondition
soilmoisture(groundwaterlevel)
altitude
Iftherearedoubts,plantsshouldfirstbetestedunderlocalconditions,beforetheyareusedinalargerscale.
Caution
In large cities, where water in abundance can be made available, the excessive use of vegetation and water surfaces can also create a less comfortable
microclimatebecauseoftoomuchevaporationthatincreasesthehumidity.
FortheuseofvegetationalsoseeChapter3.1.3.4,3.1.5.1,3.2.2.3,3.3.2.3,3.3.5.1,3.4.5.1andAppendix5.6.
Landscapingelements
Naturalelementsoflandscapedesignincludethemeaningfuluseoftrees,streetscapingwithvegetation,surfacewatermanagementandwithittheutilization
ofthecoolingeffectofwater.
a)Trees
Treesandshrubsareaveryeffectivemeansofimprovingtheclimateonalargerscale.Theyarethesimplestwayofshadingoutdoorspaceandbuildings.
Itisimportanttoselecttheappropriatetypeoftree
Onesimplesolutionforregulatingshadingbytreesthroughouttheyearistheuseofdeciduoustrees,whichprovideshadeduringthehotseasonandallow
solarradiationinwinter.
Another factor that can help in the selection of the right tree is its "cooling factor". When measuring the radiation intensity in the shade of a tree the
efficiencyofdifferentspeciesvaries.
The"coolingfactor"fortheexamplesgivenhereindicatestheradiationintensitycomparedtounshadedconditions.
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Fig3/11Selectedtreesandtheir"coolingfactor"(drawingH.Haas)
b)Streetscapingusingvegetation
Thefurnishingofspacewithtreesandhedgesgreatlyimprovesthemicroclimateandqualityoflife.
Fig3/12Greenstreetspace
c)Surfacewatermanagement
Animportantaimofroadplannersisusually,todesigndrainagesystemsthatensurearapidrainwaterrunoff.Suchsystems,togetherwithahighpercentage
ofpavedsurfacesasiscommoninurbanareashavethedisadvantagethatshortlyafterrainfallsthesurroundingsaredryagainandthecoolingeffectof
thewaterislostFurthermore,thefunctioningofthedrainagesystemsdependtoagreatextentontheirmaintenance.Blockeddrainagesystemsmaycause
dangerousfloodsituations.Floodscanalsooccurfurtherdownneartheriver,becausethewaterquantityisnotbalanced.
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Fig3/14Problemsofquickdrainagesystems:rainwaterismovingfastfromthesealedsurfaces,formingforcefulstreams
d)Utilizingthecoolingeffectofwater
An alternative approach would be to retain as much surface water as possible for a longer period. This can be achieved by keeping surfaces unpaved
whereverfeasible.Publicopenspaces,streets,squaresandparksshouldonlybecoveredbyhardtopwhenabsolutelynecessary.
Inaddition,drainagesystemscanbecombinedwithpondsandartificiallakese.g.inparkareas.Theadvantagesareobvious:
Theincreasedwatercontentintheairandsoilimprovesthemicroclimate.Italsosupportsandpromotesvegetationwhichisanadditionalfactorfora
favourablemicroclimate.
Suchasystemalsofeedsthegroundwater,whichisanimportantfactorwithregardtowatersupply.
Thedrainagesystemcanbedesignedforsmallerpeakflows.
Thedangeroffloodsduetoblockeddrainagesystemsisreduced.
Fig3/15Advantagesofslowdrainagesystems:interceptstherainwaterinthegreenery,inthegroundandponds,thenaturalwaytopreventfloodings
Fig3/16Watercyclewithunpavedsurfaces:thesoilabsorbeswaterduringrain,storesitandfeedsittothegroundwaterandbacktotheair.
3.1.3Buildingdesign
Themainpoints
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Orientationandroomplacement,foroptimalresponsetosunandwind.
Form,providingprotectionwhererequired.
Shade,asmuchasrequired.
Ventilation,byexcludingclimaticallyadversesideeffects.
Todefinetheoptimalorientationofabuilding,threefactorshavetobeconsidered:
Solarradiation
Prevailingwind
Topography
Todefinetheoptimalorientationwithregardtoheatgainbysolarradiation,itisusefultoanalysetheradiationintensityondifferentlyorientedsurfaces,its
diurnalchangeanditschangewithseasons.
Thediagram(Fig3./17)showsanexampleofananalysisfor1oSouth(Nairobi).Itindicates,dependingonwhetherheatgainisdesiredornot:
Whatistheoptimalorientation?
Wherearelargeopenings,smallornoopeningsdesirable?
Whatkindofstructureandshadingdevicesareappropriateforagivensurface?
Fig3/17AnalysisofthesolarradiationintensityinNairobi[8]
Optimalsunorientationreducesradiationtoaminimuminthehotperiods,whileallowingadequateradiationduringthecoolmonths.
Eastandwestfacingwallsreceivethehighestintensitiesofradiation,especiallyduringthehotperiods.Thesewallsshouldthusnormallybekeptassmallas
possibleandcontainasfewandsmallopeningsaspossible.
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Fig3/18Ingeneral,northandsouthfacingisthepreferredorientation
Byplottingthedirectionsofmaximumradiantgainforbothhotandcoolmonths,itispossibletodeterminetheoptimumorientationforanygivensituation.
Somecompromisemustbemadeinordertoachievethemostsatisfactorydistributionofthetotalheatgainedinallseasons.[10,11]
Windorientation
Usuallycoolingbyventilationisdesired.Buildingsshouldthereforebeorientedacrosstheprevailingbreeze.Thisdirectionoftendoesnotcoincidewiththe
bestorientationaccordingtothesun.Hereacompromiseshouldbefound,payingmoreattentiontotheeffectsofsolarradiation,becausethedirectionofthe
windcanbeinfluencedtoacertainextentbystructuralelements
Fig3/19Ingeneral,facingthewindisthepreferredorientation
Topographicalorientation
Thesurfaceofthesurroundingsmaystoreandreflectsolarradiantheattowardsthebuilding,dependingonthesurfacesanglerelativetothesolarradiation
andonthetypeofsurface.Wherethissolarheatisnotdesired,theorientationofthebuildingshouldbechangedorthesurfaceofthesurroundingsshouldbe
coveredwithgreenerythatimprovesthemicroclimate.
Thetopographymayalsoaltertheprevailingwindandprovideshadeatcertaintimeoftheday.Suchelementsshouldalsobeconsidered.
Fig3/20Topographyreflectingsolarradiation
Thefunctionalaswellassocioculturalrequirementsandparticularlytheclimaticconditionsdefinetheformofthebuildings.
The heat exchange between the building and the environment depends greatly on the exposed surfaces. A compact building gains less heat during the
daytimeandloseslessheatatnight.Therefore,theratioofsurfacetovolumeisanimportantfactor.
Asimplemodelcalculationondifferentlyarrangedbuildingunitsillustratesthis.
12buildingunitsof7x7mwidthand3mheightarearrangedasindividualbungalows,asrowhousesorasacompact3storybuilding.Thevolume:
surfaceratiochangesdrastically.
Volume
Surface
Ratio
a)asindividualbungalows
1764m
1596m
1:1.
b)asrowhouses
1764m
1134m
1:1.6
1764m
700m
1:2.5
c) as compact
building
3story
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Fig3/21Volumetosurfaceratiobydifferentlyarrangedbuildingunits
Asimilarphenomenoncanbeobservedwhencomparinglargebuildingswithsmallbuildingsofthesameshape.
Thiscanbedemonstratedwhencomparingcubesofdifferingvolumes:
Volume
Surface
Ratio
a)cube3x3x3m
27m
45m
1:0.6
b)cube7x7x7m
343m
245m
1:1.4
c)cube20x20x20
m
8000m
2000m
1:4.0
Fig3/22Volumetosurfaceratiobydifferentsizedcubes
In general, where little heat exchange between the interior and the environment is desired, the surface to volume factor should be small. The indoor
temperaturewillbeneartotheaverageoutdoortemperature.
Whereheatexchangeisdesired,forinstancetogainfromcoolnightsinwarmhumidareas,thesurfacetovolumefactorshouldbebigger.Thisalsofavours
ahigherventilationrate.
Thesuitableformofbuildingsdiffersverymuchbetweenthemainclimaticzones.Traditionalregionaldwellingtypesillustratethisclearly.
a)Thecompact,inwardorientedhouseofthehotaridzone(seeChapter3.2.3).
Massivewallandroofstructuresevenouttheindoorclimateinconditionsofhotdaysandcoldnights.Thesurfaceiskeptataminimumcomparedtothe
volumesothattheexchangeofheatandcoldisminimized.Ventilationshouldbecontrolled:minimizedduringtheheatandincreasedduringperiodswhen
theoutdoortemperatureisatcomfortlevel.
Suchtypesaregenerallyappropriateinareaswithlargetemperaturedifferencesbetweendayandnight.
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Fig3/23Typicalhouseofthehotaridzone
b)Theopen,outwardoriented,detached,builtonstiltshouseofthewarmhumidzone
(seeChapter3.3.3)
The surface is large compared to the volume and therefore the exchange of heat energy high. As a consequence the indoor temperature approaches the
outdoortemperature.Thewallsarelightandmaximumventilationcaneasilybeachieved.Largeoverhangingroofsarethemainimportantelement.
Thistypeisappropriateinzoneswithevendayandnighttimetemperatures.
Fig3/24Typicalhouseofthewarmhumidzone
c)Acompromisebetweenthetwoextremesisthehouseofthetemperatezone.
(seeChapter3.4.3)
Itiscomposedofshadingroofsaswellasprotectivewallswhicharelessmassivethanina)above.
Thewindowsareofmediumsize,providinggoodventilationandmoderatesolarheatgain.
Fig3/25Typicalhouseofthetemperatezone
Roomarrangements
When designing the floor plan of a building, apart from the functional arrangements, room connections and privacy requirements, the following aspects
shouldbeconsidered:
Atwhattimeofthedaywilltheroombeused?
Istheroomofprimeimportanceorisitanauxiliaryspace?
Importantroomsshouldbelocatedatplaceswithclimaticadvantages.Forinstance,inhotclimatesabedroomispreferablylocatedontheeastsidewhereit
is relatively cool in the evening, whereas the living room is placed on the northern side. Auxiliary spaces should be located on the disadvantaged sides,
mainlywest.
Roomswithhighinternalheatload,suchaskitchens,shouldbedetachedfromthemainrooms.
Fig3/26Typicalroomarrangement
Minimizeinternalheatgain
Internalheatgains,intheformofheatoutputfromhumanbodies,equipment,cookingandlighting(oftenreferredtoas"wildheat"),canpresentquitea
problemandshouldbeminimizedinhotseasons.Incoolseasonsitcanbewelcomeasaheatingsource.
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Itisnotpossibletoavoidtheseheatsources,butoneaspectforreducingtheindoortemperatureinbuildingsistominimizetheirquantityaswellastheir
impactonthemainrooms.Thisinvolvestechnicalmeasuresandalsohasconsequenceswithregardtotheroomarrangements.
a)Heatgainsfromhumanbodies
Asfarasispossible,thenumberofpeoplelivinginahouseshouldbereduced.Toprovidemorespaceis,ofcourse,verymuchaneconomicalquestion.
Toavoidovercrowdedindoorareastheoutdoorspaceshouldbedesignedinsuchawaythatasmuchactivityaspossiblecantakeplacethere.
b)Lighting
Daylightprovisionshouldbeadjustedtothenecessarylevelonly,nottooexcessiveanddiffuseratherthandirect.
Whereartificiallightingisneeded,highefficiencylightsourcesshouldbeusedwhichproducelessheat.
Unnecessarylightingshouldbeavoidedandbackgroundlightingshouldbeoflowlevel.
c)Equipment
Inhotseasonsheatproducingequipmentshouldbeplacedremotely,awayfromoccupants.
Whenplacingsuchequipment,theprevailingairmovementshouldbeconsidered.Itshouldbeplacedontheleesideofthemainrooms,ifpossibleina
separatelyventilated,detachedroom.
Ahighventilationaroundheatproducingequipmentmayberequired.
Separatezonesfordayandnight,summerandwinter
Separate day and night zones may be provided in the house. The day zone would be a heavy structure retaining the coolness of the night and oriented
towardswest.Thenightzonewouldbealightstructurewhichcoolsdownquicklyaftersunsetandisorientedtowardseast.
Fig3/27Useofheavyandlightbuildingpartsasdayandnightspace
Similarly,variationinlivingspacesusedinsummertimeorinwintertimecouldbeprovidedaconceptwhichisfeasiblemainlyintemperatezones.
(seeChapter3.4.3.3)
Fig3/28Orientationofspaceusedinsummerorwinter
Intropicalandsubtropicalregionstheoutdoorspaceisactivelyused.Amajorpartofthesociallifeandthedailyroutineworktakesplacethere.
Dependingontheclimaticconditions,variousformsofcourtyards,protectednichesandalcovesarecommon.Suchelementsshouldbecarefullydesigned.
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Vegetation
Treesandotherplantsareimportantelementsofimmediateoutdoorspaces.Theyareinexpensiveelementswhichregulateandimprovetheclimate.Atthe
sametimetheyaddtotheattractivenessofthisspace.
Whenplantingtrees,somebasicrulesshouldbekeptinmind:
a)Basically,thesameconsiderationsfordesigningshadingdevicesarealsoapplicabletotrees:
Atwhattimeofthedayandatwhatseasonsoftheyearisshadedesired?
Whatisthesunspath?
b)Atreeplantedclosetothebuilding,evenwiththecrowncoveringtheroof,providesthebestprotectionfromtheintensemiddaysun,butallowsaccessto
thesunineveninghours,whenincertainsituationsthisiswelcome.
Deciduoustreesallowenoughheatgainforpassiveheatinganddaylightduringthewinterseason.
Fig3/29Treeclosetoabuilding
c)Atreeplantedwithinacertaindistanceofabuildingprovidesshadeonlyduringeveningormorninghours,butnotatmidday,thehottesttime.
Fig3/30Treefarfromabuilding
d)Plantingatreeclosetoabuildingdoesnotnecessarilyharmit.Whilegrowing,treesalwaysadapttheirshapeaccordingtothenearbybuildingform.
Certainconstantobservationsandmaintenancemeasuresarehowevernecessary.Theseincludesometrimmingandremovalofbrancheswhicharelikelyto
breakoff.
Fig3/31Treeadaptingtotheformofabuilding
3.1.4Buildingcomponents
(TechnicaldataseeAppendix5.1)
Themainpoints
Heatstorageandtimelag,whichprovideabalancedindoorclimateandtakeadvantageofoutdoortemperaturefluctuations.
Thermalinsulation,whichpreventundesiredheatgain,butdonotimpedeemissionofsurplusheat.
Reflectivity,absorptionandemissivity,whichregulatetheradiationfromandtotheskyandthesurroundings.
Allbuildingcomponentsshouldworktogetherasabalancedsystemtocreateacomfortableindoorclimate.
Theappropriatedesignoffloors,walls,roofsandopeningsvariesgreatlywithdifferentclimaticzones.Solutionscannotthereforebegeneralisedandhaveto
beworkedoutaccordingtotheindividualsituationaswellastobasicphysicalprinciples.
Inthefollowingsection,themaincharacteristicsofheatstorage,timelag,thermalinsulationandreflectivityarediscussed,theirinfluenceontheindoor
climateexplained.
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Themostcommonlyusedbuildingmaterialsanddetailsarelistedandthentheirmainpropertiesandsuitabilitydescribed.
3.1.4.0Theprinciplesofheatstoragetimelagthermalinsulationreflectivity,absorptionandemissivityandcondensation
(alsoseeChapter2.4)
Heatstorageandtimelag(seetableinAppendix.5.1)
The capacity of building components to store heat and to release it later has an important regulating effect on the indoor climate. A high internal mass
reducestheindoortemperatureswing.Duringthedaytimeitisthuscoolerandatnightwarmerthanoutdoors.
ThemainperformancerangeisshowninFig3/32.
The indoor temperature of a light structure (1) is similar to the outdoor temperature (To) with a slight time lag. Without proper reflection of the solar
radiationthistemperaturecanalsorisefarabovetheoutdoortemperature.
Theindoortemperatureofaheavystructure(2)remainsneartheaverageoutdoortemperature,withalongertimelag.
Thetemperaturecanbeconsiderablyloweredduringthedaybycombiningaheavystructurewithpropernightventilation(3).
TheeffectofheatstorageandtimelaginconditionsofawidediurnaltemperaturerangecanclearlybeseeninFig3/32.
Fig3/32Widediurnaltemperaturerange
ThiseffectcanbeignoredinconditionswithanarrowdiurnaltemperaturerangeasillustratedinFig3/33.
Hence,heatstorageisonlyvaluableinclimateswherethediurnaltemperaturerangeiswideandfallsbelowcomfortlevelatnight.Inthissituationonelikes
togetridofsurplusheatorpartofitduringthedayontheotherhand,thisheatmaybewelcomeintheeveningorduringthenight.
Fig3/33Narrowdiurnaltemperaturerange
Activeheatstoragecapacity
Theamountofheatstoreddependsontheeffectivethermalstoragecapacity.Theentirebuildingmasscannotbeactivatedtostoreheat.
Outerwallsandroof:
Ifthermalinsulationisused,onlythemassinsideoftheinsulationisactiveinstorage.
Internalmaterials:
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Theamountthatcanbeuseddependsontheextentoftheactiveheatstoragecapacity.Forareasexposedtodirectsolarradiation(primarymass)thisis15
25cmandforareasnotexposedtodirectsolarradiation(secondarymass)thisis810cm.
Theprimarymassismuchmoreeffectivethanthesecondarymasswithregardtoactiveheatstoragecapacity.
Fig3/34Primaryandsecondarymasses
Thetimelagdetermineswhenmaximumheatisemitted(seeChapter2.4).Accordingtothefunctionofabuildingorroom,thecomponentscanbedesigned
toachievethedesiredeffect.
Storingheatoverperiodslongerthanacoupleofdaysisonlypossiblewithspecialstorageelements,e.g.large,wellinsulatedwatertanks.
Comparisonofheatstoragerequirement
Hotarid
Warmhumid
Temperate
A large thermal mass with

high heat storage capacity is
desiredinmostcasesinorder
to keep houses cool in
daytime and to achieve a
comfortable
night
temperature, despite severe
outdoortemperatures.
Because the narrow diurnal

temperature range does not
usually fall below comfort
level, heat storage capacity
shouldbeavoided,atleastfor
roomsalsousedatnight.
A compromise between
conflicting requirements is
necessary. Too little storage
capacity
results
in
overheating in summer, too
great a storage capacity
makes
the
building
unheatableinwinter.
In periods or seasons when

theoutdoornighttemperature
does not fall below comfort
level,theheatreleasedbythe
building mass has to be
expelledbyventilation.
For rooms used in daytime

only a certain storage
capacitycanbeanadvantage.
In this way the indoor
temperature can be reduced
byafewdegrees.
Thetimebetweenpeaktemperaturebeingreachedontheoutersurfaceandthesameontheinnersurfaceiscalledthetimelag.Thisisimportantwhere
internalheatgainisdesiredlaterintheevening.
Forpassiveheating,thebuildingshellhasideallyatimelagcoveringthehoursbetweenthegreatestheatgainoutsideandthedesiredheatgaininside
Estimatingtherequiredtimelag:
Dependingontheorientationofasurface,thehoursofmaximumheatgain(radiation)varies.Inaddition,thetimeatwhichheatemissiontotheinterioris
desiredordoesnotcauseanydisturbance,variesaswell.Asaconsequence,theidealtimecanalsovary.Seediagram(Fig3/35)
Examples
Anofficespacethatdoesnotrequireanyheatgain,wouldbestbedesignedasastructurewithatimelagwhichtakeseffectafterofficehoursonly.
Alivingorsleepingspaceshouldbedesignedwithatimelagwhichtakeseffectwhentheoutdoortemperaturedropsbelowcomfortlevel.
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Fig3/35Theoutersurfacetemperatureandthedesiredtimelag
Incaseswherecoolingduringthedaytimeisdesired,theprinciplecanbereversed.Thedesiredtimelagwouldbedefinedasthetimebetweentheperiodof
maximumheatlosstothenightskyandtheperiodofdesiredinternalcooling.
Inareaswheretheoutdoortemperaturedoesnotfallbelowthelevelofcomfortorwherethediurnalchangeisminimal,thetimelagisnotrelevant.Here,
reflectiveinsulation,shadingandventilationarethemaininstrumentsforcontrollingtheindoorclimate.
Thermalinsulation
(seetableinAppendix5.1)
In the case of a temperature difference, heat energy always travels from hot to cold. Thermal insulation reduces such heat transfer. As a consequence, it
reduces daytime surplus heat entering a building, but prevents the building from cooling down at night. In general, this dual function makes insulation
unsuitablefornaturallyclimatizedbuildings.
Inthetheoreticalcaseofahighlyinsulatedstructurewithnoheatstoragecapacity,theindoortemperaturewouldalwaysbeexactlythesameastheoutdoor
temperature,becausetheminimumventilationwhichisalwaysrequiredwouldbringintheairwhichisattheoutdoortemperature.
In some cases a partial thermal insulation is nevertheless appropriate for example in roof structures where, due to solar radiation, extreme daytime heat
occurs.
ThethermalinsulationcapacityofastructureisindicatedwiththeUvalue(seeChapter2.4).
Thermalinsulationandstoragemass
Ifthermalinsulationisusedincombinationwithheatstoringmaterials,thisstoragemassmustbeontheinside,e.g.inamassiveshellconstruction,orinthe
internalwallsorfloorslabs.
Fig3/36Storagemassontheinsideoftheinsulationiseffective
Ifinsulationseparatesthestoragemassfromtheinterior,itseffectislost.
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Fig3/37Storagemassoutsideoftheinsulationitisnoteffective.
Abuildingwiththermalinsulationandsufficientinternalheatstoragemasscanbesuitable,providedthataveryreliableandefficientventilationatnight
removesthedaytimesurplusheat.
Thermalinsulationandactivecoolingorheating
Incasesofactivecoolingorheatingthermalinsulationhasclearadvantagesandisoftenindispensable.Itreducestheheatloadconsiderably.
Toavoiddampcondensation,carehastobetakeninplacinginsulationinrelationtothedampproofmaterial(plastic,metal,aluminiumfoiletc.).Inthis
casethedampproofmaterialhasalwaystobeonthewarmsideoftheinsulation.
Reflectivity,absorptivityandemissivity
(seedatainAppendix5.1)
Muchoftheheatreceivedbyabuildingisthroughradiation,mainlysolarradiation.Thetreatmentoftheoutersurfaceisthereforeimportant.
Thequantityofradiantheatasurfacereceivesdependsnotonlyonthesunangle,buttoalargeextentonthepropertiesofreflectivityandabsorbance.
Heatemissionatnightisalsoimportant.Ittakesplaceonlytowardscoolersurfaces,thatis,mainly,towardstheclearnightsky.Thereisnoradiantheat
emissiontowardsotherbuildingsandsurfacesthathavethesamesurfacetemperature.
(seeChapter2.4)
Therefore,themainpropertiestobeconsideredforconstructionsandmaterialsare:
Reflectionofradiantheat
Absorptionofradiantheat
Reemissionofstoredheat
(seedatainAppendix5.1)
Reflectionofradiantheat
Where heat gain is not desired, a reflective surface, e.g. white or bright metallic, is appropriate. Lightweight constructions should always possess such
surfaces.Dullsurfacessuchasoldergalvanizedironsheetingarepoorinthisrespect.
Absorptionofradiantheat
Whereheatgainfornighttimeisdesired,absorbentsurfaces,whicharegenerallydarkerandnonshinyarepreferred.Suchsurfacesshouldonlybeusedfor
buildingswithahighthermalcapacity.Buildingswithalowthermalcapacitywouldimmediatelyoverheat.
Whereradiantheatlossispossible,forexampletothesky,awhitesurfaceallowslessnetgain.Whereopposingsurfacesarewarm,thereisnoradiantloss,
andaluminiumispreferred.
Reemissionofstoredheat
Whereareemissionofstoredheattotheenvironmentandtheskyatnighttimeisdesired,surfacesshouldpreferablybeofaporousnature.Plasterandbrick
surfacesaremoreefficientthanmetallicsurfaces.Thedegreeofbrightness(color)isnotofrelevance.
Fig3/38Reflection,absorption,emissivityofwhitemetalsurfaces(a)andbrightaluminium(b)[8]
Withregardtoreflectivity,thepropertyoftheroofsurfaceisofthegreatestimportancebecauseitreceivesafargreateramountofradiantheatthanany
verticalsurface,andcanalsoreemitmorethanothersurfaces.Hence,ithastobecarefullyselected.Ifanabsorbentsurfaceisused,thetimelagshould
usuallybeatleast8hours.Lightweightroofsshouldhavereflectivesurfacescombinedwiththermalinsulationoraventilatedceiling.
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Whenselectingthebuildingmaterials,theirthermalpropertiesshouldbeanalysedsothatmaterialssuitabletothelocalclimaticconditionscanbechosen.
Whenconsideringexposuretosolarradiation,thesolarheatgainfactor(SHF)isanimportantcriteriontobetakenintoaccount,especiallyinthecaseofthe
roof.ItismoreimportantthantheUvalue.
Appendix5.1containstableswiththemostimportantthermalpropertiesoftypicalwallandroofconstructions.
Surfacecondensation
Whentheinnersurfaceofthebuildingshellcoolsdownfarbelowtheindoorairtemperatureatnight,thencondensationmayoccur.Thisisoftenthecase
withsinglemetalsheetingandcanbecounteredbyaproperlyventilateddoubleshellconstruction.
Mould
Asecondaryproblemwithcondensationmayarisewhentheinsidesurfacesofabuildingremaincoolandwarmandrelativelyhumidairenters.Thismay
causecondensationandmouldgrowth,whichmustbecounteredbyadditionalventilation.
Furtherinformationsee[2,4,8,10,11,162]
(alsoseeChapter3.2.4.1,3.3.4.1,3.4.4.1)
Basements and floors generally have a large thermal storage capacity and can therefore act as a climate regulating element. It depends on the specific
climaticconditions,whetherthesepropertiesareanadvantageorwhethertheroomshavetobeinsulatedagainstit.
Common building materials,
propertiesandsuitability
Solid floor, concrete, stone

burnt clay bricks and tiles,
earth
Good materials for heat

storage help to balance
indoor temperature. Suitable
for hot zones with large
diurnal
temperature
differences.
Lesssuitableforwarmhumid
climates except for daytime
rooms.
Multilayer
floor
insulationmaterials
with
Single planking timber floor,

grounddetached
Suitableforuplandclimates.
Suitable for
climate, for
nighttime.
warmhumid
comfort at
3.1.4.2Walls
(alsoseeChapter3.2.4.2,3.3.4.2,3.4.4.2)
Design:
Walls(exteriorandinterior)canhaveseveralfunctions:
Beside being a structural element, they provide protection from heat, precipitation, wind, dust and light and serve as a means of space definition and
partition.Thepropertiesshouldthereforebeselectedaccordingtothemainfunctionsofawall.
COMMONBUILDINGMATERIALSFORWALLS,PROPERTIESANDSUITABILITY
SOLIDWALLSEARTH,STONE,BRICK
Good materials in hotarid zones, combined with few openings and light colored outer surface. Takes best advantages of time lag, with heat emission at
night.Inwarmhumidzonesonlyusefulfordaytimerooms.
BURNTCLAYBRICKS
Goodthermalresistance,dependingontheporosity.Mediumtohighheatstoragecapacity,goodhumidityregulatingproperty.
UNBURNTCLAYBRICKS
Better thermal resistance and humidity regulating property than burnt bricks. Less resistant to mechanical stress. Needs protection from driving rain and
risingmoisture.Improvedproductswithlowcementcontentaresomewhatlessvulnerable.
SOLIDCONCRETEBLOCKS
Poorthermalresistanceandhighheatstoragecapacity.
HOLLOWCONCRETEBLOCKS
Lessheatstoragecapacitythansolidblocksbutimprovedinsulation,thusbettersuitedfortemperateclimate.
FERROCEMENT
Hassimilarpropertiestoconcrete,butlessthermalstoragecapacityduetothereducedthicknesssuitableforwarmhumidzones.
TIMBER
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Goodthermalresistance,highheatstoragecapacity,goodregulationofhumidity.
MATTINGOFBAMBOO,GRASS,LEAVES
Goodmaterialinwarmhumidzones,withnothermalstoragecapacity,notairtightandthusallowingproperventilation.
INSULATIONMATERIALS
Variousnaturalandartificialmaterialsareavailableandhavetobeselectedcarefully.Theypreventnotonlyheatgain,butalsoheatloss.Thedangerof
overheatingatnighthastobeconsideredaswell.
WHITEWASHEDSURFACES
Simpleandlowcost,yeteffectivemethodformakingasurfacehighlyreflective.Theemissionatnightremainshigh.
CAVITYWALLS
Has many advantages, especially in hotarid zones. Reflective surface in the cavity (e.g. aluminium foil) reduces radiant heat transfer. Ventilation of the
cavitytakestheheatawayandreducesconductiveheattransmissiontotheinterior.
Fig3/39
Lightweightwalls,traditionalmatting,frameconstructionwiththininfillpanels
Indoorandoutdoortemperaturesremainmuchthesame,providedthewallsareshaded.
Ifunshaded,indoortemperaturerisesquicklyaboveoutdoortemperature.
Suitableforwarmhumidclimate,takingfulladvantageofcoolernighttemperature.
Suitableinhotaridregionsforroomsusedatnightonly,wheretheoutdoortemperaturedoesnotfallconsiderablybelowcomfortlevel.
Heatinsulatedlightweightwall
Mainlyusedforairconditionedrooms,especiallyifexposedtodirectsolarradiation.
Multilayeredconstruction
Theapplicationofmultilayeredconstructionisinmanycasesaneconomicquestion.Wheretheresourcesareavailable,itcanbeusedhowever,acareful
assessmentofitsthermalperformanceisneeded.
Placingalightweightinsulatingmaterialontheoutsideofamassivewallorroofwillgiveatimelaganddecrementfactorgreaterthanthatofthemassive
wallalone.Ontheotherhanditpreventsheatdissipationtotheoutsideatnight,thusmakinginternalventilationimperative.
Fig3/40Insulationoutside:nightventilationisimportant
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Placinginsulationontheinsidewillresultinanindoorclimateperformancesimilartotheoneinalightweightstructurewithahighlyreflectiveouterskin,
becausethebalancingeffectofthethermalmassoftheouterwalliscutoff.
Fig3/41Insulationinside:highindoortemperatureduringthedaytimeifnotmechanicallycooled
Thetimelagisthusminimalandtheindoortemperatureisalwaysclosetotheoutsidetemperature.
Suchinsideinsulationcanbeappropriateinactivelycooledorheatedbuildings.
Aventilatedandreflectiveouterskinisanefficient,althoughexpensivesolution,toreduceradiantdaytimeheat.Heatdissipationatnightismoreefficient
thanwithastructureusingoutsideinsulation.
Fig3/42Ventilatedandreflectiveouterskinwithheavyinnerstructure
Onewayofreducingtheradiantheattransferbetweenthetwoskinsistheuseofalowemissionsurfaceontheinsideoftheouterskin(e.g.aluminium
paintedwhiteontheoutsidebutleftbrightontheinside)andahighlyreflectivesurfaceontopoftheceiling.Brightaluminiumfoilcanbeusedtoadvantage
inbothsituations.
Design(alsoseeChapter3.1.5.2,3.2.4.3,3.3.4.3,3.4.4.3)
Design
Thedesignoftheopeningsisgreatlyinfluencedbytheprevailingclimate.Ingeneralitcanbesaidthat
in hotarid zones, openings should be of minimal size or adjustable in size by shutters, and the view not directed towards the ground (glare) as far as
considerationsofnaturallightingpermits.Theseasonaldifferenceofthesunangleshouldbetakenintoaccount.Airtightclosingshouldbepossible.
inwarmhumidzones,openingsshouldbeaslargeaspossible,andtheviewdirectedtosurroundinggrassortrees,withtheskyblockedbyroofoverhangs
orsunbreakers.Aircirculationshouldnotbeblockedbyvegetation.Anairtightconstructionisnotneeded.
Outletopeningsshouldbelocatedathighlevels,wherehotairaccumulates.
Bedroomwindowsarebestplacedattheheightofthebedorpivotedtodirecttheairflowtowardsthesleepingbody.Louvresareasuitableaccessoryto
assistthechannelingofairflow.(alsoseeChapter3.1.5.2)
Commonbuildingmaterialforwindows,propertiesandsuitability
Windowglass:
Awiderangeofspecialheatabsorbingandheatreflectingglasstypesisonthemarket,buttheyaregenerallyonlysuitableforairconditionedbuildings.
Mostofthemarelimitedintheireffectivenessbecauseeithertheirowntemperatureisraised,whichincreasestheheatconvectedandreradiatedintothe
internalspace,ortheytendtoreducelightratherthanheat.Inaddition,availabilityandcostshavetobeconsidered.
Sealeddoubleglazedwindowpanescanonlybeusedforairconditionedbuildings.Theyareexpensiveanddifficulttoreplace.Innaturallycooledbuildings
theyhavelittleadvantages.
3.1.4.4Roofs
(alsoseeChapter3.2.4.4,3.3.4.4,3.4.4.4)
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Design
The most important element is the roof because the strongest thermal impacts of heat loss and heat gain occur here. The roof is the part of the building
receivingmostofthesolarradiation,anditsshadingisdifficult.Therefore,thisbuildingpartshouldbeplannedandconstructedwithspecialcare.Naturally,
thisappliestosinglestorybuildingsandtoforthetopfloorofbuildingsonly.
The thermal performance depends to a great extent on the shape of the roof and the construction of its skin, whereas the carrying structure has little
influence.
Theshapeoftheroofshouldbeinaccordancewithprecipitation,solarimpactandutilisationpattern(pitched,flat,vaulted,etc.)
Fig3/43Basicrooftypes
COMMONROOFINGMATERIALS,PROPERTIESANDSUITABILITY
Earth
Goodthermalinsulationandemissivity,suitableindryclimates.
BURNTCLAYTILES
A traditional material still very suitable today, with rather good thermal properties. Relatively heavy, requiring a strong support structure medium heat
storagecapacity.Arepermeabletoairthroughthegapsbetweenthetiles.
CONCRETETILES
Similarpropertiesasclaytilesbutsomewhatreducedheatresistance.
FIBRECONCRETE(FCR)ANDMICROCONCRETE(MCR)TILES
Similarpropertiesbutlighterthanconcretetiles,hencelessheatstoragecapacity.
ASBESTOSSHEET
Fairlygoodthermalperformance,mediumreflectivity.Disadvantages:lowmechanicalstrength,asbestosfibreisharmfultohealth(carcinogenic).
MONOLITHICCONCRETESLAB
Poorthermalresistanceandhighstoragecapacity.Duetothebigmassrelativelycoolduringthemorning,butreradiatingthedaytimeheattotheinteriorin
theeveningandatnight.
NATURALSTONE(FLAGSTONE,SLATE)
Thermalperformancesimilartoconcretetilesdependingonthethicknessandthesurface(brightness).
ORGANIC,VEGETALROOFINGMATERIALSBAMBOO,LEAVES,THATCH,WOODENSHINGLES
Climaticallysuitable,butofrelativelylowdurability.Applicableforsemipermanentandselfbuilthouses.
BITUMINOUSROOFING
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Problematicinthetropics,quickdeteriorationduetotheintensesolarradiation.
INSULATIONMATERIALSseeChapter3.1.4.2
SINGLESKINCORRUGATEDGALVANIZEDIRONSHEETING(CGI)
Oneofthemostwidelyused,simpleconstructions,oflowweightallowinganeconomicalsupportstructure.Hasnosignificantthermalresistance,aged
sheetinghasnosignificantreflectivity,reradiatesthereceivedsolarradiationintothebuildingcreatingintolerablyhighindoortemperaturesduringthe
daytime.Rapidcoolingatnightwiththeproblemofcondensationinhumidclimates.Lowlifespan,noisyduringrain.
ALUMINIUMSHEETING
Afairlyexpensivematerialbutwithgoodthermalreflectivityandlonglifespan,preferabletogalvanizedironsheeting.Reducestheheatloadduetothelow
heatstoragecapacityandhighreflectivity.
CONSTRUCTIONDETAILS
THINSINGLESKINROOF
Solarheattransmittanceandheatconductanceishigh.
INSULATEDROOFSINGENERAL
Preventheatenteringthroughtheroofbutalsopreventheatescapingatnight,thustheirusehastobecarefullyconsidered.
INSULATIONABOVEAMASSIVEROOF
Thetimelagisfourtimeslongerthanwithinsulationplacedinside,butalsopreventscoolingatnight.
INSULATIONBELOWAMASSIVEROOF
Allowsexcessiveheatstorage,forwhichtheinsulationcanhardlycompensate.Theslabexposedtothesunreceivesveryhightemperaturedifferencesthat
maybeharmfultothestructure.
CONCRETESLABWITHSCREEDANDFIBREBOARDCEILING
Resistancetoheatflowisinsufficient.Onlyusefulforroomsusedindaytime,notintheeveningandatnight.
DOUBLESKINROOFWITHTWOLIGHTLAYERS
Theouterskinshadestheinnerlayerandreflectsasmuchsolarradiationaspossible.Theaccumulatedheatbetweenthetwoskinsmustberemovedby
ventilation.Suitableinwarmhumidclimate,reducestheheatloadindaytimeandallowsquickcoolingatnight.
DOUBLESKINROOFWITHALIGHTOUTERSKINANDAHEAVYINNERLAYERWITHREFLECTIVESURFACE
Suitable for hotarid zones, keeping the indoor night temperature at a higher level than the outdoor temperature. A reflective surface in the cavity (e.g.
aluminiumfoil)reducestheradiantheattransfer.Ventilationbetweenthetwolayersmusttaketheheataway.(seealsoChapter3.1.4.2).Aseparateroofand
ceilingistheobvioussolutionforwarmhumidclimates.Ifforsomereasonitisusedinhotdryregions,theroofshouldbelightandtheceilingmassive.
(alsoseeChapter3.2.4.4and3.3.4.4)
Airwhichhaspassedthroughadoubleroofspaceandcanreachthelivingzone(e.g.dischargedtowardsaverandah)shouldbeavoided,asthisairwillbe
muchhotterthanthenormaloutdoorair.
Fig.3/44
Fig.3/45
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Fig.3/46
3.1.5Specialtopics
(Passivecoolingandheating)
Principlesforthedesignandconstructionofspecialdevicesforpassivecoolingandheating,suchasshading,naturalventilation,evaporativecooling,energy
storageandtemperatureexchangebetweendayandnight,aredescribedinthissectionandundertheseparatechaptersonclimate.
Amajorpartoftheheatabuildinggainsisthroughsolarradiation.Thisradiationisexperiencedintheformofincreasedairtemperature,radiantheatand
glare.Adequateshadingreducestheseeffectsdrastically.
Incertainclimatesalimitedradiantsolarheatgainmaybewelcome.Itispossibletoallowforthisbyadifferentiatedshadingconcept.
Thefollowingconsiderationsprovidethebasisfortheshadingconcept:
Atwhattimeoftheyearanddayissolarheatgaindesiredwhenisitnot?
Whatisthegeometryofthesunspathinrelationtothebuildinganditsfacades,andwhatisitschangewiththeseasons?(seeChapter2.2andAppendix
5.3)
Whatisthequalityofsolarradiation:isitstrongorweak,directordiffuse?
Dependingonthetypeofclimateshadingshouldcoveropeningseitherfullyorpartly.Butunderextremeconditionsitshouldcoverwallsurfacesaswell.
Thisispossiblewithfinscoveringtheentirewallorwithdoubleshellconstruction.
Fig3/47Shadingoftheentirewallsurface
Shadingcanbeprovidedbymeansofbuildingshape,doubleshellconstruction,shadingdevicesasattachedaccessories,facadegreeneryandroofgardens.
Buildingshape
Shadecanbeprovidedbytheshapeofthebuildingitselfforinstance,bycantileveredupperfloorsorarcades.
Inhotaridclimates,shadingcanalsobeprovidedbyplacingbuildingscloselytogether,whereotherfactors(traffic,hygiene,daylight)allowit.
Fig3/48Shadingbybuildingshape
Doubleshellconstruction
Adoubleshellconstructionshouldhavereflectivepropertiesprotectingthebuildingfromdirectanddiffuseradiation.Theouterskinshouldbeplacedfairly
closetothefacadeandbeproperlyventilated.Suchmethodsaresuitablemainlyforwarmhumidclimates.
Shadingdevicesasattachedaccessories
Acommonmeansofshadingistheuseofshadingdevicesplacedoutsidethefacades.Thesunspathisthemaincriterionforitsdesign.Therefore,each
facadehastobeplannedseparately.(alsoseeChapter3.1.3.3)
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Whendesigningashadingdevice,variousfactorsbesidethesunspathhavetobeconsidered.Theshadingeffectdependsnotonlyonthegeometricalshape
andorientationofthefixtures,butalsoonthematerialusedandonthesurfacetreatmentandcolor.
Theratioofinfluencecanbeestimatedasfollows:
geometry,
orientation
shape,
70%
materialproperties
15%
surfacetreatment,color
15%
Efficiency
Theefficiencyofdifferentmeasurescanberoughlyestimatedandcomparedwiththefollowingchart,indicatingthetransmittedradiationimpact:
regularglass
internalvenetianblind,white
0.5
internalvenetianblind,dark
0.75
externalvenetianblind,white
0.15
continuous overhang on south

side
0.25
externalmovablelouvres
0.15
Geometryandform
Ingeneral,shadingelementsoneastandwestfacadesshouldbevertical,becausethesunislow.
Onsouthandnorthfacadestheshadingelementsshouldbehorizontal.Here,shadingcanoftenbeprovidedsimplybyroofoverhangs.
Fig3/49
Theshapeoftheelementsshouldpreventradiationbeingreflecteddirectlythroughtheopenings.
Fig3/50
Typesofshadingdevices
Thevarietyofshadingmethodsislargeandthedesignerhasthechoiceofmanyoptions.
Whenselectingthetypeofshadingdevice,apartfromshading,otherfactorsshouldalsobeconsidered:
Theairflowthroughtheopeningsshouldbereducedtheleastpossible,neverstoppedcompletely.
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Theviewshouldnotbeobstructed.
Daylightshouldnotbereducedtoomuch.
Elementsattachedtothebuildingare:
a)Horizontalscreening.
This is very efficient against high midday sun, especially on north and south facades. It can take the form of a roof overhang, a slab projection and
verandahs,orwithfixedoradjustablelouvres.
Fig3/51Horizontalscreening
b)Verticalscreening
Suchelementsarebestagainstlowsun,thusoneastandwestfacades.Optimalefficiencycanbeobtainedwithmovableelements.Asimpleformofvertical
screeningcanalsobeachievedwithwindowshuttersanddoors.
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Fig3/52Verticalscreening
c)Eggcratetypes
A combination of vertical and horizontal elements may be used where only horizontal or vertical protection alone would not provide shade. It may be
requiredoneasttosoutheastandonwesttosouthwestorientedsurfaces.Itcouldbemadeofprecastconcreteorbrickelements,timberorothersimilar
material.
Fig3/53Eggcratetypes
d)Screening,curtains
Traditionalwoodentrelliswork(mashrabiyas)orsimilarelements,e.g.bambooscreens,provideprotectionagainstsunaswellasglare.
Curtainsofanyflexiblematerialcaneasilybefixedinanydoororwindowopening.
e)Pergolas,balconies,loggias,porches,arcades
A pergola can be made of bamboo or wooden components. The horizontal screening can be overgrown with creeping vegetation for better shading.
Balconiesandloggiasasarchitecturalelementscanbehelpfulinprovidingshade.
Whencoveringlargehorizontalareas,suchelementsarealsoaveryefficientprotectionforroofsurfaces.
Fig3/54
Materialsforshadingdevices
Generallytheuseofmaterialswithalowthermalcapacityisrecommendedforshadingdevicesnearopenings,thusensuringthattheycoolquicklyafter
sunset.
Materialsthatdonotoverheatshouldbeused.
Guidelinesfordetaildesign
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Screeningshouldgenerallybeplacedontheoutsideofabuilding.Ifinsidetheglass,itprovidesonlyprotectionagainstglare.
Horizontalshadingelementsshouldbedetachedfromthefacade,sothatrisingwarmairisnotpreventedfromescaping.Agapof10to20cmshouldbe
maintainedbetweenthehorizontalscreenandthefacade.
Thermal bridges between the building structure and shading elements should be kept to a minimum. Shading elements, when exposed to intense solar
radiation,heatup.Throughmassiveconnectionstothebuildingtheheatcanflowtotheinsideandcauseaconsiderableheatgainintheinterior.Therefore,
thefixingpointsshouldbekepttotheminimumrequiredforstructuralreasons.
Fig3/55Eliminationofthermalbridges
Adjustableshadingdevicescanbalanceseasonaldifferences.
Solarcontrolglass
Solar control glass can reduce direct radiation but cannot offer complete protection. If the windows cannot be opened, air conditioning is unavoidable.
Furthermore,suchglassisexpensive,itslifespanuncertainanditisdifficulttoreplace.
Facadegreenery(forshadingwithtreesseeChapter3.1.2)
Agreencoveronthefacadeshadesthewallsurfaceandthusreducessolarradiantheatgain.Italsoprotectsthewallsfromheavywindsanddrivingrain.
Facadegreenerycanbeplantedonthegroundadjoiningwallsor,inhigherbuildings,inplantboxesonterracesorhungontothefacades.
Togiveprotectionfromcertaininsectsthatmaybeattractedtothegreenery,itisrecommendedthatmosquitoscreensareusedintheopenings.
Itwilloftenbenecessarytowatertheplants,whichmaybeaprobleminareaswithlimitedwatersupply.
Plantswithaggressiverootsshouldbeusedwithcare,astheymayharmthestructure.
Fig3/56Facadegreenery:twopossibleapproaches
Roofgardens
Plantationonroofswhichareflatorhaveaslightslope,hasastrongregulatingeffectontheindoortemperatureduetotheheavyearthcoverageandthe
shadingeffect:
Solarradiantheatgainisdrasticallyreduced
Theceilingtemperatureisfairlyeventhroughoutdayandnight.
Thetemperatureoftheroofslabalsoremainsstable,andthethermalstressonthestructureisreduced.
Furtheradvantagesaretheaestheticvalues,thereductionofdustandtheimprovementofthemicroclimate.
Thedisadvantagesofroofgardens,however,alsohavetobeconsidered:
Aheavyloadisaddedontheroofstructure.
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Itisnoteasytoachieveareliablewaterproofingoftheroof.
Heatemissionatnightisreduced.
Cloggingofdrainagechannelsandoutletsmayoccur.
Indryregionsthehighwaterconsumptionmaycausedifficulties.
Forroofgardens,thefollowingplantsarerecommended:
For10cmthicksoilcover:
Wedeliatrilobata,Syngoniumspinosa,Setcreseaputzpurea,Cythyla,Hemigraphisspec.,Pandanusspinosa,Rhoeospec.,Rhoeotricolor.
For2030cmthicksoilcover:
IpomoeaBatatas,Ivoras,SancheziaNobilis,Stromanthiasanguinea,Strobilanthiusdyerianus,Excocaris.
For4050cmthicksoilcover
Polysciafilicifolia,Hymenocallisspesiosa,Dieffenbachiamarinne,Dieffenbachiatropicsun.,Heliconialatispathia,Heliconiarostrata,Heliconiaspeciosa,
Alpina purpurea, Alpina speciosa variegata, Alpina sanderae, Costus speciosus, Phaeomeria magnifica, Pandanus, Akalysrha wilkesoniana, Cordiline
speciosa,Wrigthiareligiosa,Ravenalamadagaskariensis.
Fig3/57Typesofroofgarden
Air movement is a major factor influencing indoor climate and should be considered when planning and constructing buildings. Similar to the suns
radiation,existingwindsshouldalsobeincorporatedinthedesignconcept.
Forplanningpurposes,itisimportanttodistinguishbetweenregularwindpatternsandwindsthatoccuronlyoccasionally.
Occasionalwinds,suchasinstorms,havetobeconsideredwhendesigningthestructureinordertoguaranteesufficientstrength.Forthepurposeofclimatic
design,onlyregularwindsarerelevant.
Windforcooling
Regularwindscanbeutilizedforcooling.Ifthetemperatureofthecirculatingairisbelowtheindoortemperature,thenthecoolingeffectisobvious.Buta
breezewithaslightlyhighertemperaturecanalsobefeltascoolbecauseitincreasestheperspirationoftheskin.Assoonasthetemperatureofthewind
exceedsthetemperatureofthehumanbody,suchaneffectisnolongerpossible.
Toavoiddiscomfortcausedbyindoorventilation,thespeedoftheairshouldnotexceedacertainvelocity.(seeChapter2.3)
Undesiredcooling
In composite climates, wind can also cause undesired cooling when the outdoor air temperature is below the desired room temperature. In this case, the
buildingshouldbebuiltfairlyairtighttominimizeinfiltration.Designingthesurroundingswithwindprotectionisalsoaneffectivemeasuretoreducesuch
cooling.
Sandywinds
Sand and dust driven by the wind can cause great problems, mainly in arid regions. Such winds can also cause erosion on facades and other exposed
elements,requiringspeciallyresistantbuildingmaterials.
Topreventsandenteringbuildingsandcourtyards,suitableconstructiondetailsandroomarrangementsarerequired.
Airmovement
Basicprinciples
Hotairenteringabuildingheatsitup,coldaircoolsitdown.
Aircirculationstrikingthehumanbodyprovidesevaporativecoolingwhichatcertaintimesandincertaincircumstancesismostwelcome,atothertimes
not.
Asaconsequence,theventilationsystemofabuildingshouldbeplannedinordertooptimizetheindoorclimate.
Thereare,however,limitingfactors:
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Ventilationcanonlyreducetemperatureshigherthantheoutdoortemperature.
Theaircirculationshouldnotexceedacertainspeed(ca.1,5m/sunderwarmhumidconditions)becausethiswouldcreatediscomfort.(seeChapter2.3.2)
Ontheotherhand,completeblockingofairventilationisalsonotpossiblebecauseaminimalairchangeisneededforreasonsofhygieneandoxygen
requirement.
Theremovalofinternalhumiditytoo,demandsacertaindegreeofventilationbecausemouldgrowthhastobeavoided.
Inassemblyareas(e.g.schools,meetinghalls,etc)itisalmostimpossibletokeeptheinternalaircoolerthantheexternal,otherthanforshortperiods.
When the bodily heat output exceeds the rate of heat absorption by the building fabric, the air temperature increases. When it reaches the outside air
temperature,furtherrisescanbeavoidedbyampleventilation.
Ampleventilationatnight
Whenthestoredheatistobedissipatedatnight,ampleventilationisnecessary.Theindoorairstreamatnightshouldbedirectedsothatitpassesthehottest
insidesurfaces,whicharelikelytobetheceilingortheundersideoftheroof.Theplacementofopenings,louvresetc.shouldbedesignedaccordingly.
Typesofaircirculation
Basically,twotypesofaircirculationcanbedistinguished:
a)Externalwinds
Aircirculationcanbeinducedbyexternalwinds.Theyproducewindpressureonthebuilding,positiveonthewindwardside,negativeontheleewardside.
Fig3/58Windpressuredistribution
b)Thermiccirculation
Aircirculationcanalsobeinducedbythermicmovement.Anymaterial,includingair,expandswhenheated.Warmairislighterthancoolairandrises.This,
socalled"stackeffect"canbeusedtoincreaseventilationwherethebreezeisnotsufficient.
Fig3/59Principleofthermiceffect
Designconcept
Whendesigningforoptimalventilationthefollowinginformationisrequired:
Whatisthepatternofexistingwinds(speed,direction,temperature)?
Howdothesewindcharacteristicschangeduringthecourseofthedayandwiththeseasons?
Whenisincreasedaircirculationdesiredforcoolingorheating,whenisitnot?
Whenaircirculationisdesired,inwhichroomandinwhichzoneandatwhatlevelintheroom?
Forinstance,inbedrooms,particularlyinwarmhumidzones,themainairflowshouldbeinthatpartofthebedroomwherethebedsarelocatedandata
heightalittleabovebedlevel.
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Fig3/60Inwarmhumidzonesairmovementatbodylevelisdesired
Meansofcontrollingventilation
Toeitherbenefitortoprotectfromcoolingwinds,thepatternoftheairflowinabuildingcanbeinfluencedby
measuresoutsidethebuildingandbuildingshape
measuresrelatingtothebuildingshell,openings,louvres,shutters,etc.,
measuresrelatingtotheinteriorandspecialventilationdevices,
devicesthatcreatea"stackeffect"ventilation.
Therearemanypossibilitiesfordirectinganddeflectingwinds.Deflectionofupto90oispossible.
Fig3/61Deflectionbyhedges
Fig3/62Deflectionbyparapetwalls
Fig3/63Relationoftreestoparapetwall
Fig3/64Protectionfromwindbyvegetationandtopography
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Inthehotseasons,beforeenteringabuilding,windshouldnotpassoverhotsurfaces.
Fig3/65
Influenceofbuildingshapeonwind
Everybuildingcreateswindprotectedareasandmaydeflectthewinddirection.Thismaybeimportantforneighbouringbuildings.Somegeneralexamples
illustratethisaerodynamicphenomenon:
Thewiderabuilding,thelargeristhewindshadebehindit.[153]
Fig3/66Influenceofbuildingdepth
Thehigherabuilding,thedeeperisthewindshadeareabehindit.
Fig3/67Influenceofbuildingheight
Whengroupingbuildingsinarowparalleltothemainwinddirection,alargedistancebetweenbuildingsisneededtoguaranteeproperventilation.
Fig3/68Buildingsgroupedinarow
Whengroupingbuildingsinastaggeredpattern,thedistancebetweenbuildingscanbereduced.
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Fig3/69Buildingsgroupedinastaggeredpattern
Thegroupingofbuildingsalsoaffectstheairflowpattern.Typicalexamplesare:
Thejeteffect,whereafunnelsituationcausesacceleratedwindspeedthroughanarrowpassage.
Thegapeffect,creatingadispersionoftheairflowafteragatelikesituation.
Thediversioneffectcreatedbystaggeredbuildings.
Fig3/70Typicaleffectsonairflowpattern
Orientationoftheroof
Tokeeproofscool,theyshouldbeslopedtowardstheprevailingbreezeandanyobstructionswhichwouldpreventtheairflowalongtheroofsurfacesshould
beavoided.Highsolidcontinuousparapetwallsaroundtheroofwould,forexample,createastagnantpoolofhotair,andshould,therefore,beavoided.[8]
d)Buildingshelldesign,openingsandlouvres
Thesizeoftheopeningsandtheirlocationinfluencethevelocityofaircirculationanditsmainrouteintheinterior.
Thelargerthewindows,thehighertheindoorairspeedbutthisistrueonlywhentheinletandoutletopeningsareincreasedsimultaneously.Whenaroom
hasunequalopeningsandtheoutletislarger,thenmuchhighermaximumvelocitiesandslightlyhigheraveragespeedsareobtained.
InFig3/71theairspeedoutsideistakenas100,theinsidevaluesareexpressedasapercentageofthis.
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Fig3/71Influenceofsizeofopenings
Aloggiaopeningleewards,withonlysmallopeningswindwards,willhaveasteadyairflowthroughthebuildingbecausetheairflowoverandaroundit
createsalowpressurewithinit,thuspullinginairinasteadystreamthroughthesmallopenings.Therefore,thegreatertheratioofoutletareatoinletarea,
thegreatertheairflowthroughthebuilding.[122]
Placementofopenings
Thelocationofopeningsmaycreateadeflectionoftheindooraircirculation.Whentheopeningisplacedasymmetricallyinafacade,unequalpressureon
bothsidesoftheopeninginfluencetheairflow.
Fig3/72Pressuredistributionbyopenings
Thiseffectcanbeobservedinthehorizontaldirectionwhenawindowisnotcentredintheplan.
Fig3/73Deflectioninthehorizontaldirection
Thesameisalsotrueintheverticaldirection.Thisisbestillustratedwhenaddinganotherflooronanexistingbuildingandthuschangingtheproportionsof
thefacade.
Fig3/74Deflectionintheverticaldirection
Finsandprojectingslabsalsoinfluencethepressuredistributiononthefacadeandwithit,too,thedirectionoftheairflowinsidethebuilding.Inthiscase,
theairflowisinfluencedbothinthehorizontalaswellasintheverticaldirection.
Afinononesideofawindowdivertstheairflow
Acanopyoverawindowdirectstheairflowupwards
Agapbetweenitandthewallensuresadownwardflow
Thisisfurtherimprovedinthecaseofalouvredsunshade
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Fig3/75Deflectionbyfins
Effectoflouvresandtheirposition.
(alsoseeChapter3.3.4.3)
Althoughtheindoorairflowpatternismainlyinfluencedbythesizeandpositionoftheopenings,itcanalsobeinfluencedandcontrolledbyadjustable
louvres.Inthisway,incomingaircanbedivertedtothedesiredlevelwithintheroom.
Fig3/76Effectoflouvres
Doubleroofventilation
Ifadoubleroof,oraseparateroofandceilingareused,theheattransferfromtheouterbuildingskintotheceilinghastobeconsidered.Thiswillbepartly
radiant(approximately80%)andpartlyconductive.Astheroofiswarmerthantheceiling,andhotairrisestotheroof,therewillbenoconvectioncurrents.
Iftheroofspaceisclosed,theenclosedairmayreachaveryhightemperature,thusincreasingtheconductionofheat.
This can be avoided by ample ventilation of the roof space. Ventilation will also reduce radiant heat transfer by lowering the temperature of the inside
surfaceoftheouterskinandthusreducingthetemperatureoftheceiling.
Attentionmustbepaidtothedesignoftheopeningsfromthisspaceandtheirorientationinrelationtotheprevailingbreeze.Evenifthisbreezeitselfis
warmerthaniscomfortable,(itwill,therefore,beexcludedfromtheroomitself),therooftemperaturebothontheoutsideandontheinsideoftheouterskin
islikelytobemuchhigher:theopeningwillthusstillhelpinremovingsomeoftheheat.
Crossventilation
Toachieveareliableaircirculation,buildingsmustbedesignedforcrossventilation.
Caremustbetakennottoimpedesuchcrossventilationwithincorrectlydesignedinteriorpartitions.Whenaroomisdividedbymeansofapartitionor
whenthereareseveralroomstogetherwithinletsandoutletsseparatedbydoorsorhallstheairchangesdirectionandspeedasitpassesthroughtheroom.
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This,ingeneral,reducesairmovement.Bycreatingaturbulent,circulatingmovementofairwithintheroom,however,aneffectiveventilationofmoreof
theareamayresult.
Partitionsarrangedparalleltotheairflowmaydividethisstream,butdonotreducethevelocity.
Fig3/77Arrangementofpartitionwallsaffectsairflowpattern
Electricfans(seeChapter3.1.5.4)
Mountedelectricceilingorothertypesoffansmaybeusedwherethereislittleornobreeze,butthesewillnormallyonlyprovideairmovementandnot
inducetheexchangeofair.
Deviceutilizingexternalwind
Tobenefitmoreefficientlyfromexistingwinds,variousdevicesmountedontheroofcanbeused.
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Fig3/78Examplesofdevicesusingexternalwinds
Devicesutilizingthe"stackeffect"
Oftenregularwindsdonotexistbuttheremaybesolarradiationanddiurnaltemperaturefluctuations.Thesephenomenacancreatea"stackeffect"thatcan
beutilizedtoincreaseventilation.(Alsosee[8])
The"stackeffect"canalsobeinducedbyplacingopeningsnearthefloorandneartheceiling.Itcanberegulatedbywindowshutterstoobtainthedesired
heatingorcoolingeffect.
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Fig3/79Useof"stackeffect"
Solarchimneysandinductionvents
Solarchimneysmakeuseofsolarheattoreinforcenaturalairconvection.Ablackcoatedmetalpipechimneyisheatedbythesunsradiationandsoisthe
airinside.Thelatterthenrisestakingtheinteriorairupandout.Thissystemisselfregulating,thehottertheday,thefastertheairmotion
Fig3/80Blackcoatedpipeassolarchimney
Avariationisthe"glazedsolarchimney".Suchchimneys,whenfacingwest,arefavourableforventilationduringthehotafternoon.Ifathermalstorage
massisaddedbehindtheglazing,thesystemwillstoreheatandkeeponexpellingairaftersunset.
Fig3/81Glazedsolarchimney
Inductionventsuse"solarairramps","windowswithradiantbarriercurtains",or"solarmasswalls".Sunlightistrappedbehindsouthorwestfacingglazing
andtheheatedairrisesandisallowedtoescapetotheoutside.Thiscausestheinternalairtobepulledintotheheatedspaceandexpelled.
Airtakenfromtheshadednorthsidemaybeusedtoreplacetheexpelledairinsidethebuilding.
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Fig3/82Avariationofsolarchimneywith"solarairramp"[2]
a)Roofponds
Awaterbodycoveringtherooffunctionssimilarlytoasoilcover,minimizingthediurnaltemperaturerange.Itisthusappropriateinclimateswithadiurnal
averagetemperaturewithinthecomfortzone.Ithastheadvantagethatitcaneasilyberemovedduringperiodswhenthiseffectisnotdesired.Openroof
pondsaredifficulttomaintainandrequireanabsolutelywatertightandcostlyroofconstruction.Shortageofwaterinaridzonesisanotherdisadvantage.
Fig3/83aRoofpondcoolinginsummer
Fig3/83bRoofpondheatinginwinter
Aspecialsystemworkswithalayerofbags(1520cm)containingwaterthatareplacedontheroofandarecoveredwithmovableinsulatingpanels(510
cm),whichappeartoregulatetheinternaltemperatureatcomfortlevel.Insummer,thesepanelsareclosedduringthedaytoinsulatethebagsfromsolar
radiationandtoallowheattobedrawnfrominside,whileatnighttheinsulationisremovedtoallowthewatertoradiateheattothenightsky.Inwinterthe
processisreversed.
The system is good for cooling, since it faces the night sky, but does not have an ideal angle for collection of heat. However, it is a complicated and
expensivesolutionwhichalsorequiresthedailyattentionoftheusers.[e.g.7,10,12,136,138]
b)Trombewallsandwaterwalls
ThesesystemsaremainlysuitedforheatingandthusdealtwithinChapter3.4.5.3.Undercertaincircumstancestheycanalsobeusedtoinducecoolingby
ventilation(seeChapter3.2.5.3)
3.1.5.4Activecoolingdevices
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a)Electricfans
A simple active device for the improvement of the indoor climate may be the use of electric fans. In most cases this widespread method can provide a
sufficientmeansofevaporatingperspirationandcooltheskinatafractionofthecostofairconditioning.
Fanscanbeusedinvariousways:
Placedtoocloselytothebodymaybeahealthhazard,especiallyfortheelderly.
Remoteorslowrevolvingoverheadfansarerecommended.
Indirectandremoteplacinggivesasteadymildflowandissafeforhealth.
Pivotingfansproduceastrongbutintermittentflow,whichmaynotsuiteverybody.[147]
Fig3/84Variouswaysofusinganelectricfan
b)Forcedventilation
Air circulation and air changing by electric ventilators is another possibility of cooling. Ventilators may be placed directly in the outer wall or may be
combinedwithanairductsystem.
c)Evaporativecooling
Coolingcanbeachievedbyhumidification.Theevaporationofwaterisaphysicalprocesswhichrequiresheatenergy.Thisenergyistakenfromtheair,and
itstemperaturedropsaccordingly.Thusthisphenomenoncanbeusedforcooling.Thepossibilitiesofevaporativecoolingdependonthepotentialoftheair
toabsorbhumidity.Thedriertheair,thegreateristhecoolingpotential,becauseagreateramountofwatercanbeevaporated.Themethodisthusbestsuited
tohotaridclimatezones.
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Fig.3/85Directevaporativecooler
Insomemaritime,coastalareasandinwarmhumidclimates,thispotentialissmallbecauseofthehighrelativehumidity.Hereonlyindirectcoolingusinga
heatexchangerispossible,andtheefficiencyisless.
Fig.3/86Indirectevaporativecooler
d)Airconditioning
Underextremeconditions,activedevicesintheformofairconditionersareoftenunavoidablebecausesufficientpassivecoolingisverydifficulttoachieve.
Airconditioningrequiresafundamentallydifferentconceptofconstruction.Aspectsofthermalinsulation,vapourdiffusion,doubleglazingetc.needtobe
consideredoflessimportanceareheatstorageandtimelag.Thus,thedecisionhastobemaderightatthebeginningofplanninganddesigningabuilding.
However, many passive means such as orientation, shading, limited window surface, etc. are also beneficial for air conditioned buildings by drastically
reducingenergyconsumptionandrunningcosts.[136]
3.2.1CLIMATEANDDESIGNINGENERAL
3.2.2SETTLEMENTPLANNING
3.2.2.2Hazards
3.2.3.BUILDINGDESIGN
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3.2.4.2Walls
3.2.4.4Roofs
3.2.5SPECIALTOPICS
3.2.5.4Activedevices
Themainpoints:
Providemaximumshadingofdirectandreflectedsunradiationinthehotseason.
Balancetheextremesofsummerandwinterbymovableparts.
Provideventilationbyregulatedairmovementandsmallopenings.
Avoidlargeexposedexteriorsurfaces.
Usereflectiveoutersurfaces.
Balancetheextremesofdayandnighttemperaturesbyadequatethermalstoragemass
Reduceinternalheatproductionandconductiongaininhotseasons.
Promoteevaporationandheatlossbyradiation.
Increaseaircirculationinhumidmaritimeregions.
(alsoseeChapter3.1,Generalguidelines)
Climaticcondition
Theclimateofhotdryzonesisingeneralcharacterizedbyhightemperatures(4050Cinsummer),withsharpvariationsinbothdiurnal(day/night)and
seasonal (summer/ winter) temperatures and precipitation (rainfall, snow) which is scarce, irregular and unreliable, but may nevertheless cause severe
floods.Coldwindsanddust/sandstormsprevailinwinter.Thesolarradiationintensityishighandenhancedbytheradiationreflectedfromtheground.The
air humidity is low and this climate is generally healthier than those of warmhumid lands. Different climatic zones can be distinguished within desert
regionsaccordingtotheirspecificgeographicalcharacteristics.Particularconditionsinmaritimedesertregionsmeanthatthehighhumiditycausesdefinite
discomfortinsummer.Ontheotherhand,thehumiditytendstoreducediurnalvariationsandmoderatetemperatures.(alsoseeChapter2.2)
Themaingoalofclimaticdesign,onamacro(settlement)andmicro(building)level,ishencetoreduceuncomfortableconditionscreatedbyextremesof
heatanddryness.Buildingsmustbeadaptedtoextremesummer/winterandday/nightconditionstoachieveawellbalancedindoorclimate.Notonly
cooling is needed passive heating may also be needed in winter and during cold nights. Protection is required from the intense radiation from the sun,
ground and surrounding buildings, from dust, sandstorms and insects (flies). Glare has to be reduced and dust penetration prevented. Settlements and
buildings,therefore,havetobecompact,providingshadeandcontrollableventilation.
Inmaritimedesertregions,thehighhumidityrequiresmoreaircirculation(ventilation)insummer.Itisdifficulttodesignbuildingsforthisclimate.
Generalremarks
Hotaridzonesordesertregionswithscarcevegetationandsalinesoilsaredistributedthroughouttheworld.15percentoftheworldspopulationlivesin
aridzones1/3oftheworldslandmassand22%ofallpotentialarablelandliesinthearidzone.Mostoftheworldsenergyreserves(oil)arewithinor
adjacenttothesezones.[112]
Inthelasthalfcentury,technologicalchangeshavehadamajorimpactonurbanformsandhousingthroughouttheworld.Theintroductionofthecarinto
thesettlementshasalsodrasticallyalteredthetraditionalurbanpatternofhotaridregions.Thenewwidestreetsreducethepotentialforshading.Inaddition,
the great amount of heatdischarging air conditioners and large paved surfaces have contributed to changes in the microclimate of urban situations.
Moreover, a change in lifestyles and means of livelihood has occurred. Mud or adobe buildings, dark interior spaces (very few and small windows) and
sleeping on the roof are probably no longer acceptable to society in general, but still reality for low income groups. In addition, the proper handling of
climatizationdevicesproperly,andthelimitationsofpassivemeansareproblemswhichshouldnotbeneglected.(alsoseeChapter3.1.1)
(alsoseeChapter3.1.2)
Themainpoints:
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Topography,toenhancetheefficiencyofpassivemeans
Orientation,toreducethesunexposureinsummer
Airmovement,toprovideampleventilationinsummerandprotectfromwindsinwinter
Form,todesigncompactsettlementsformutualprotection
Hazards,toavoiddangeroussites
Thepositioningofsettlementscanhelptotakeadvantageoflocalfeaturestoimprovethemicroclimatewithregardtocomfort.Attentionhastobepaidto
thetopographicalaltitude,thegeomorphologyandthemostsuitableorientationregardingsunexposureandprevailingwinds.Differentiationmustbemade
betweenlocationsontopofhills,onslopes,invalleys,onflatlandsandnearwater.(seeFig3/1toFig3/8)
Sunorientation
Compactsettlementsshouldbelocatedonshadedslopes(northsloping)andathigherlevels.Thegeneralpreferencefortheorientationofslopesreferringto
sun exposure (on the northern hemisphere) is: 1st: north 2nd: east 3rd: south 4th: west. This can vary in relation to the local conditions, topography,
vegetation,sunangleandexposuretime.e.g.sitesonnorth/southeasternslopesarealsoacceptable.Neartheequator,southslopesarepreferredovereast
andwestslope.
Dependingonhowmuchpassiveheatingduringnightandcoldseasonsisrequired,southslopescanbeadvantageous.(alsoseeChapter3.4)
Windorientation
Locations are preferred where the effect of cool airflow can be utilized and controlled. High altitudes and locations with evaporative possibilities are
advantageous. Settlements have to be properly oriented regarding prevailing winds. Winds are more frequent and relatively cooler at higher elevations.
Blowingoverawaterbodycanresultinadropofafewdegreesinthetemperatureofawind.Windcanalsobecausedbyspecificdirectionandconditions
inavalley.
Fig3/87
Locationinflatregions
Compact settlements in flat areas have, in general, less natural features, such as hill sides, slopes, and rock formations which have to be integrated to
improve the microclimate. Such settlements should include vegetation because the air is cooled while crossing green shaded areas. A draft is created
throughcoolingthehotairintheshadeandbythehumidityofplantsorwaterponds,aphenomenonwellknownfromtraditionaloasissettlements.(alsosee
Chapter3.1.2.3,3.2.2.3)
Fig3/88
3.2.2.2Hazards
Sandandduststorms,sanddunes
Thereductionoftheeffectsofsandstormscanbeachievedthroughthelocationofsettlementsathigherelevationsandlandscapingcitieswithplantsand
water,whichleadtolesssandintheair.Theopenspacepattern(networkofstreetsandsquares)hastobeplannedaccordingly,e.g.anirregularpatternto
breakstrongwinds(seeChapter3.2.2.3).Particularattentionhastobepaidtothemovingdirectionofsanddunes,whichcanslowlyburyhousesandentire
settlements.
Floods
Indesertareas,thesocalledwadis(dryvalleysandrivers)canbeverydangerousplacesbecauseoftheirbaddrainageandsuddeninundationincaseof
heavyprecipitations.
Landslides
Heavyprecipitationscancauselandslidesbothatthebottomofvalleysandonslopes.
Earthquakes
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Safeconstructionscanbeincontradictiontotraditionaldesignorclimaticconstructionrequirements,particularlyinthecaseofsimplemud(adobe)orbrick
buildings.
3.2.2.3Urbanformsandexternalspaces
Thefollowingarethemaindesignobjectives:
Providemaximumshadeinsummerandadequateheatgaininwinter.
Minimizereflection(indirectsolarradiation)instreetsandopenspaces.
Moderatetheeffectsofundesiredwinds.
Plannarrowwindingalleysandstreets,whichareshadedandrelativelycoolandbreakstormywinds,butallowthroughventilationandadequatenatural
lighting.
Designsuitablebuildingforms.
Plancloseproximityofurbanservicesanddailyfunctionswithinwalkingdistancewideroadscanthusbeomittedoratleastreduced.
Avoidlargeopenspaceswithinthecitywherehotaircancollectduringthedayandwhichareconducivetoduststorms.
Provideampleshadedpublicspaces.
Selectlightcolorsforeveryopenspace.
Includegreenareasofplantsaroundandwithinthesettlementtoprovideshadeandcoolairandtostabilizethesoil.
Plantandcultivatexerophytesthatrequirelittleornowater.
Integratewaterbodies,whichevaporateandthereforereducetemperature.
Fig3/89Traditionalandimportedurbanpatterns
Minimalsunexposureinsummerandthereforecompactnessandshadearethemainprincipalsforbuildinginhotaridzones.Hence,compactplanningfor
groupsofbuildingsisrequiredinordertogiveshadetoeachotherandtoprovideashadednetworkofnarrowstreetsandsmallspacesinbetweenaspatio
likeareas.Arcades,colonnades,cantileveredbuildingsorbuildingcomponents,membranesandsmallenclosedcourtyardsaretraditionalresponsestothe
climate even larger public open spaces should be enclosed, inward looking and shaded for most of the day. Of equal importance is natural lighting and
ventilation.Aircirculationcanbeimprovedthroughwindchannellinginshadednarrowstreetsinthedirectionofthemainwind.Thegroupingofbuildings
andalleysorlanesshouldallowforproperventilationorevenincreasetheairflow.Thelocationnearawatersourceandtheincorporationofvegetationis
mostimportant.[9]
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Fig3/90Shadyarcades
Settlementpatternsandstreetnetworks(alsoseeChapter3.1.2.3)
Urbanformsarenotonlyaresultofphysicalandfunctional,butalsoofsocialandculturalfactorsandtraditionsinaregion.Therearedifferentwaysof
properlydesigninganurbanforminanaridregiontakingintoaccountsolarradiationandwind.
Somebasicpossibilities:
a)Griddiagonaltoeastwestaxis
Thegridpatternmaximizesradiationthroughoutitsstraightstreets,butbyorientingthegridpatterndiagonallytotheeastwestaxis,thesunexposureand
shade is better distributed on the streets such a grid still supports the dynamic movement of air. More important, however, is the form of alleys and
buildings.[5,143]
Fig3/91Griddiagonaltoeastwestaxis
b)Narrow,zigzaggingalleys
Winding or zigzagging narrow alleys receive minimum radiation, reduce the effect of stormy winds, establish shaded spaces throughout the day which
provideacoolandcomfortablemicroclimateandalsostayrelativelywarmduringcoldnightsandinwinter.
Fig3/92Zigzaggingalleys
c)Blockedstreetsandalleys
Streetorientationandhousingpatternsaresignificantandmustbeplannedcarefully.Straightandparallelstreetsopenthecitytowindventilation.Storm
effectscanbereducedbyblockingstreets.Twostorybuildingswithclosedpatiosopentotheskywillmaximizeshade,minimizeradiation,yetstillretain
ventilationandreducetheeffectsofstormywinds.Buildingsshouldbeattached(cluster)toreduceexposedsurfaces.
Fig3/93Blockedstreets
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Externalspacedesign
Externalspacedesign(alsoseeChapter3.1.2)
Thetownstructureandthepublicspacesshouldthuscounteractheatwithashadedanddenselayout.Thereshouldbeacloseconnectionbetweenpublic
spacesandresidentialareas.Dwellingunitsorgroupsshouldcreatepatiolikeareas.Pavedopenspaceswithinaflatcityscapeshouldbeavoidedorkepttoa
minimumsize.
Mostimportantisthedesignofthewholeurbanconfiguration,becausetheratioofshadedspacetospaceopentosolarradiationaffectsairtemperature
significantly. The temperature in and around buildings can either be tempered or aggravated by the nature of the surrounding surface. The temperatures
showninFig3/94wererecordedinahotdryclimatewhentheairtemperaturewas42C[106]
Fig3/94Temperaturesofdifferentlytreatedsurfaces
a)Streetscaping
Particularattentionhastobepaidtotheneedsofthepedestrians,walkwaysandthescaleoftheenvironment.Halfandfullshadeprotectionbyarcades,
membranesetc.,andvegetation(trees)isdesirableexposedpavedsurfacesshouldbeavoidedpoolsofwaterarebeneficial.
b)Landscapingwithvegetation
Trees, hedges and plants in an urban context can have a dramatic effect on the microclimate and help to tie down sand and dust [ 1 ]. As vegetation is
generallysparse,anoasislikeconcentrationofplantandgrasscoveredareasisdesirable.Nevertheless,landscapingshouldnotalwaysimplytheinclusion
of very high water consuming lawns and grassed areas. Local desert plants as well as rock and stone garden as well as gravel coverage should also be
consideredasadequatedesignelements.
Fig3/95[124]
c)Patternofgreenareas
Thevegetationinandaroundthecitypromotesandcontrolsairmovement.Apartfromwaterareas,evaporationandcoolingtakesplaceonlyingreenareas.
Greenareaslocatednearandinacitywillthereforeimprovetheurbanclimate.Thedifferenceintemperaturebetweengreenareasandbuiltuplandcauses
minuteaircyclesandahorizontalexchangetakesplace.Anarrangementofsmallparksandlanescouldfacilitatetheventilationofthetown.Thewindfrom
thecountrysideisencouragedtopenetrateasfaraspossibleintothebuiltuparea.[124.134]
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Fig3/96
3.2.3.BuildingDesign
Themainpoints:
Orientationandplacement,tominimizesunexposureinsummer.
Form,compacttoreducesurfaceareasofheatgain.
Shade,formaximumsunprotectioninsummer.
Allowadequateheatgaininwinterbymovableshadingdevices.
Ventilation,forregulationofairmovement.
Properorientationandlocationofbuildingsallowforsunandwindprotectionandcontrolledwindchannelling(airflow).
Sunorientation
Theorientationofabuildingisinfluencedbytheamountofsolarradiationfallingondifferentsidesatdifferenttimes.Buildingsarebestarrangedinclusters
forheatabsorption,shadingopportunitiesandprotectionfromeastandwestexposures.Protectionfromsolarradiationisparticularlyimportantduringtimes
ofexcessiveheatwhentherecanbeadifferenceofasmuchas3Cinairtemperatureinabuildingbetweenthebestandleastfavourableorientation.The
largerbuildingdimensionshouldfacenorthandsouth(generally,westorientationistheworst:highairtemperaturecombinedwithstrongsolarradiation)[9
].Theoptimumorientationforanygivenlocationhastobedeterminedinordertoachievethemostsatisfactorydistributionoftotalheatgainandlossinall
seasons.Athighaltitudeenoughheatgainforpassiveheatingshouldbepossible.
Ingeneral,thebestorientationis:northsouthwith25osoutheasterlydirection[13,161].Attentionshouldbepaidtosolarradiantheatreflectedfromthe
surroundings(topography,slopes,rocks)tothebuilding.
Windorientation
Mainwallsandwindowsshouldfacetheprevailing(cool)winddirectioninordertoallowmaximumcrossventilationoftherooms.
Theshapeandvolumeofbuildingsshouldbecompact,yetsomewhatelongatedalongtheeastwestaxis(e.g.theoptimumshapeis1:1.3),becauselarge,
compactbuildingvolumesgainlessheat.Ingeneral,theoptimumshapeisthatwhichhasaminimumheatgaininsummerandthemaximumheatgainin
winter.Underwinterconditionsanelongatedformisidealundersummerconditionsasquareshapeisbetter[9].Acompact"patio"housetypeistherefore
preferable.Adjoininghouses,rowhouses,andgrouparrangements(allcontinuousalongtheeastwestaxis),whichtendtocreateavolumetriceffect,are
advantageous,asarehighmassivebuildings[13].Lithosphericarrangements(subterranean)arealsoapplicable.
Fig.3/97Shadingofbuildingsandbuildingelementsbycantileveredconstruction,arcades,loggiasandhighbuildingparts.
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Densesettlementpatternsrequireaparticulartypeofbuildingconsistingofcompactstructuresandforms.Subterraneanspacesarealsoadjustedtoclimatic
stress.Inhotaridzones,externalandinternallivingspaceshavetobeprotectedagainstsolarradiation,glare,andhot,dustywinds.Compactnesscanbe
achieved by "carpetplanning" layouts with courtyard houses or cluster settlements of high buildings to create suitable patterns. Particular solutions may
utilizeunderground(subterranean)buildingsorcaves.Someheatgainandstorageinthewinterseasonisdesirable.
Fig3/98
Themainobjectivesare:
Compactandmassivedesign,mainlyinwardfacingbuildings.
Minimizesurfaceareasandopeningsexposedtotheeastandwestsunandorientthebuildingaccordingly.
Allowheatgainandstorageinwinter.
Groupbuildingscloselytoeachother.Especiallyeastandwestwallsshouldbeplacedcloselytogetherformutualshading.
Createthermalbarriers(nonhabitablerooms,suchasstores,toiletsetc.)ontheeastandespeciallyonthewestsideofthebuilding.
Promoteventilationandaccesstocoolingwinds.
Providesufficientnaturallighting(noexcessivelydeeprooms).
Planshortinternalcirculationdistancesandavoidunnecessarystairs.
Shaderoofs,walls,openingsandwindowsandoutdoorspaces.
Includesmallenclosedcourtyardswitharcades,colonnadesforlightandairandoutsidedaytodayactivities.Courtyardsprovideshade,coolairpools,
andprotectionfromhotanddustywinds.
Treattheexternalspaceascarefullyasthebuildingitselftoreduceglareandreflectedheatradiation.
Courtyarddesign
Itisdifficulttomeetallthedifferentfunctionalandclimaticrequirements.Regardingthevolume,the"patiohouse"isthemostsuitableformandcanbenefit
in summer from the microclimatic effects of cool air pools that occur in courtyards. Although winter conditions in hotarid regions would permit an
elongatedhousedesign,theheatinsummerissoseverethatacompromiseisrequired.Theveryold,traditionalsolutionparticularlyforflatlandisa
compact,inwardlookingbuildingwithaninteriorcourtyard.Thisminimizesthesolarradiationimpactontheoutsidewallsandprovidesacoolareawithin
thebuilding.Italsomeetsotherrequirementssuchassafety,defense,privacy,lifestyleetc.
Fig3/99SchematicplanofatypicalEgyptianhousebuiltpriorto3000BC.
Inthetypicalorientalcourtyardhouse,thecoveredterraces,whichareusuallyontwoorthreesidesofthecourtyard,andtheidenticalcoveredgalleryonthe
firstfloorhelptoreducetheheatgainedduringthedayandprovideshadedareas.Thecorrectratiobetweentheheightandwidthofthecourtyardshould
alwaysallowforadequateshading,evenwhenthesummersunisalmostdirectlyoverhead.Whenthecourtyardisprovidedwithwaterandplants,itactsasa
coolingsourceandmodifiesthemicroclimateaccordingly.
Inareaswithcoldnightsorwintersthecourtyardhastoallowforadequatesouthexposureforpassiveheatgainandshouldbeequippedwithmovable
shadingdevicesforthehotperiod.
However,theoneortwostoriedcourtyardbuildingtypecannotalwaysfulfilltodaysfunctionalandurbanplanningrequirements,wherehighpopulation
density,economiclanduse,adequatecartraffic,accessibilityandsuitablepublictransportation,etc.arerequired.
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Fig3/100Courtyardhousewithcoveredgalleriesandaninternalpoolforevaporation,dayandnightsituation
Tallbuildings
Incertainregions,suchasmountainousandcoastalareas,(NorthAfrica,ArabianPeninsula,etc.)high,compactbuildingsarethetraditionalsolution,having
alsohadanimportantdefensepurposeinthepast.Coolerairfromthelowerfloorsischanneledthroughthebuilding.Highwallswithintegratedventilation
shaftsarebuiltatthebackontheshadyside.Inmaritimeregions,largeopeningsorbaywindowsforcrossventilationareprotectedwithwoodenscreens
suchas"Rowshans"or"Mashrabiyas".(seeChapter3.2.5.1)
Fig3/101
Undergroundbuildings
Undergrounddwellingshavebeenknownforthousandsofyears.Atadepthofabout2.5m,thetemperatureoftheearthispracticallyconstantandremains
close to the average yearly temperature. The indoor climate of structures built underground or covered with a thick layer of soil benefits from the huge
thermalmassoftheadjacentgroundandisthusnotaffectedbyhotdaysandchillynights.Structurescanbecarvedintosuitablerockformationsormay
consistofastructuralshell(evenseveralfloorsunderground),whichismainlyconcreteandcoveredbysoil.(Theprovisionofnaturallightingmightcause
difficulties.)
Rules:
Wherethediurnaltemperaturerangeiswide,butthedailyaverageiswithinthecomfortzone,asoilcoverisappropriate.
Wheretheannualaveragetemperatureiswithinthecomfortzone,structuresbuilt23mundergroundaresuitable.
Highrooms(ceilings)arenotnecessary.
Naturallightingmustalsobeconsidered.
Protectionagainstsurfacewater(flooding)mayberequired.Structureswithinthegroundwatertableshouldbeavoided.
[5,7,9,136]
Fig3/102Sectionthroughanundergrounddwelling
Buildingsinmaritime,coastalregions
Incertainregions,thehighsummerhumidityinmaritimeareasmakesdesigningbuildingshereextremelydifficult.Moreventilationisrequiredattimesand
highthermalcapacitystructuresarelesseffective.Tallbuildingsandbuildingcomponentswithlightweightstructureswhichutilizethebreezeforrooms
used in the daytime are good traditional solutions to reduce discomfort. The use of high thermal capacity structures, although still useful, will not be as
effectiveasinotherhotdryregions.Thecoastalwindblowingofftheseaduringthedaymaybeutilizedtoamelioratethermalconditions.Ontheother
hand,thenighttimewindcarrieshotinlanddesertair,possiblydust,towardsthesea,whichcanbeveryunpleasant.Protectionfromthiswindshouldbe
provided.
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Perhapstheonlysolutionistoprovidealternativespaces:onewithhighthermalcapacitywallsandroof,foruseatnight,especiallyduringthecoolerpartof
theyearandoneoflightweightconstruction,theroofprovidingshadeonlyandthefacadesfacingandoppositetotheseabeingleftalmostcompletelyopen.
Thisisthebestsolutionfordaytimeuse,especiallyduringthehottestpartoftheyear.
Itisinthisclimatethatwindcatchers,scoopsandwindtowershavetheirgreatestbenefit.[8,9](alsoseeChapter3.1.3.3,3.2.4.3,3.2.5.2and3.4.3.3)
Table:Theconceptofalternativedayandnightspace
Typeofstructure
Performance
Suitability
winter
summer
Heavystructure
Coolindaytime
night
daytime
Lightstructure
Coolatnight
daytime
night
Roomarrangements(alsoseeChapter3.1.3.3.and3.4.3.3)
Theroomlayoutdependsonthebuildingtype.Acourtyarddesignhascertainadvantages.Heatproducingareasshouldbeseparatedfromotherareasofthe
house.Noninhabitablespacesshouldbeplacedonthewestsidetocheckthesunsimpact.Internalheatgaincanbeavoidedbyafunctionallayout.
Bedroomsshouldbeontheeastside,andoutdoororroofsleepingpossibilitiesshouldbeconsidered.Livingroomsshouldbeonthenorthorsouthside.The
depth of interior spaces should allow for proper natural lighting. Nevertheless, modern floor plan requirements, multifamily housing (high density) and
differentvalues,suchasaccesstoaview,mightbeincontradictiontoclimaticdesignprinciples.
Thewallsofhousesandcourtyards,cantileveredbuildingpartsandplantsshouldprovideshadetooutdoorlivingareas.Halfandfullshadeprotectionby
arcadesorloggias,membranesandtreesisdesirableexposedpavedsurfacesshouldbeavoidedpoolsofwaterarebeneficialforcooling.
Themainpoints:
Controlofheattransferthroughthermalstorageandtimelagbyproperconstructionandmaterials
Thermalinsulationtoreduceinternalheatgain.
Reflectivityandemissivitytoreradiateheat.
Controlofairmovement
Buildingmaterials
Thecomfortofpeopleinsidethebuildingsdependslargelyonthethermalpropertiesoftheouterandinnerwallsandtheroof.Dependingonthefunctionof
thebuildingcomponentsspecificinsulatingand/orthermalstoragequalitiesarerequired.(BasicexplanationsseeChapter3.1.4)
Buildingsinhotaridzonesaretraditionallyconstructedwiththickwallsandroofsandwithverysmallopenings.Aninternalthermalstoragecapacityis
veryimportanttodecreasethetemperaturevariationsandtomakeitpossibletoprofitfromanincreasednightventilationby"storingthecoolofthenight
untiltheday"duringsummer.Thebestmaterialsarethosethatdonotconductheat.
Fig3/103Heatflowindaytimeandatnight
Sundriedearthbrickisoneofthepoorestconductorsofheat,partlybecauseofitsverylownaturalconductivityandpartlybecausemudisstructurallyweak
andnecessitatesthickwalls.Yetthickmudbricksarenotaperfectmeansofkeepingcooltheyretainheatforalongtime.Therefore,itisimportantto
calculateandplanthepropertimelag.Abigthermalmasscankeepcoolduringthedaytimeandnotbetoocoldatnight.(seeexampleChapter4.4)High
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heatcapacitywallsareessential.Thetraditionalprincipleistoshelterbehindverythickmudwallsbyday,andtosleepontheroofunderatentatnight.[
122]
Constructionconceptsanddetails
Thedifferentbuildingcomponentsrequireadequatedesignandmaterialpropertiestoactasabalancedsystem.
Thermalinsulationisimportanttosuppresssurfacetemperaturevariations,butisonlyapplicableinconnectionwithadequateinnerventilationandcooling
meansorincombinationwithlightstructures(Insulationcanalsoreducenecessaryheatlossatnight).Roofinsulationisespeciallyimportantindecreasing
summertemperatures.Theoutsideapplicationofinsulationispreferablebecausethestructureandtheconstructionmaterialsarelessexposedtothermal
stress,andthestoragecapacityofaheavystructurematerialhelpstobalancetheinnertemperature.Theadditionalneededskinforthebuildingorroofmust
protecttheinsulationagainstdamagebyphysical,mechanicalforces,andshouldbeofahardmaterial.Therequiredinsulationvaluedependsonthesun
exposure.(seeChapter3.1.4)
Timelagpropertiesofbuildingpartsanditsmaterialsshouldbeusedforenergystorageandtemperatureexchangebetweendayandnight.Necessarytime
lagsforinternalheatbalanceare:Walls,east:0hourssouth:10hours.west:10hours.north:10hoursornolagroof:12hours[13](alsoseeChapter
3.1.4)
Shading devices, such as a heavily ventilated double roof, and radiation reflection by a white surface are necessary to decrease heat gain from solar
radiationmainlythroughtheroofduringthehotperiod.
Externalcolorsarerequiredasacombinationofhighreflectivityofsolarradiationandhighemissivityofinfraredradiationtothecoolskyatnight:white,
nonshinysurfaces,avoidalldarkcoloredsurfaces.Whitepainthasahighreflectionratioonsunexposedsurfaces.Darkabsorptivecolorsareusablewhere
reflectiontowardstheinteriorshouldbeavoided(suchasundereaves).Deepsetsurfacescanbedarkcoloredforwinterradiationabsorption.Brightcolor
contrastsshouldbeinagreementwiththegeneralcharacteroftheregion.[13]
Internalcolors,suchas"cool"andbrightcolorscanbeusedpsychologicallyasacoolingcontrasttointenseoutdoorheatandtodistributenaturallightfor
deeproomarrangements.
Thegroundisavaluablemeansofheatabsorptionthereforethebuildingshouldhavemaximumcontactwiththeground.Groundfloorsshouldbesolidand
builtdirectlyontothegroundorintothegroundwithheatabsorbingmaterials(stone,adobe,earth,highdensityburntclayorcementproducts)Ground
floorsshouldnotbesuspendedandonnoaccountbebuiltonstilts.Flooringmaterialsshouldbeofhighthermalconductance.Thegroundnearthebuilding
shouldbeshadedduringtheday,butfullyexposedtothenightsky,sothattheemissionofradiantheatisnotobstructed.[8]
Fig3/104
3.2.4.2Walls
Duringthehotseason,wallsofdaytimelivingareasshouldbemadeofheatstoringmaterialswallsofroomsfornighttimeuseshouldhavealightheat
capacity.Eastandwestwallsshouldpreferablybeshaded.Highreflectivequalitiesaredesirableforboththermalandsolarradiation.[13]
In regions with a less extreme diurnal temperature range and where the night temperature does not fall below comfort zone, the internal walls and
intermediatefloorsshouldhavelargethermalmasses,whilsttheouterwallsandroofneedahighresistiveinsulationandreflectivity[8].Doublewallswith
insulationinbetweenareasuitablesolution.(multylayerconstruction,seeChapter3.1.3)
In regions with large diurnal temperature ranges and night temperatures below comfort level, inner and outer walls and especially in the absence of a
ceiling roofs should possess a large thermal capacity with an appropriate time lag to balance temperature variations. To achieve this they must be
constructed of heavy materials. The use of exterior or interior insulation has to be considered carefully and its suitability depends on the particular
requirementsandtechnicalpossibilities.
Openingsandwindowsarenecessaryfornaturallightingandventilation,butheatgaininsummershouldbeminimal.Duringthedaytime,theabsenceof
openingswouldbedesirable,especiallyonthewestsideortheopeningsshouldbeassmallaspossibleandbeshieldedfromdirectradiationandlocated
highonthewallstoprotectfromgroundradiation[13].Atnight,theopeningsshouldbelargeenoughtoprovideadequateventilationforthedissipationof
heatemittedbythewallsandtheroof.Hencelargeropeningsshouldbeclosedduringthedaywithinsulatedshuttersandopenedatnight.Suchsystemsare
notalwaysreliablebecausetheyrequiretheattendanceandreadinessoftheinhabitants.Otherconsiderationssuchasdesiredprivacyandsafetymayprevent
thecorrectuseofasystemwithshutters.
Appropriatenaturallightingisimportant.Thedepthofroomsandthesizeofwindowshavetobecoordinated.Glareofdirectnaturallightingcanalsobe
avoidedbytheuseofinternallyreflectedlight.
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Fig3/105Indirectnaturallight
Orientationandsizeofopenings
Mainopeningsshouldfacenorthandsouth,butthelattershouldbeshadedeitherbyshadingdevices,roofoverhangsorbydeciduoustrees.Thesizeofthe
windowsonthewestandeastsidesshouldbeminimizedinordertoreduceheatgainsintothehouseintheearlymorningandlateafternoon,oralsobe
protectedbyparticularshadingdevices.Amoderate,southfacingglassareacatchesthesolarradiationduringthecoldseason,butshouldnotbeaffectedby
directradiationduringthesummer.
Windowglass(alsoseeChapter3.1.4.3)
Generally,singleglazingissufficient.Insulatingandspecialheatabsorbingandheatreflectingglassisbasicallyonlysuitableforairconditionedbuildings.
Generally,singleglazingissufficient.Tightclosingjointsandwindowprofilesareimportanttopreventthepenetrationofhotair,sand,dustandinsects.
Placementofopenings
Windowsandotheropeningsmustbeplacedinsuitablepositionsrelationtotheprevailing(cool)breezetoallowanaturalairflowthroughthebuilding,to
achieve air movement across the body for evaporative cooling and air changes for driving out excess heat. An internal draft (crossventilation) can be
channeledbylouvressetinanupwardpositiontowardstheceilingorinahorizontalpositiontowardsthehumanbody.Outletopeningsshouldbelocatedat
ahighlevelwherehotairaccumulates.
Inbuildingsincoastalareas,openingsforcrossventilationshouldbeequippedwithmovableshutters.Becauseofthehotlandwindwhichoccursatnight,
openingsfacingtheinlanddirectionshouldbeclosable.[1](alsoseeChapter3.1.5.2)
Forcomfort,ventilationopeningsshouldbeattheleveloftheoccupants.Highopeningsventthehotaircollectingneartheceilingandaremostusefulfor
convectivecooling.
Fig3/106Placementofopenings
3.2.4.4Roofs
Differentformsofroofsarepossibleorcanbetraditionallyapplied,thelattermainlydeterminedbylocalmaterialsandtechnicalmeans.Inhotaridregions
thevault,thedomeandtheflatroofarethetraditionalroofshapes.Thecommonconstructionmethodoftoday,a10to15cmexposedconcreteistheworst
possiblesolution,becausetheinnersurfacetemperaturecanreachupto60C,whichremainstilllateintheevening.
Astheroofisthemostcriticalpart,highsolarreflectivityandemissivityforlongwaveradiationareessential,aswellasthermalinsulationand/oradequate
timelag.Outsideapplicationofinsulationispreferableforreasonsmentionedearlier,butneedsanadditional,robustskinwhichprotectstheinsulationfrom
damage.
Theroundedformofahemisphericalvault(dome)hasalargersurfaceareathanitsbase.Solarradiationisthusdilutedandreradiationduringtheevenings
isalsogreatlyfacilitated.[9]
Fig3/107Exampleofdomeandvaultstructures
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Theflatroofispracticalinareaswhereitseldomrains.Itisalsoagoodreflectorandreradiatesheatefficiently,especiallyifitconsistsofasolid,white
paintedmaterial.(seeChapter3.1.5,3.2.5.2,3.2.5.3)[13]Highsolidparapetwallsalongtheedgeoftheroofcanontheonehandprovidedaytimeshade
andprivacy,butcanhavethedisadvantageofcreatinganundesiredstagnantpoolofhotair.Theconstructionandexactplacementofparapetwallsshould
thereforebecarefullyexamined.[8]
Fig3/108
Aseparateroofandceilingarestilltodaylesscommoninhotaridregions,whereastheyaretheobvioussolutioninwarmhumidclimates.Thisefficient,but
expensivesolution(pitchedorflatventilateddoubleroof)contrastswiththetraditionalformofmostdesertbuildings.However,theslopingroofwithwall
shadingoverhangsandawellventilatedspacebetweenroofandceilingappearstobeanappropriate,contemporarysolution.[147]
Fig3/109
Ifitisused,thematerialoftheroofshouldbelightandtheceilingmaterialshouldbemassive.Theairenclosedinadoubleroof,orbetweentheroofand
ceiling,mayreachaveryhightemperature.Thiscanbeavoidedbyampleventilationoftheroofspacebyopeningsfacingtheprevailingbreeze.Inaddition,
roofs(slopes)shouldbeorientatedtowardstheprevailingbreezeandanyobstructionswhichwouldpreventtheairflownexttotheroofsurfacesshouldbe
avoided.
Fig3/110Ventilateddoubleroofwithheavyceiling
Asomewhatlesseffectivebutalsolessexpensiveconstructionwouldbeasimpleceilingwithaventilatedroofspace(alsoonlycommoninwarmhumid
climatezones).Ashaded,ventilatedroofisapplicableprimarilyoverroomsusedatnight.
Fig3/111Ventilateddoubleroofwithlightceiling
Sloped roofs could also provide cold airflow towards a courtyard. A membrane covering the courtyard in the daytime allows retention of cool air and
providesshade,butneedsattendancebytheinhabitants.
Theefficiencyofthecentralcourtyardisincreasedbystretchingacurtainacrossthecourtyardearlyinthemorningduringthesummermonthstotrapthe
coolair.Intheevening,thisisremovedtomaximizethenightradiationpotential.[106]
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Fig3/112
3.2.5SpecialTopics
Inhotaridzones,shadingofthedirectsunsradiationanditsreflectionbysurroundingsisessentialdiffuseradiationislessofaproblem.Shadingcanbe
providedbydifferentmeans,suchasplacingbuildingscloselytogether,theshapeofthebuildingitself(overhangsetc.),vegetationsuchasdeciduoustrees,
orattached,specialshadingdevices.
In hot maritime regions, the traditional "mashrabiyas" or "rowshans" are common. These projecting, screened (bay) windows or nonprojecting screened
windows consist mainly of wooden, shading screens over large openings and allow crossventilation as well as the passage of daylight while preserving
familyprivacy.Somecontainevaporativecoolingmeanssuchasanearthenwarewaterpot.
Similardevicescanbedesignedbycontemporarymeans(seeChapter3.1.5.3).
Fig3/113Traditionalscreenedwindows(mashrabiasandrowshans)
(alsoseeChapter3.1.5.2,3.1.4.3and3.2.4.3)
Basicprinciplesandconcepts
Ventilationisessentialandmustberegulatedtoachievethehighestefficiencyinkeepinghot(anddusty)airoutduringthedaytime,andcoolingthethermal
massatnightbyairmovementifpossibletogetherwithoutsidevegetation.Ventilationcanonlyreducetemperatureshigherthantheoutsideairtemperature.
However,iftheairisverydry,anybreezealsohelpstoevaporatesweatandthustocoolthebody.Highroomspromoteaircirculationandincreasethe
distance to a radiating ceiling. A low ventilation rate during winter decreases the temperature variation and thus raises night temperatures. A high night
ventilationrateincombinationwithaninternalthermalstoragecapacityispreferableduringsummer.
Duringthedaytime,openingsshouldbeclosedandshadedandventilationkepttotheabsoluteminimumnecessaryforhygienicreasons.Openingsshouldbe
placedaccordingtotheprevailingwindsandallowcrossventilation.Airintakeopeningsshouldbelocatedsothatthecoolestandmostdustfreeairistaken
and,ifnecessary,theaircanbeconveyedtothepointsinthebuildingwhereitisneeded.Thusthecoolconditionsexistingatdawncanbemaintainedinside
thebuildingforthelongestpossibleperiod.Internalheatsourcesshould,ifpossible,beisolatedandseparatelyventilated.
Electricfans(ceilingmountedetc.)maybeusedwherelittleornoairmovementoccurs.(seeChapter3.1.5.3)
Windcatchers(alsoseeChapter3.1.5.2)
Windcatchersareasignificantfeatureinthetraditionalstructurestoventilateandcoolbuildingsinhotdesertandhot,coastalregions.Windpressureforces
airdownthewindcatcher.Aircirculationinsidethebuildingisachievedifthereareopeningsontheoppositesideallowingsuctionofinnerairbylower
pressure.
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Dependingtotheregion,theyhaveavarietyofforms,detailsandwaysoffunctioning,andareknownintheMiddleEastas"malqaf"and/or"badgir"[122,
149,155]
a)Roofwindcatcher
Onekindofwindcatcher(alsocalledwind"chimney")isbuiltontotheroof.Insomeplacesthecatchersareunidirectionalandorientatedtocatchfavourable
windsorarefacingawayfromittodrawcoolairfromthecourtyardthroughrooms,andexpelstaleairandsmoke.Bychangeofwindtheyareanticipated
toreversetheirfunction.
Inotherplacespivotedscoopsandmultidirectionalwindtowersutilizewindsfromanydirection.Generally,windtowersaresquareinplanandhavefour
internalshafts.
Theprincipleinvolvedistocatchanunobstructedbreezeatahighlevelandchannelittoareasinthebottompartsofthebuilding.Theincreasedairvelocity
supportsperspirationandisthuscooling.Theductsarepreferablybuiltinamassivewaytoabsorbtheheatoftheincomingairandnotexposedtosolar
radiation(e.g.northernwall),toenhanceefficiency.Inadditiontheyshouldbeequippedwithevaporativecoolingmeans,suchasporouswaterjugs,moist
matting,wetcharcoaletc.,toachieveefficientcooling(alsoseeChapter3.1.5.3).
Fig3/114Unidirectionalroofwindcatcher
Theinletofthecatchershouldhaveashuttertoregulatetheairmovementandtoprotectagainsttoocoldortoohotairandagainstsand.[9]
IntheMiddleEast,windcatcherscanprovidesufficientventilationandcoolingduringapproximatelysixmonthsoftheyearforcomfortableinnerclimatic
conditionsoftodayscomfortrequirements,withoutadditionaldevicesortheuseofmechanicalcoolingorheatingsystems.[155]
Fig3/115Multidirectionalroofwindcatcher(tower)plan,sectionandperspectiveview
b)Midwallandparapetwindcatchers
Structurallyintegratedwindcatchersorscoopsandairductsareaspecialkindofventsandselectiveventilators.Arecessed,horizontalnicheontheexternal
wall,e.g.onthefloorlevelandintheroofparapet,createsaslotbetweentwovertical,structuralposts.Thesemidwallorparapetwindintakesorseriesof
themmayallowforenoughcrossventilationthroughtheinternalspacesinhumidweather,whilepreservingvisualprivacy.Shuttersarenecessarytocontrol
theairmovement.Verticalairshaftsintegratedintothewallprovideaircirculationwithinthebuilding.[155,166]
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Fig3/116Midwallandparapetwindcatchers
Solarchimneysandinductionvents(seechapter3.1.5.2)
Thesemethodscanalsobeappliedinhotaridregions.
Forcedventilation
Electricventilatorsorfansrepresentsimpleactivedevices.Theymaybeplaceddirectlyintheouterwallorcombinedwithanairductsystem.
Coolingmeansshouldbeintegratedintothegeneralventilationconceptofabuilding.Coolingcanbeachievedbytheevaporationofwater.Thedryerthe
air,thegreateristhecoolingpotential.
Acourtyardhousewithadry,hotyardandacoolyardwithvegetationandapoolrepresentsagoodexampleofsuchaventilationconcept.Adraftwhich
passesthroughanevaporativecoolerbeforeenteringthemainroomsiscreatedbythetwoyards.
Fig3/117Coolingsystemofacourtyardhouse
Externalcooling
ExternalcoolingExternalcoolingthroughhumidificationcanbeachievedbykeepingthesurfacesofroofsand/orwallsmoist.(e.g.lawnsprinkler)The
surfacetemperaturecanbereducedbyupto30C.However,thewaterconsumptionisexcessive.
Fig3/118Sprinklersontheroof
Evaporativecoolers
Aircoolingandhumidificationorsimpleairconditioningdevicesareimportantmeansofinternalcooling.Warmanddryairpassingoverwateriscooledby
evaporatingthewater.Evaporativecoolershavealimitedeffectandshouldonlybeusedinrelativelydryclimates.
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Fig3/119Evaporativecoolercombinedwithawindtower[122]
a)Moistmatting
Anopenweavemattingofvegetablefibre(straw)isstretchedonawoodenframeandiskeptmoist.Themattingshouldbeasfineaspossible,placedin
frontofwindowsandinthepathofthenaturalairflow.Thenaturalairflowshouldnotbereducedandcanalsobesupportedbyafan.Thedampmatting
humidifiesandcoolstheairaswellasfiltersoutthedust.[136]
Fig3/120
b)Earthenwarepots
Anothersimplesystementailstheuseoflarge,porousearthenwarepotsfilledwithwaterwhichseepsthroughthewallsofthepotmoisteningtheoutside
and,asitevaporates,coolsthepassingair.[9]
Fig3/121
c)Wetcharcoalandwaterpools
In wind catchers, beds of wet charcoal over which the air passes before entering the room, are sometimes used. The same principle can be applied by
channellingbreezesoverpoolsorwaterspraysbeforetheyenterbuildings.Aspraypondismoreeffectivethanastillpoolofthesamesizeandhasthe
additionaladvantagethattheairisnotonlycooled,butalsocleanedbybindingthedustparticles.Availabilityofwaterandmaintenanceaspectsshouldnot
beneglected.[122]
Fig3/122
Roofpond(alsoseeChapter3.1.5.3)
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Awaterbodycoveringtherooffunctionssimilarlytoasoilcover:itminimizesthediurnaltemperaturerange.Itisatechnicallydemandingandexpensive
solution.ItalsorequiresthedailyattentionoftheusersandisnotverysuitableforhotaridregionsoftheThirdWorld.
Thermalwallsandsolarcollectors(alsoseeChapter3.1.5.3)
Solarwallsareusuallyusedtoheatbuildingsandhencelesssuitableforhotaridzones(seeChapter3.4.5.3).Theycan,however,alsobeusedasacooling
device.
Awallexposedtothesuncanbebuiltintheformofasolarcollectorandusedtocreateadraft.Theairwarmedupbythesolarcollectorcreatesabuoyancy
whichmovestheairintheroom.Theairenteringfromthereiscooleddownbyanabsorberandperhapsadditionallybyanevaporativecooler.
Fig3/123
3.2.5.4Activedevices
(seeChapter3.1.5.4)
Activedevices,suchasairconditioners,areoftenunavoidableandrequireadifferentbuildingconstruction.Manypassivemeansofclimatization,however,
arealsobeneficialinthattheydrasticallyreducerunningcosts.Withtheincreasedpossibilitiesforusingsolarenergy,activedevicesmaybecomethemeans
ofthefuture.
Heating
Incertainregions,particularlyonhigheraltitudes,heatingmightbenecessaryinwinter.(seeChapter3.4.5.3)
Fig.3/124
3.3.1.CLIMATEANDDESIGNINGENERAL
3.3.2.SETTLEMENTPLANNING
3.3.2.2Hazards
3.3.3BUILDINGDESIGN
3.3.4.2Walls
3.3.4.4Roofs
3.3.5SPECIALTOPICS
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Themainpoints
Providemaximumventilationandfreeairmovementbylargeopenings.
Providemaximumshadingofdirectanddiffusesolarradiation.
Avoidheatstorage.
Usereflectiveoutersurfaces.
Useventilateddoubleroofs.
Usevegetationtomoderatethesolarimpact.
(alsoseeChapter3.1,GeneralGuidelines)
Climaticconditions
Theclimateofwarmhumidzonesischaracterizedbyhighrainfallandhighhumidity.Thetemperaturerangeisrelativelyhighataround3035Candis
fairly even during the day and throughout the year. Due to minimal temperature differences, winds are light or even nonexistent for longer periods.
However,heavyprecipitationandstormsoccurfrequently.
(alsoseeChapter2.2).
Thesolarradiationisintenseandtoagreatextentdiffuseduetohaze.Itthereforedemandsgenerousshadingdevices.Thehazemaycauseskyglarewhich
canalsobereducedbylargeshadingdevices.
Vegetationisrichandprovidesanexcellentmeansofimprovingtheclimaticconditions.Itssurfacedoesnotheatupanditprovidesefficientshadingatlow
cost.However,ithastobearrangedinawaythatdoesnotimpedeaircirculation.
Theprincipleofheatregulatingmeasuresbythermalmassandheatstorageisnotapplicableforthisclimate,becausethetemperaturedifferencebetween
dayandnightisminimal.Thedesignerislimitedtomeasureswhichavoidheatabsorptionandheatstorage.Theuseoflowthermalmass,highreflective
outersurfacesordoubleskinstructuresaretheresult.
Theindoortemperaturecanhardlybekeptmuchbelowtheoutdoortemperature.However,byefficientdesigntheindoortemperaturecanavoidexceeding
the outdoor temperature and inner surfaces can remain relatively cool. Together with proper ventilation, comfortable conditions can be achieved in most
cases.
Existingairmovementsshouldbeutilizedasmuchaspossibletoprovideevaporativecoolingandtoavoidmouldgrowth.
Themainpoints
Topographicallocationwithmaximumairvelocityandshade.
Orientationtominimizesunradiationimpact.
Orientationtomaximizenaturalventilationbywinds.
Scatteredpatternofbuildings.
Hazards,mainlyfloodsandstorms,tobeconsidered.
Sunorientation
Settlementsshouldbeplacedpreferablyonsouthernornorthernslopes,ideallyfacingawayfromtheequator.Thewarmhumidclimatezonesaregenerally
located near the equator. As a consequence, east and west slopes receive more radiation compared to north and south slopes and are, therefore,
disadvantageous.(seeChapter3.1.5and3.2.2.1)
Windorientation
Idealsitesarewindwardslopesnearthecrestornearthebeach,whereregularwindsexist.Theventilationeffectofwindscanbeimprovedbyeffective
arrangementofvegetation.(seeChapter3.1.5.2and3.2.2.1).
3.3.2.2Hazards
Althoughthewindvelocityisgenerallylow,occasionalstorms(hurricanes)canoccur.Therefore,afirmstructureisrequired.Floodsarecommoninlowland
locationsandhavetobekeptinmind.
Anopensettlementpatternistheappropriateresponsetotheclimate.
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Toprovidesufficientaircirculation,buildingsshouldbescatteredandhavealowpopulationdensity.
Buildingsshouldbeseparatedwithlarge,freespacesbetweenthem.Thisallowsairflowwhichprovidesventilationforcoolingandahygienicenvironment.
Ontheotherhand,thewalkingdistancetopublicspacesshouldbeminimalandthefootpathsshaded.
Fig.3/125
Groupsofbuildingsshouldnotbebuiltintoocompactamanner.Extendedsettlements,arrangedinalineacrosstheprevailingwinddirectiongivelow
resistancetoairmovementandare,therefore,theidealsolution.
Fig3/126
Incaseswheresettlementsconsistofseveralrowsofbuildings,thehousesshouldbestaggeredtoavoidwindshadedbuildingsinthedownwindrows.(also
seeChapter3.1.5.2)
Settlementpattern,streetnetwork
Thesettlementpatternshouldallowforalooseopenstreetnetwork.
Externalpublicspaces,streets,squaresandfootpathsshouldbeprotectedfromsunandrain.
Squaresandpassagesshouldbecovered,butcrossventilationshouldnotbeimpeded.Generousandwelldistributedareasofvegetationhelptoimprovethe
microclimate.
Streetspacesshouldbelongandstraighttofacilitateairmovementandlinedbyhigh,shadeprovidingtrees.
Streetspaceformedbytrees
Certainspeciesoftrees(e.g.raintrees)formanextraordinaryoutdoorspacebycreatingacanopyeffect.Theyshouldnotbeplantedtoofarfromeachother,
sothatthecrownsformawidehalllikespace,creatingacomfortablemicroclimate.
Fig3/127"Cannopyeffect"bytrees
Landscaping with vegetationAn unshaded pavement exposed to the sun heats up and can reach very high temperatures. A vegetal cover of the ground,
however,keepsitcomparativelycoolandcontributesmuchtoacooleroutdoormicroclimate.
(alsoseeFig3/94inChapter3.2.2.3)
Fig3/128
Landscapingwithvegetation
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Anunshadedpavementsshouldbeavoidedasfaraspossibleandairshouldnotbeallowedtopassoversuchhotsurfacesbeforereachingbuildings.
Hightreeswithwide,shadingcrownsprovidesignificantprotectionfromsolarradiationandshouldbeincorporatedasmuchaspossibleintoanylandscape
planning.
Highbushes,however,shouldbeavoidednearbuildingsbecausethespacebetweenthegroundvegetationandthehighcrownsofthetreesshouldremain
open,providingfreeaccessforthewindatthelevelofthelivingspaces.
Fig3/129
Indensesettlementsitisdifficulttoprovideprivacyaswellasallowingthefreeflowofair.Varioussystemsofpalingfencesandscreenwallshavebeen
devisedconsistingoflouvredoroverlappingtimberboardsorplanks.Theydonotpermitadirectviewandallowbreezestopenetrate,butreducetheair
velocityquitesubstantially.Asuitablyspaced,scatteredsettlementpatternhelpstoavoidfences,yetprovidesprivacy.
Fig3/130ExampleofaMalayhouse
3.3.3Buildingdesign
Themainpoints
Themainelevationsandroomsshouldbeplacedfacingnorthandsouthandtowardstheprevailingwind.
Theformshouldbespreadout.
Providegenerousshadefordirectanddiffusedradiation.
Provideeffectivecrossventilation.
Sunorientation
Shadingoftheeastandwestelevationsisdifficultbecauseofthelowsun,andmayrequirespecialdeviceswhereasthesouthandnorthsidescaneasilybe
protectedbyanoverhangingroof.
Thusthebestorientationforprotectionfromthesunisalongtheeastwestaxis.
Windorientation
Whereapredominantwinddirectioncanclearlybeidentified,longshapedbuildingsshouldbearrangedacrossthisdirection.
Compromise
Often the above two parameters are contradictory. In this case, a reasonable compromise should be made based on a detailed analysis of the specific
situation,consideringthepossibilitiesfordivertingthewinddirectionbymeansofvegetationandstructuralarrangements,suchasparapetwallswithinthe
externaladjoiningspace.
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Fig3/131Optimizationoftheorientation
Asageneralrule,withlowrisebuildings,wherethewallswouldnotreceivemuchradiation,orientationaccordingtothewinddirectionismoreadvisable.
Withhighrisebuildingstheoppositeholdstrueandprotectionfromsunradiationshouldbethedecisivefactor.
Fig3/132Acceptablewinddirectionsfortheorientationthatisbestforsun
Formswithlargesurfaceareasarepreferredtocompactbuildings.Thisfavoursventilationandheatemissionatnighttime.
Themaingoalisthereductionofdirectheatgainbyradiationthroughopeningsandoftheinternalsurfacetemperature.Thebuildingshouldthereforebe
designed not only with protected openings, but also with protected walls. This task will be much easier if the building is kept low. In addition, the roof
shouldextendfarbeyondthelineofwalls,withbroadoverhangingeavesandothermeansofshading.
Fig3/133Lowbuildingwithwideoverhangingroof
The height of the buildings should, in general, not exceed 3storys. Higher buildings receive too much radiant heat and give wind obstruction to
neighbouringbuildings.
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Fig3/134Buildingheightnotexceeding3storys
Optimalshading
Theintensediffusesolarradiationcallsforbuildingsthathavelargeoverhangingroofsandwideshadedverandahs.
Rowhouseselongatedalongtheeastwestaxisprovidethebestshadingofthecriticaleastandwestwalls.
Thesecriticaleastandwestwallsarebestprotectedifthehouseiscoveredwithahippedroof.
Fig3/135Rowhousewithhippedroof,elongatedinEWdirection,providethebestshading
Roomarrangements
Thearrangementofroomsdependsontheirfunction.Sincethethermalloadisrelatedtotheorientation,roomsontheeastsidearewarminthemorning
and,ifnotbuiltwithmuchthermalmass,cooldownintheafternoon.Roomsonthewestsidearecoolerinthemorningandheatupintheafternoon.Rooms
facingnorthandsouthremainrelativelycoolifprovidedwithadequateshading.Thus,theroomscanbearrangedaccordingtotheirfunctionsandaccording
tothetimeofthedaytheyareinuse.
Fig3/136Roomarrangementaccordingtoclimaticpreferences
Itmaynotalwaysbepossibletoarrangeallthemainroomsinanidealmanner.Inthiscase,specialcaremustbetakenforthedisadvantagedrooms.
Bedrooms
Bedrooms can be adequately located on the east side, where it is coolest in the evening. Good crossventilation is especially important for these rooms
because,atrest,thehumanbodyismoresensitivetoclimate.Ontheotherhand,storesandotherauxiliaryspacescanbelocatedonthewestside.
Kitchen
Providedthekitchenismainlyusedduringmorningandmiddayhours,itcanbelocatedonthewestsideaswell.
Mainroom
Themainroomswhichareinusemosttimesoftheday,suchaslivingrooms,shouldnotbelocatedontheeastorwestside.
Roomswithinternalheatload
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Roomswhereinternalheatoccurs,suchaskitchens,shouldbedetachedfromthemainbuilding,althoughtheycanbeconnectedbyacommonroof.
Fig3/137Arrangementofdetachedkitchenandbathroom
Wetrooms
Specialattentionshouldbegiventothearrangementofroomswithahighhumidity(bathrooms).Hereapropercrossventilationisespeciallyimportantto
avoidmouldgrowth.
Crossventilation
Thehighhumidityandwarmtemperaturesrequiremaximumventilation,whichleadstoveryopenbuildings.Thisisvalidnotonlyforthedesignofthe
elevations,butalsoforthefloorplan.
Freepassageofairforcrossventilationthroughtheinteriorisimportant.Thiscanbeachievedbylargeopenings,notonlyintheouterwallsbutalsointhe
internalpartitions.Anevenmoreefficientsolutionisthatofsinglebankedroomswithaccessfromopenverandahsorgalleries.
Thefloorispreferablyelevatedabovethegroundtoallowforabetterventilation.Housesarebestbuiltonstiltsoratleastonraisedplatforms.
Fig3/138Themainelements:Shadingtrees,wideoverhangingroof,raisedfloor,freeflowofairthroughthebuilding
Thesameprinciplesofmaximumshadingandmaximumventilationalsoapplytothedesignoftheoutdoorspace.Tallshadingtreesandreducedground
vegetationareimportantelements.
Themainpoints
Heatstorageandtimelagshouldbeminimal.
Thermalinsulationisnoteffectiveexceptonsurfacesexposedtodirectradiation.
Materialsshouldbepermeabletoair.
Reflectivityandemissivityareimportant.
Duetotherelativelynarrowdiurnaltemperaturefluctuationitisnotpossibletoachievemuchcoolingbyutilizationofthethermodynamicpropertiesof
buildingcomponents.Themaingoalis,ontheonehandtostoreaslittleheataspossibleinthestructureinordertoobtainthemaximumbenefitofthecooler
nighttemperatures.
Ontheotherhand,maximumventilationthroughoutthedayenablescoolingbyperspiration.
Athirdimportantpointisthereductionofradiationanditsreflection,bywhichismeantdirectanddiffusesolarradiationaswellasradiationbythesurface
ofheateduppartsofthebuildingandthesurroundings.
Heatstorageandtimelag
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Constructionswithahighthermalstoragecapacityandalongtimelagaretobeavoided.Itwouldcauseundesirablereradiationofheatatnight.Duetothe
highrelativehumidity,problemsofcondensationcouldalsoappearinthemorninghoursbecausethesurfaceswouldbesomewhatcoolerthantheair.
As an exception, in buildings used in the daytime only, a certain heat storage capacity may be advantageous. Depending on the diurnal temperature
differences,areductionofthedaytimeindoortemperaturebyafewdegreesmaybepossible.Arelativelyshorttimelagofsome5hoursmaybeadequate.
Thermalinsulation
Thermalinsulationhasverylittleeffectiveness.Duetothefreeflowofair,theambientairtemperaturesinsideandoutsidethebuildingareverymuchthe
same.Insulationmaybejustifiedonlyinplaceswheresunradiationisreceived,e.g.forroofsandsunexposedwalls.Theuseofreflectivematerialsand
surfaces is, however, more important. These measures keep the temperature of the inner surface low. The same effect can be achieved with properly
ventilateddoubleskinconstructions.
Reflectivityandemissivity
Highreflectivityandhighemissivityarerequiredpropertiesforkeepingtheindoortemperatureandtheinnersurfacetemperaturelow.
(Buildingmaterials,propertiesandsuitabilityseeChapter3.1.4)
Direct contact with the ground does not necessarily provide cooling because the temperature of the shaded surface is about equal to the mean air
temperature.Acertaincoolingmayonlybepossiblebyconductionforbarefootedpersonsorpersonssittingonthefloor.
Asaconsequence,itisbettertoraisethefloorandventilatethespaceunderneath.Thefloorshouldbeoflowthermalcapacity(e.g.timberfloorwithvoid).
Theadvantagesarebetterventilationduetotheelevatedspaceandmaximumbenefitoftheslightlylowernighttemperature.
3.3.4.2Walls
Walls,bothexternalandinternal,shouldbeaslightaspossiblewithaminimalheatstoragecapacity.Theseshouldobstructtheairflowaslittleaspossible
andshouldreflectradiation,atleastinplaceswheresolarradiationstrikesthesurfaces.
Theoutersurfaceshouldbereflective,lightcolored.
Wallsshouldbeshadedasmuchaspossible.If,however,exposedtothesun,theyshouldbebuiltintheformofaventilateddoubleleafconstruction,the
innerleafhavingareflectivesurfaceonitsoutersideandperhapswiththermalinsulation.
Lightandthinmaterialssuchastimberor,evenbetter,bamboomattingarerecommended.Othermaterialsforminglightpanelscanbeused,togetherwitha
framestructuretotakecareofthestructuralrequirements.
Designandplacement
Inwarmhumidareasopeningsareimportantelementsfortheregulationoftheindoorclimate.Theyshouldbelargeandfullyopenable,withinletsofa
similarsizeonbothsidesoftheroomallowingapropercrossventilation.Windowsarepreferablyequippedwithflexiblelouvresallowingaregulationof
ventilation.Doorshuttersmayalsoincorporatelouvresorgrills.Windowswithfixedglasspanesareofnoadvantageandshouldbeavoided.
Fig3/139Windowwithglasslouvres
Toavoiddirectsolarradiationandglare,openingsshouldbeshadedbyanoverhangingroof,screens,lattices,grillsetc.
All these measures have to be designed to give minimal resistance to the airflow. Mosquitoscreens, which are essential in these regions, but reduce the
airflowconsiderably,arethereforebestinstalledawayfromwindows,e.g.aroundtheverandahorbalcony.
Fig3/140Largeopeningsandscreenedinporches.
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Openingsshouldbeplacedaccordingtotheprevailingbreezes,soastopermitanaturalairflowthroughtheinternalspace.Thisairflowismosteffectiveif
concentratedatbodylevel.
Louvredesign
Adifficultproblemisthedesignoflargeopeningswhichatthesametimeprotectfromdrivingrain.
Ordinarylouvresdirectthewindupwardsabovebodylevel.Furthermoretheyarenotsafeagainstdrivingrain.
Fig3/141Ordinarylouvres
Modifiedlouvreskeepthewindatlowerlevel(livingarea)andprovideprotectionfromdrivingrain,butreducetheairflowtoacertainextent.
Fig3/142Modifiedlouvres
Anotheralternativeistheuseofasecondsetoflouvrestodirecttheairdowntotheoccupants.
Fig3/143
3.3.4.4Roofs
Design
Inwarmhumidareastheroofispreferablypitchedtoallowheavyrainstorunoff.
Largeoverhangsprotectthewallsandopeningsfromradiationandprecipitation.
Singleleafconstruction
The roof should be made of lightweight materials with a low thermal capacity and high reflectivity. Metallic and light colored surfaces have the best
reflective capacity (see data in Appendix 5.1 ). Painting the surface in light colors, e.g. a yearly applied coat of whitewash, is an economical method to
increasereflectivity.However,inmostcasesasingleleafconstructionwillnotsatisfythecomfortrequirements.
Ventilateddoubleroof
Amoreefficientsolutionistheproperlyventilateddoubleroof.Theinnerlayer(ceiling)maybewellinsulatedandprovidedwithareflectiveuppersurface.
Theinnersurfaceoftheceilingshouldnotexceedtheairtemperaturebymorethan4C.ThiscanbeachievedbyaninsulationboardwithaUvalueof
about1.5W/m.Wheresuchmaterialsarenotavailableorcannotbeafforded,eventhecheapestkindofceilingwouldprovideasubstantialimprovement.
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Fig3/144Suitabledoubleleafconstruction
A simple example can illustrate this effect. In two identical houses, roofed with corrugated asbestos sheets and with an outdoor temperature of 22C, a
differenceof14Cintheceilingsurfacetemperatureswasmonitored.Inthefirstcasewheretherewasnoceiling,thetemperaturewas48Cinthesecond
casewheretherewasapaperceilinglinedwithaluminiumontheuppersurface,thetemperaturewas34C.[8]
Fig3/145Placementofceilinghorizontallyoralongtheroofslope
Airwhichhaspassedthroughadoubleroofspaceshouldnotbeallowedtoenterthelivingzone(e.g.dischargedtowardsaverandah),asthisairwillbe
muchhotterthanthenormaloutdoorair.(alsoseeChapter3.1.4.4)
Fig3/146Constructiondetailsshowingenhancedventilationoftheroofspace
3.3.5Specialtopics
Althoughtheintensityofradiationisnormallylessthaninhotdryregions,itisneverthelessasignificantsourceofheat,thereforeitsentryintothebuilding
shouldbeprevented.Inhotdryclimatestheradiationismostlydirectionalandtheshadowanglescanbeestablishedwithahighdegreeofaccuracy.Here,
duetothemoistureintheair,muchoftheradiationisdiffuse,comingfromthewholeofthesky.
Shadingdevicesshouldthereforeprovidegreatcoverage,obstructingmostoftheskyandnotjustthesun.Furthermore,theopeningsshouldbefarlarger
thaninhotdryclimates.Thisisanotherreasonwhytheshadingdevicesshouldbemuchlarger.
Shadingswithvegetation
The proper arrangement of vegetation, mainly of shadeproviding trees, within the surrounding space is an important aspect for the improvement of the
indoorclimate.
(seeChapter3.3.2)
Anotherefficientsolutionistogrowagreencoveroverroofsandwalls.Thiscoverfunctionsasasecondskinwhichprovides
protectionagainstsolarradiantheat,
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coolingbyaventilatedspacebetweengreencoverandwallorroof,
reductionofglare,
reductionofnoise,bysoundabsorption,
reductionofdust,byfilteringtheair,
stabilizationofthemicroclimate,
protectionofthewallandroofsurfacesfromwindanddrivingrain,
aregulatingeffectonhumidity
Adisadvantagemaybeacertainincreaseinunwantedinsects.Butsinceopeningsshouldinanycasebeprotectedbyscreens,thismaynotcauseaproblem.
Tileroofsandsimilar"soft"roofingmaterialsmaybedestructedbycertainplantspecies.Inthiscase,theplantshavetobeselectedcarefully.Specieswith
tooaggressiverootsystemslikecertainFicusesshouldbeavoided.Indrylocationsplantsshouldbeselectedwhichcanacclimatizeandstanddryspells.
Fig3/147Greencoveronroofsandwalls
Fig3/148Greencoveronbalconiesofmultistorybuildings
3.3.5.2Naturalventilation,
Basicprinciplesandconcepts
Efficientaircirculationisoneofthefewpossibilitiesfornaturalclimatizationinwarmhumidzones.Becauseoftheminimaltemperaturedifferencesitcan
hardlybeutilizedtocooldownthebuildingcomponents,butcoolingisfeltthroughtheincreasedperspirationofthehumanbody.However,thiseffectis
onlyfeltiftheairisnotfullysaturatedwithhumidity.
The flow of air can be influenced by topographical features, by the orientation of the building and by the position of surrounding buildings and other
obstructions.Suchobstructionsmaybebuiltintentionallytodivertthewindinadesireddirection(seeChapter3.1.5.2).
Inthisclimatethereisaneedforbothafrequentchangeofairandforanairmovementacrossthebodysurface.
Airchange
Anexchangeofairisalsonecessarybecausewithoutit,boththetemperatureandtheatmospherichumidityintheroomwillquicklyincreaseabovethe
valuesoutside,duebothtotheheatandmoistureoutputofhumanbodiesandtovariousactivitiessuchaswashing,cookingetc.
Electricfans
Asimpleactivedevicefortheimprovementoftheindoorclimatemaybetheuseofelectricfans(seeChapter3.1.5.4)
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Evaporativecoolers
Thepossibilitiesforevaporativecoolinginhumidregionsarelimited.Thepotentialoftheairtoabsorbhumidity,andwithitthepotentialforcoolingis
minor.
In island climates, however, where the peak temperature is combined with approximately 65% relative humidity, methods of evaporative cooling are
possible,althoughtheefficiencyislessthanthatinhotaridclimates.
Here,onlyindirectcoolingusingaheatexchangerispossiblebecauseinhumidareastherelativehumidityoftheindoorairmustnotbefurtherincreased.
3.4.1.Climateanddesigningeneral
3.4.2.Settlementplanning
3.4.2.2Hazards
3.4.3Buildingdesign
3.4.4.2Walls
3.4.4.4Roofs
3.4.5Specialtopics
3.4.5.3Passiveheating
Themainpoints:
Keepabalancebetweenconflictingrequirements.
Seeksolarradiationgaininwinterandprovideshadinginsummer
Providewindprotectioninwinterandproperventilationinsummer
Construct"goodnatured"houses,withmoderateheatstoragecapacity.
Usemediumsizedwindows
(alsoseeChapter3.1,Generalguidelines)
Climaticconditions
Thetemperateanduplandclimateischaracterizedbythreeseasons.Ahotanddryseason,usuallythelongestperiod,isfollowedbyawetandwarmseason,
themonsoonperiod.Inthethirdseason,thewintertime,dependingonthealtitude,temperaturescandropfarbelowthecomfortlevel,especiallyatnight,
whereasdaytimetemperaturesaremoderateandthesolarradiationintense.(alsoseeChapter2.2)
Thistypeofclimateisthemostcomplexonefromthedesignerspointofview.
Buildingsmustsatisfyconflictingneedsofhotdryandwarmhumidperiods.Rulesgivenintherespectivepreviouschaptersarehencepartlyapplicablealso
inthetemperatezone.Inaddition,intheuplandareas,thedesignermustconsidertheprinciplesofheatconservationandsolarheatgain,andsometimes
activeheatingaswell.
Asaconsequence,solutionsareoftenacompromisebetweentheseconflictingneeds.Whereincompatibleneedsarise,acarefulanalysisofthelengthand
relativeseverityofseasonsisrequiredtofindabalanceddesign.
"Goodnatured"buildings
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Buildingsshouldbeof"goodnatured".Theyhavetoprovidecomfortinspiteofclimaticconditionswhichdifferstronglywiththeseasonsandinspiteof
suddenweatherchanges.Theyshouldnotcooldowntoomuchduringthecoldnightsandshouldnotoverheatduringperiodsofstrongradiantheatgain.
Amoderateamountofthermalmass,togetherwithmoderatelysizedopeningsandsufficientthermalinsulationpropertieswillprovideacceptableconditions
forthemajorpartofthetime.
Themainpoints
Topography,southslopingpreferred.
Orientation,soastobenefitfromthewintersun.
Protectionfromwinterwinds.
Form,semicompact.
Hazards,floods,landslidesandfallingrocksmustbeconsidered.
Basicconsiderations
With conflicting seasonal requirements, different solutions may be equally appropriate. The advantages and disadvantages should be weighed together,
consideringnottheextreme,buttheprevailingclimaticconditions.Buildingscanbearrangedratherfreely.Settlementsshouldbesemicompacttoprovide
mutualshelterfromwindinthecoldseasonbutalsototakeadvantageofthesunradiation.
Nevertheless,theprevailingbreezesinhumidandhotseasonsshouldnotbecutoffandsufficientshadeshouldbeprovided.
Sunandwindorientation
In lowland regions settlements should be exposed to the wind and protected from the sun. In winter the opposite is required: Exposure to the sun and
protectionfromthewind.
Inuplandregions,shelteragainstthewindandorientationformaximumsolarradiationgainarerequiredalltheyearround.Sitesorientedsouthsoutheast
andlocatedinthemiddleorthelowermiddleofaslopearepreferred.Heresolargainisbest.Excessivewindeffectsaswellascoolairpoolsshouldbe
avoided.Thelayoutoftownstructuresshouldfollowthesamegoalofshelteringagainstwindsandutilizingtheeffectsofthesunsheat.
Fig3/149
Especiallyinareasofintensivelandusebuildingsshouldbelocatedonsouthslopes,wherethesunexposureisadequate.
Fig3/150
Depressionsshouldbeavoidedbecausecoldairaccumulatesthere.Abovethebottomofthevalleythemicroclimateismorefavourable.
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Fig3/151
Housesshouldbelocatedbehindawindshield,butbeassuredofexposuretothesun.Thisshieldcanbeformedbyexistingornewlyplantedvegetation,by
otherstructuresorbytopography.
Toachieveadesiredventilationeffectbyvegetation,seeChapter3.1.5.2.
Shadingmountains
Inuplandareas,therearenaturallyoftenhighsurroundingmountainsshadingthebuildingsites,especiallyduringwinterwhenthesunislowontheother
hand, the need for warmth is greatest. When selecting a site, therefore, the horizon of the surrounding mountains together with the suns path should be
studiedcarefully.
3.4.2.2Hazards
Inthisregion,floods,stormsandearthquakesoftenhavetobeconsidered,too.Inmountainousregions,landslidesandrockfallsrequirespecialattention.
Settlementpattern
Aspectsofpropersunorientationandwindprotectionshouldalreadybeconsideredwhileworkingoutthebasicpatternofasettlement.Thispatternshould
beofasemicompacttype.
The plot dimensions should allow the positioning of a building with its wider side facing south and sufficient distance from the neighbouring buildings.
Provisionforrowbuildingsalongtheeastwestaxismayalsobefavoured.
Streets
Streetsarebestplannedinthedirectionofsummerwinds,avoidingthedirectionofwinterwinds.
Publicexternalspacedesign
Theoutdoorspaceasinallwarmregionsshouldbeactivelyused.Itshouldbeplannedtoprovideawellbalancedmixofopen,sunnyareasforthecold
seasonandshaded,wellventilatedareasforthewarmperiod.
Deciduousplants
Opensquareswithgroupsoftreestoprovideshadearedesirable.Plantingofdeciduoustreesandpergolaswithdeciduouscreepersareapossibility.
Traditionalexamples
Ananalysisoftraditionalsettlementsprovidesvaluablehintsforappropriatesolutions.
A good example is Bhumra, a village in the higher hilly region of West Nepal. This settlement also provides efficient wind protection and takes full
advantageofthesunsradiation.Flatroofsareactivelyusedasoutdoorlivingandworkingspaces,wherefavourableclimaticconditionsprevailduringthe
daytime.
3.4.3Buildingdesign
Themainpoints
Orientationandroomplacementshouldbesouthfacing.
Formdependsonprecipitationpattern.
Shadeinsummerandheatgaininwinterisnecessary.
Ventilationmustbecontrollable.
Sunorientation
Theorientationofthebuildinggreatlyinfluencesthesolarheatgainitshouldthusbecarefullyconsidered.Normally,buildingsshouldhaveanelongated
shapealongtheeastwestaxis.Thesouthernfrontcaneasilybedesignedforproperutilizationofthewintersunandforprotectionagainstthesummersun.
Windowsontheeasternsidereceivesubstantialheatduringthemorning,whichmaybehighlyappreciatedinwintertime.Usually,largerwindowsonthe
westsidearetobeavoided,asthesolarheatgainthroughthesewouldcoincidewiththehighestairtemperatures.
Toachieveapropersunpenetrationfornaturallighting,solarheatgainandhygiene,thedepthoftheinteriorshouldnotbeexcessive.
Windorientation
Buildingsshouldbearrangedsothattheybenefitfromsummerwindsbecausethisseasonisusuallyhumidandapropercrossventilationisrequiredfor
coolingandhygienicreasons(preventionofmouldgrowth).Sheltershouldbeprovidedfromthewinterwinds.
Buildings are preferably rather compact. However, because of the conflicting climatic conditions, several solutions are possible, depending on local
topographicalconditionsandfunctionalrequirements.
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Requirementsinuplandregions
Inuplandareas,heatinginwinterbecomesmoreimportantthancoolinginsummer.Hence,rathercompactstructureswithminimalbutpropersunoriented
exteriorsurfacesaredesirable.
Buildingsmaybelargeandgroupedclosetogether.Rowhousesoradjoiningbuildingshavetheadvantageofreducedheatloss.
Courtyardbuildingswithproperwindprotectionareasuitablesolution.
ThehousesofMarpha,avillageinthemountainsofnorthernNepalwithadry,coldandextremelywindyclimate,representagoodexample.
Fig3/153SchematiclayoutofahouseinMarpha,Nepal
Roomarrangements
Amoderatelycompactinternalroomarrangementisofbenefitformostoftheyear.Courtyardbuildingsaresuitable,terracedbuildingsfacingsouthmay
alsobeappropriate.Incoolerareas,exposureofthemainroomstothewintersunisessential,whereasinwarmerareastheseroomscanalsobeplacednorth
facing.
Theconceptofthermalzones
Heatlossescanbeefficientlyreducedbydividingthehouseintozoneswithhigherandlowerheatdemands,accordingtotheirfunctions.Thezonewiththe
higher heat demand, such as living rooms, is placed facing towards the sun (south). The zones with less heat requirements, e.g. sleeping areas, kitchen,
stores, entrance etc., are arranged around the warm zone on the west, north and east side, providing protection against heat loss and wind. This zone
functionsasathermalbuffer.Anexternalbeltofvegetationorotheradjoiningbuildingsandparapetwallsmayprovideadditionalprotection.
Thisconceptappliesinthecolderareasonly.
Fig3/154Thermalzonelayoutforcoldzones
Ventilationinwarmzones
In the warmer areas, humidity can cause problems during the monsoon period, Hence, arrangements for a proper crossventilation are necessary. The
separationofhumidityproducingareassuchaskitchenandbathroomsfromtherestofthebuildingisrecommended.
Buildingcomponentsfordifferentseasons
Inthistypeofclimate,itwouldseemreasonable,toconceiveonepartofthebuildingforthecoldperiodandanotheroneforthewarmperiod.
Onesolutionwouldbeabuildingtypewhichisalsousefulinhotdryandmaritimeareas,consistingofagroundfloorwithmassivewallsandanupperfloor
ofalightstructure.Thegroundfloorwouldberelativelycoolinthedaytimeandrelativelywarmatnight.Thelightstructureontheupperfloorwould
performtheoppositeway.Asaconsequence,inthewintertimetheinhabitantswouldusetheupperfloorinthedaytimeandthegroundflooratnight.Inthe
summertimethepatternwouldbereversed.
(seeChapter3.2.3.3)
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Fig3/155
Itwouldevenbepossibletousedifferentsitesindifferentclimaticregionsawarmoneinwinterandacooloneinsummerandtomigratefromoneplace
totheother.
Economiclimitation
Inreality,however,forbotheconomicalandorganizationalreasons,suchdayandnightroomsorsummerandwinterhousesareoftennotfeasible,anda
buildingorroomhastobedesignedtoserveallyearround.Thelargerangeofthermalconditionsrequirestheutilizationofradiationandwindeffects,as
wellasprotectionfromthem.Hence,thearrangementshavetoplayadualrole.
Theoutdoorspaceshouldalsobedesignedasacompromisewithventilationandshadeinsummer,andwindprotectionandsolarradiationgaininwinter.
Thevegetationshouldbeplannedaccordingly,toprovidepartlysunnyandpartlyshadedspaces.Deciduoustreesareanexcellentmediumwithwhichto
achievethisgoal.
Themainpoints
Mediumheatstoragecapacityandtimelagisrequired.
Thermalinsulationisneededinuplandareas.
Reflectivityandemissivityislessimportant.
Thermalstorageandtimelag
Heat accumulated during the daytime should be stored by an adequate thermal capacity of the walls, ceilings and floors to balance the temperature. A
properlydimensionedthermalmassmeansthatroomsdonotoverheatduringdayswithhightemperatureandhighsolarradiationgain,anddonotcoolout
toomuchatnight,orevenduringthefollowingcoolerday.
The retention of nighttime low temperatures is desirable in the hotdry season. In the cold season the retention in the evening of heat gained during the
daytime is desirable. Both can be achieved with a solid floor, wall and roof structure with a time lag of some 9 to 12 hours. This thermal capacity is
preferably provided by internal walls, floors and roof, permitting the outer walls to be used more freely for large openings which will help to meet the
requirementsofthewarmhumidperiod.
Ifthethermalmassofthewestwallisusedforbalancingthenighttemperature,itstimelagshouldbeabout6hours,asitgainsheatintheafternoonhours
only.
Atooexcessivethermalmassshouldbeavoided.Thisisespeciallyimportantinuplandareas.Alargethermalmasswouldmakethespacealmostunheatable
during the evening hours of the cold season. The time lag should not exceed 8 hours, which is equivalent to the time lag of a concrete wall of 20 cm
thickness.
Ifthermalinsulationisused,itshouldbeplacedontheoutsideofwallsandroof,sothatthebeneficialeffectofthethermalstoragecapacityisnotreduced.
Thermalinsulation
Inuplandareas,conductiveandradiantheatlossesshouldbeminimized.Asaconsequence,theuseofthermalinsulationmaterialmaybeappropriate.
Airtightness
Atleastasimportantis,however,anairtightconstruction.Thermalinsulationisonlyeffectiveinabuildingwithnoorverylittleairleakage.
Asaruleofthumb,inuplandareas,awellinsulatedandrelativelyairtightbuildingrequiresabout1kWhheatstoragecapacityper1mofsouthfacing
glazedarea.
Reflectivityandemissivity
Incooluplandregionsitisimportantthatduringthedaytimeradiantheatisabsorbedinthebuildingshellandradiantheatlossatnightisminimized.
Asaconsequence,theoutersurfacesshouldpossesabsorptioncapacitybutlowemissivity.
Absorbantsurfacesaregenerallydarkerandnonshiny.Suchsurfacesshould,however,onlybeusedforbuildingswithahighthermalcapacity.Lowthermal
capacitybuildingswouldimmediatelyoverheat.
3.4.4.1Foundation,basementandfloors
The floor may be in direct contact to the ground, with medium insulation and thermal storage capacity. In upland regions, materials with low thermal
transmissionpropertiesaresuitable(e.g.timber).Inaddition,thermalinsulationmayberequired.Floorareasreceivingdirectsolarradiationshouldpossess
absorptionpropertiesandaheatstoragecapacity.
3.4.4.2Walls
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Thecoolertheclimate,thebetterthethermalinsulationandairtightnessoftheouterwallsshouldbe.
Amediumheatstoragecapacityofinternalandouterwallsisappropriatetoavoidoverheatinginthedaytimeandkeepthenighttemperatureatcomfort
level.
Surfaces should generally have medium colors. In warmer regions a bright surface with higher reflectivity is appropriate. Absorptive, dark surfaces are
possibleinrecessedareas,wherethesummersundoesnotreach.
Inuplandregionsjointsbetweenconstructionelementsshouldbewellsealedagainstairpenetration.Theapplicationofawallpapertotheinnersurfaceis
efficientinthisrespect.
Fig3/156
Sizeandplacement
Windowsshouldbeofmediumsizewithopeningsonoppositewallsforpropercrossventilationduringthehumidperiod.
Onthewestandnorthsidewindowsshouldbesmall.Asaruleofthumb,thetotalwindowareashouldnotexceed25%ofthefloorarea.
Inuplandareas,asmanywindowsaspossibleshouldbelocatedonthesouthsideofthebuildingtoutilizetheheatingeffectofsolarradiation.However,the
glazedareashouldnotexceed50%ofthesouthelevationbecauseofextensiveheatlossatnight.
Excessiveglazingcanleadtooverheating.Thiscanbecounteractedby
theprovisionofadequateshading,
theprovisionofventilation,
sufficientheatstoragecapacity.
Windowsshouldbeequippedwithtightlyclosingglazedpanels,whichprovideprotectionagainstheatlossduringthecoldseasonandalsoagainstflowof
heatanddustyairduringthedryandhotseason.
Constructiondetailsforwindows
a)Joints
Thejointsbetweenthewindowframesandtheadjoiningwallsareanoftenneglecteddetail.Theyshouldbeairtightand,therefore,carefullysealed.
Fig3/157Airtightjoints
b)Doubleglazing
Doubleglazedleavescouldbeanadvantage.However,itisnoteasytobuildthemtofunctionproperly,becausethespacebetweenthetwoglazedpanels
needstobeaccessibleforcleaning.
c)Airtightness
Moreimportantthandoubleglazingisgoodworkmanship,particularlywithregardtothegrooves.Toachieveairtightnessisthemostcrucialpoint,because
thelossofwarmairtroughthegroovesusuallyaccountsformuchmorethanthelossofheatbyconductionthroughwindowpanes.Doublegroovewindow
panelscouldbringaconsiderableimprovement,suitablehinges,however,areoftennotavailable.
Fig3/158Doublegroovewindow
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d)Doubleleaves
Anotherpossibleimprovement,whichutilizesconventionalhinges,istheuseofdoubleleaves,oneopeningtotheoutsideandtheothertotheinside.The
techniqueissimple,buthasthedisadvantagethattheapplicationofmosquitoscreensisalmostimpossible.
Fig3/159Doubleleafwindow
e)Solidshutters
Insteadofasecondglazedleaveasolidtimberpanelcanalsobeused.Thiswouldprovideabetterheatinsulatingeffectforcoldnightsaswellasforhot
daytimeconditions.
f)Curtains
Foradditionalthermalinsulationatnightheavydrapesclosingrathertightlyagainstthewindowframecanalsobeused.
g)Insulatedshutters
Averyefficient,butratherexpensivesolutionistheuseofinsulatedinternalshutters,placedinsideoroutsideofthewindowleaves.
h)Timberquality
Fortheconstructionofwindowsanddoorsitisveryimportanttousewellseasonedtimber.Onlythenwillpanelsremainstraightandairtight.
3.4.4.4Roofs
Waterproofing
Theroofshouldprotectthebuildingfromprecipitationandthereforebecarefullywaterproofed.
Thermalinsulation
Theroofshouldprovideprotectionagainstheatgaininsummerandheatlossinwinter.Theroofshould,therefore,havethermalinsulationproperties.
Reflectivity
Usuallyamultilayerconstructionisrequired.Thereflectivityandemissivityoftheoutersurfaceisthenofminorimportance.
Heatstorage
Theconstructionshouldhaveamediumheatstoragecapacitytobalancetemperaturefluctuationsbetweenthedaytimeandeveninghours,andalsoincase
ofsuddenweatherchanges.Thisstoragemassmustbesituatedinsidetheinsulationlayer.
Airtightness
Inuplandregionstheconstructionshouldbeairtight,thejointsbetweenconstructionelementsrequiringspecialcare.
3.4.5Specialtopics
Design
Inthehotperiod,windowsmustbeprotectedfromsolarradiationandglare.Inthecoldseason,however,solarheatgainthroughopeningsisdesired.Hence,
shadingdevicesshouldbemovable,whichinvolvesasomewhatcomplicatedmechanismandalsotheattendanceoftheinhabitants.(seeexampleinChapter
4.9)
Anotherpossibilityisawellbalanceddesignaimingatanoptimaldirectsolargaininwinterandgoodshadinginsummer.(seeexampleinChapter4.6)
Acarefulclimaticanalysiswillprovideanassessment,atwhattimedirectgainisdesirableandwhennot.Todeterminetheshapeandsizeofappropriate
shadingdevices,designaidsasdescribedinChapter2.2.1aregiven.
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Fig3/160Solarangleconsideration
Shadingofwalls
Wallsdonotneedextrashadingdevicesinthistypeofclimate,providedtheypossessreasonablygoodinsulationandreflectiveproperties.
(Formofbuilding,roofoverhangsetc.seeChapter3.4.3.3)
Vegetation
Deciduoustreesaresuitableforshadingpurposes.Suchshadingtreesarebestlocatedontheeastandwestsideofabuilding.Vegetationwhichistoodense
andtooclosetothebuildingshouldbeavoidedbecauseofdampnesseffect.
Fig3/161Deciduoustreesprovideaccesstowintersunbutprotectagainstsummersun
Vegetationcoveronfacades(alsoseeChapter3.3.2.3)
Agreencoveronouterwallsandroofhasmanyadvantages:
Itprotectsthewallsagainstdrivingrain.
Thewindvelocityonthesurfaceisreducedandwithitthecoolingoffperiod.
Glareiseliminated
Inwintertime,adensegreencoveragecanbeadisadvantagebecausedesiredthesolarheatgainmaybereduced.Byusingdeciduousplantsthiseffectcan
beavoided.
Relationtowinds
Protectionagainstcoldwinterwindsshouldbebalancedbyproperventilationduringhotandhumidperiods.Therefore,regulatedairmovementisaprimary
requirement.Thiscanbeachievedbywellplannedopeningswithshutters.
Ventilationopenings
Preferably,specialopeningsforventilationshouldbeprovided.Twosmallopenings,oneatahighlevelandoneatalowlevel,orventilatingstacksmaybe
solutions(seeChapter3.1.4).Thedisadvantageofsuchspecialarrangementsliesinthefactthattheyareoftenneglectedbytheinhabitants,withtheresult
thatwarmorcoldairenterstheroomatundesiredtimes.
Thewarmertheclimateandthehigherthehumidity,themoreimportantisittoprovidecrossventilation.
Vegetation
Tocounteractthewinterwinddirection,evergreenwindbreakersaredesirable.However,treesshouldnotblocktheprevailingsummerbreezes.Evergreen
treesarebestforwindprotection,whereasdeciduoustreesaresuitableforshadingpurposes.
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ThewayplantscanbearrangedtoachievethedesiredventilationeffectisdescribedindetailinChapter3.1.5.2.
Fig3/162Regulationofventilationbyevergreensanddeciduousbushes
3.4.5.3Passiveheating
Thissectiondealsonlywithheating.CoolingmethodsaredescribedinChapter3.1.5.3and3.2.5.3.
Elementsofpassivesolarheating
Thepossibilitiesofspaceheatingbymeansofpassivesolarradiationhavebeenexcessivelydealtwithinthetechnicalliteratureofrecentyears,butthemain
principles have been known for a long time. Traditional buildings often include a fine synthesis of a balanced use of solar energy. The advantages are
obvious:theconsumptionoffirewoodorotherfuelscanbereduced,which,inthesedays,isextremelyimportantecologically.
ThebasicideawasformulatedbySocrates,whodesignedaconceptwiththreeelements:
Capturingasmuchwintersunaspossible
Keepingoutsolarradiationinsummertime
Usingathermalbufferzonetowardsthenorth
1.Summersun
2.Wintersun
3.Coveredverandah
4.Livingroom
5.Storeroomasthermalbufferzone
6.Insulatedwalltowardsthenorth
Fig3/163TheconceptdesignedbySocrates
Greeneffect
Thefunctionofthesolargainprocessusingglazedsurfacesisbasedonthe"greenhouseeffect".Thismeansthatsolarradiationcaneasilypassthrough
glass. When it strikes an absorptive surface behind the glass, it is converted into longwave heat radiation which cannot pass directly through the glass
anymore.Asaresultthematerialsbehindtheglassheatup.
Passivesolarsystems
Threemainprinciplesusedforpassivesolargaincanbedistinguished:directsolargain,indirectsolargainandattachedgreenhouse.
Passivesolargain
Thesunsraysenterthroughthewindowsintotheroomswhicharerequiredtobeheatedandtheheatisstoredinthewalls,floorsandceilings.
Usingdirectsolarenergyinabuildingrequiresthatthemajorityofwindowsarelocatedonthesouthelevation.Thesunsraysenterthebuildingthroughthe
windowsandstrikethefloors,wallsandobjectsintherooms,wherethegreatestpartisabsorbedandconvertedintoheat.
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Fig3/164Thefloorascollectorandheatstoragemass
Fig3/165Internalwallsascollectorandheatstoragemass
Fig3/166Theceilingascollectorandheatstoragemass
Storagecapacity
Inordertoretaintheheatandtoavoidoverheatingoftheroomsindaytimeheatstoragecapacityisneeded.Thisimpliesthatthemajorpartofthematerials
usedintheinsideofthebuilding(insidethethermalinsulation)musthavegoodheatabsorptionandheatstorageproperties.
Indirectsolargain
Thesunsraysarecapturedbyvariouskindsofsolarcollectors,wheretheaccumulatedheatcanbetransferredtotheroominacontrolledway.
Commonlyknownsystemsare:
a)Trombewall
Amassivewallwithadarksurfaceisplacedbehindaglazedsurface.Itabsorbsthesunsraysandconductstheheatslowlythroughthewalltotheinsideof
thebuilding.Fromheretheheatistransferredtotheroomsbothbyradiationandbyconvection.
Adobeandburnedclaybricksarethematerialswiththebestpropertiesfortrombewallconstructions.
Adisadvantageofthetrombewallisthatitcoversagreatpartofthesouthfacingelevationandthuspreventstheprovisionofwindowsonthisside.
Fig3/167Trombewallwithinsulatedshutterontheoutside
b)Solarwall
Thesolarwallconsistsofhighlyabsorptive,lightmaterialsbetweenaglazedsurfaceandheatinsulation.Solarradiantheatiscollected.Thisisthenemitted
totheairbetweentheglasspaneandthesurfaceofthecollector,whichtransferstheheattotherooms.
Solarwallscanbeconstructedofcorrugated,mattblackpaintedmetalsheetingorotherbuildingmaterialswhichheatupquicklyandwhichareresistantto
hightemperatures.Theycanbeincorporatedintothebuildingelevation,buttheycanalsobearrangedinadetachedway.Inordertopreventtheheatfrom
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escapingtotheoutside,theglazedwindowwallsinfrontofthesolarwallshavetobeconstructedinawellsealedway.Thesystemisalsoknownasairloop
heating.
(seeexampleinChapter4.9)
Fig3/168Solarwallasanairheatingdevicewithinternalstoragemass
Duringthewarmperiodoftheyear,solarwallscanbeusedasacoolingdevice,creatingincreasedventilation.
(alsosee3.2.5.3)
Fig3/169Solarwallascoolingdevice
c)Solarcollector
Solarcollectorsusingwaterasaheattransmittingmediumarethemostefficientones.Thesystemalsooffersmoreflexibilityinthedesignbecausewater
caneasilybetransportedtothedesiredplaceinacontrolledmanner.However,thetechnologyrequiresmoreexpertiseandskillthantheconstructionof
thermalwalls.Athighaltitudes,thereisadangeroffreezing.
Fig3/170Solarcollectorasdetacheddevice
Asaroughruleofthumb,inuplandregionswherethetemperaturevariesapproximatelybetween0Cand10C,thesolarcollectorsurfaceshouldbeabout
1/3rdoftheheatedfloorarea,providedthebuildingismoderatelywellconstructed.
(ExampleofspaceheatingbyasolarcollectorseeChapter4.6)
Dangeroffreezing
Inmountainousregions,withtemperaturesfarbelowfreezingpoint,theuseofwaterasaheattransmittingmediumisnotpossible.Anantifreezingagent
would be required, but in many cases its availability and use cannot be guarantied. Here, systems using air as a transmitting medium are appropriate.
However,suchsystemsarelessefficient.
Collectoratlowlevel
Forthemtooperateinapurelypassiveway,allthesewaterandairloopsystems,alsocalledthermosyphons,requireplacingthecollectoratalowerlevel
than the heat outlet, for them to operate in a purely passive way. The reason is that a heated medium expands and is thus lighter than a cooler one. It
thereforerises,whichisthebasicprincipleofanysuchsystem.
Collectorathighlevel
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If,forcertainreasons,thecollectorislocatedabovetheheatoutlet,anactiveelementisrequiredtotransporttheheattothedesiredplace.Suchelements
wouldbecirculationpumpsorfans.Thesesystemsaremorecomplexintermsofconstruction,aswellasintermsofoperation.Theyaremoreexpensive
andalsodependonasecondenergysource,usuallyelectricity.
d)Waterwall
(seeChapter3.1)
Insteadofmasonrythewallconsistsofametaltankfilledwithwater.Comparedtothetrombewallthissystemconductsheatmuchmorerapidlybecause
thewallhasfarlessthermallagandthewaterconvectsduringheating.Thegreatheatcapacityofwaterpermitsforratherthinwalls.
Fig3/171
e)Roofpond
(seeChapter3.1)
Waterwallsandroofpondscouldbesuitable,butaretechnicallydemanding.
f)Heatgainthroughanattachedgreenhouse
Agreenhouseisbuiltontothesouthwallofahouseandfunctionsasasolarcollector.Duringthedayexcessheatistransferredbyconvectionintothehouse,
whereitisstoredinthefloor,wallsorceiling,orinaspecialheatstorageelement.Thegreenhousecanalsobecombinedwiththeprinciplesofatrombeor
solarwall.
Thefloorofagreenhouseasheatstorage
Themainadvantageofthegreenhouseistheattractiveadditionalroomitoffers,whichcanbeusedaslivingspaceduringcoldbutsunnyhours,andasa
placetoraisevegetablesandflowersaswell.
Toavoidoverheatingofthegreenhouse,movableshadingdevices,preferablyplacedontheoutside,havetobeconsidered.Largeventilationopeningsare
usuallyalsorequired.
Thewallsofthegreenhouseasheatstoragearea
Ifagreenhouseisusedduringthecoldseasonwhenthereisnosunshine,itcaneasilybecomeasourceofheatlossratherthanheatgain.Thisisalsothecase
duringcoolnightsifitisnotproperlyclosedofffromtherestofthebuilding.
Freestandingheatstorageingreenhouse
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Fig3/172Solargainbyattachedgreenhouseshownduringdayandnightfunction
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Concrete surface in the

Leaf surface of tree in

A large thermal mass with

Because the narrow diurnal

In periods or seasons when

For rooms used in daytime

Solid floor, concrete, stone

Good materials for heat

Single planking timber floor,

continuous overhang on south

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