CS-105 Fundamentals of Computer Engineering FE (EE) Session-2010

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Chapter Two Contd…

CPU, Motherboard, Storage & I/O

• Primary Memory: RAM, ROM & Cache

Ø Types of ROM: Masked ROM, PROM,EPROM,EEPROM, Flash ROM
Ø Types of RAM: SIMM, DIMM, Static RAM, Dynamic RAM
Ø Cache memory
• Secondary storage:
Ø Optical media: CDs and DVDs
Ø Magnetic Tape
Ø Magnetic Disks: Hard disks and Floppies

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ROMs
Read-only memory (ROM), also known as firmware, is an integrated circuit programmed with specific data when it is
manufactured. Used not only in computers, but in most other electronic items as well.
ROM Types:
There are five basic ROM types:
Ø ROM (Masked)
Ø PROM
Ø EPROM
Hybrid ROMs
Ø EEPROM
Ø Flash memory
Two Common characteristics for all the ROM types:
o Data stored in these chips is nonvolatile.
o Data stored in these chips is either unchangeable or requires a special operation to change.
Two Distinguishing characteristics:
o The methods used to write new data to them (usually called programming)
o The number of times they can be rewritten.

Masked ROM or hardwired ROM

The very first ROMs were hardwired (contained a preprogrammed set of data or instructions). The contents of the
ROM had to be specified before chip production. The production cost is very low (an advantage). Once manufactured can’t be
written.

PROM
PROM (programmable ROM) is purchased in an un-programmed state containing 1s only. Special piece of equipment
called a device programmer is used to write the data on PROMs. Once a PROM has been programmed, it can never be changed
then. That is why they are also known as one-time programmable (OTP) devices.

EPROM
Programmed similarly as PROM but can be erased and reprogrammed repeatedly. The chip is exposed to a strong
source of ultraviolet light for erasure of the data. Once it is exposed, the complete data is erased and the chip is refreshed to
initial condition. Definitely it is more expensive than PROMs.

Hybrids
o Combined features of RAM and ROM.
o Like RAMs Hybrid memories can be read and written as desired.
o Like ROMs Hybrid memories maintain their contents without electrical power.
o EEPROMs and Flash memory are the examples of Hybrid memory.

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EEPROMs
Electrically-erasable-and-programmable ROM. Similar to EPROM but the erase operation is accomplished electrically.
Data is maintained until not deleted. The data is erased Byte-by-Byte.

Flash Memory
Combines the best features of almost all of the RAM and ROM memory devices. High density, low cost, nonvolatile,
fast, and electrically reprogrammable. Frequently used in embedded systems. Similar to EEPROM but the major difference is
that it can be erased one sector at a time.

RAMs
Overview:
RAM (Random Access Memory) is used in computers. In RAM the operating system, application programs, and data in
current use are kept so that they can be quickly reached by the CPU. RAM is much faster to read from and write to than most
other kinds of storage in a computer (the hard disk, floppy disk, and CD-ROM).RAM is called "random access" because any
storage location can be accessed directly. In general, RAM is much like an arrangement of cells in which each cell can hold a 0
or a 1. Each cell has a unique address and can be accessed by the RAM. If data is being read, the bits that are read flow back on
a separate data line. An 8-megabyte module of dynamic RAM contains 8 million capacitors and 8 million transistors and the
paths that connect them.

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Types of RAM:

SRAM and DRAM

Static random access memory uses multiple transistors, typically four to six, for each memory cell but doesn't use a
capacitor. While as DRAM uses a pair of transis tor and a capacitor. Static RAM is more expensive and usually requires four
times the amount of space for a given amount of data than dynamic RAM for same amount of data, but, unlike dynamic RAM,
does not need to be power-refreshed and is therefore faster to access. Because capacitor has property to be discharged after a few
microseconds, therefore DRAMs need to be refreshed. SRAM is preferred to be used in implementing cache memory while as
DRAM is used as traditional RAM.
Summarized features of Different types of memories:

Erase
Type Volatile? Writeable? Cost(per Byte) Speed
Size

SRAM Yes Yes Byte Expensive Fast

DRAM Yes Yes Byte Moderate Moderate

Masked ROM No No n/a Inexpensive Fast

Once, with a device

PROM No n/a Moderate Fast
programmer

Yes, with a device Entire

EPROM No Moderate Fast
programmer Chip

Fast to read, slow to

EEPROM No Yes Byte Expensive
erase/write

Fast to read, slow to

Flash No Yes Sector Moderate
erase/write

Cache Memory
Cache memory is an intermediate memory used between the central processing unit and main memory. The cache is a
smaller, faster memory which stores copies of the data from the most frequently used main memory locations so as to minimize
the overall access time and enhancing the speed.

Cache working principle

When the processor wishes to read or write a location in main memory, it first checks whether that memory location
say is in the cache. This is accomplished by comparing the address of the memory location to all tags (RAM Addresses) in the
cache that might contain that address. If the processor finds that the memory location is in the cache, we say that a cache hit has
occurred; otherwise we speak of a cache miss. In the case of a cache hit, the processor immediately reads or writes the data in

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the cache line. The proportion of accesses that result in a cache hit is known as the hit rate, and is a measure of the effectiveness
of the cache.
In the case of a cache miss, most caches allocate a new entry, which comprises the tag just missed and a copy of the
data from memory. The reference can then be applied to the new entry just as in the case of a hit. Misses are comparatively slow
because they require the data to be transferred from main memory. This transfer incurs a delay since main memory is much
slower than cache memory, and also incurs the overhead for recording the new data in the cache before it is delivered to the
processor.
(Note: Refer to the cache read operation flow chart given below which depicts all above scenario). Here RA stands for Receive
Address which can be address of any physical RAM location e.g. 300, 301, 302 etc.

Secondary storage media

Ø Secondary storage represents the hardware devices that hold data and information as well as programs.
Ø However most computer operating systems also use secondary storage devices as virtual memory to
artificially increase the apparent amount of main memory in the computer. Secondary storage is also known
as "mass storage".
Ø Secondary or mass storage is typically of much greater capacity than primary storage (main memory).

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Ø But it is also very much slower.

Ø In modern computers, hard disks, floppies, USB drives, optical disks etc are usually used for mass storage.
Magnetic tape
Ø This tape is thin polyester ribbon coated with a magnetic material.
Ø Data is represented by magnetic spots (representing 1s) or non magnetized spots (representing 0s).
Ø The information is accessed in serial fashion using one or more read/write heads.
Ø Specially used in large organizations such as airline companies, mills, industries etc for backup purpose.
Magnetic disks
Hard disk
Ø Thin & rigid metal platters covered with substance allowing data storage in the form of magnetized spots.
Ø There can be several platters used within single hard disk containing at least single R/W head per surface.
Ø They are quite sensitive devices.

Ø It is faster than floppy. Unlike CDs and floppies, hard disk platters rotate continuously with approximate
speed of 7200 rpm, independent of access of data.

Floppy disk
Ø Often called a diskette or simply a disk.

Ø It is a removable flat piece of Mylar plastic packaged in a 3.5 inch plastic case.

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Ø Data is recorded in concentric circles called tracks.

Ø Each track is divided into sectors, invisible wedged-shaped sections used for storage reference purposes.

Ø Magnetized spots represent 1’s and non-magnetized spots represent 0’s.

Ø 2HD => Double sided High Density.
Ø Data is read serially from sectors while tracks are directly accessible

Ø The read/write head is used to transfer data b/w the computer and disk.
Optical disks – CDs and DVDs

Compact disks (CDs):

Ø Optical disks are circular shaped secondary storage media on which data is stored and accessed with the
help of laser beams and sensor technology. Compact disks normally have capability to store data of size
700MB.
Types of CDs:
CD ROM
• Data is stored at the time of manufacturing.
• User cannot insert the data.
CD-R
• Data is written by the user.
• Not necessary to be written at the time of manufacturing.
• Once recorded can be read for many times but can’t be written again.
• CD-Rs are recorded with the speed of 8X for first time and then with 4X using CD writer drives.
Where X is equal to 150.
CD-R/W
• Can be written several times.
• Once written can be read several times.
• In CD-R/W drive, you can access CD-ROMs as well as CD-Rs.
DVDs (Digital Versatile/Video Disks)
• Extremely high capacity, able to store 4.7 to 17 GBS.
• More compression of data as compared to CDs.
• DVD Rom drives specially for DVDs but also support CDs.
• DVDs exist in all forms as in CDs with the same recording and reading characteristics i.e. DVD-
ROM, DVD-R, DVD-R/W.

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Working Principle for Optical Disk drives

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Ø Pits represent 0.
Ø Lands represent 1.
Ø Sensors or lenses are used to read/write data instead of R/W head.
Ø Laser beams are used to identify pits and lands on CD surface.
Ø High power laser diode is used for writing of the data.
Ø Low power diode is used for reading the data.
Ø If the laser beam after passing through prism, is reflected by striking any spot on CD surface, the sensor
assume 1 at that spot, otherwise 0 in case it scatters
Access methods
Following are the four types of access methods
1) Sequential access method (serial access method)
2) Direct access method
3) Random access method
4) Associative access method

Serial access method

Ø To access a particular record, R/W head checks each and every record one by one until the destination record
reaches.
Ø Access time is variable for each record and depends on previous access or the position of R/W head.
Ø Example of serial access device is magnetic tape in which we have to check all the intermediate records until
the destination record is reached
Direct Access Method
1) In direct access method the partic ular track in magnetic disks is accessed directly but then to access
particular sector the R/W head again moves serially.
2) Because the Direct access method is implied by serial access method the access time is again variable
3) Example devices for direct access method may include traditional floppy disk and magnetic hard disks with
several number of R/W heads for accessing data.

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Random Access Method

4) Access time is constant for every location or record.
5) All the locations in RAM are physically wired.
6) Example include RAM memories
7) More expensive but more faster then serial and direct access method.

Associative Access Method

8) Used in cache memories with access time again constant.
9) This can be called as the type of Random access method. The only difference is that in Random access, the
addresses of RAM locations are always fixed while in cache the contents to be compared at any time may
vary.
10) Several comparators are used that simultaneously compare all the cache line for required word.
11) Too much expensive due to extra hardware but too much faster.

(Associative Access Method)

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