Beam (structure)

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A statically determinate beam, bending (sagging) under an evenly distributed load.

A beam is a horizontal structural element that is capable of withstanding load primarily by
resisting bending. The bending force induced into the material of the beam as a result of the
external loads, own weight, span and external reactions to these loads is called a bending
moment.
Beams are traditionally descriptions of building or civil engineering structural elements, but
smaller structures such as truck or automobile frames, machine frames, and other mechanical or
structural systems contain beam structures that are designed and analyzed in a similar fashion.

Contents
[hide]

1 Overview

2 Types of beams

3 Structural characteristics
o

3.1 Moment of inertia

3.2 Stress in beams

4 General shapes

5 See also

6 Further reading

7 External links

[edit] Overview
Beams generally carry vertical gravitational forces but can also be used to carry horizontal loads
(i.e., loads due to an earthquake or wind). The loads carried by a beam are transferred to
columns, walls, or girders, which then transfer the force to adjacent structural compression
members. In light frame construction the joists rest on the beam.

[edit] Types of beams

Beams are characterized by their profile (the shape of their cross-section), their length, and their
material. In contemporary construction, beams are typically made of steel, reinforced concrete,
or wood. One of the most common types of steel beam is the I-beam or wide-flange beam (also
known as a "universal beam" or, for stouter sections, a "universal column"). This is commonly
used in steel-frame buildings and bridges. Other common beam profiles are the C-channel, the
hollow structural section beam, the pipe, and the angle.
Beams are also described by how they are supported. Supports restrict lateral and/or rotational
movements so as to satisfy stability conditions as well as to limit the deformations to a certain
allowance. A simple beam is supported by a pin support at one end and a roller support at the
other end. A beam with a laterally and rotationally fixed support at one end with no support at the
other end is called a cantilever beam. A beam simply supported at two points and having one end
or both ends extended beyond the supports is called an overhanging beam.

[edit] Structural characteristics

[edit] Moment of inertia
Main article: Moment of inertia
The moment of inertia of an object about a given axis describes how difficult it is to change its
angular motion about that axis. Therefore, it encompasses not just how much mass the object has

overall, but how far each bit of mass is from the axis. The farther out the object's mass is, the
more rotational inertia the object has, and the more force is required to change its rotation rate.

Diagram of stiffness of a simple square beam (A) and universal beam (B). The universal beam
flange sections are three times further apart than the solid beam's upper and lower halves. The
second moment of inertia of the universal beam is nine times that of the square beam of equal
cross section (universal beam web ignored for simplification)

[edit] Stress in beams

Internally, beams experience compressive, tensile and shear stresses as a result of the loads
applied to them. Typically, under gravity loads, the original length of the beam is slightly reduced
to enclose a smaller radius arc at the top of the beam, resulting in compression, while the same
original beam length at the bottom of the beam is slightly stretched to enclose a larger radius arc,
and so is under tension. The same original length of the middle of the beam, generally halfway
between the top and bottom, is the same as the radial arc of bending, and so it is under neither
compression nor tension, and defines the neutral axis (dotted line in the beam figure). Above the
supports, the beam is exposed to shear stress. There are some reinforced concrete beams in which
the concrete is entirely in compression with tensile forces taken by steel tendons. These beams
are known as prestressed concrete beams, and are fabricated to produce a compression more than
the expected tension under loading conditions. High strength steel tendons are stretched while
the beam is cast over them. Then, when the concrete has cured, the tendons are slowly released
and the beam is immediately under eccentric axial loads. This eccentric loading creates an
internal moment, and, in turn, increases the moment carrying capacity of the beam. They are
commonly used on highway bridges.
The primary tool for structural analysis of beams is the EulerBernoulli beam equation. Other
mathematical methods for determining the deflection of beams include "method of virtual work"

and the "slope deflection method". Engineers are interested in determining deflections because
the beam may be in direct contact with a brittle material such as glass. Beam deflections are also
minimized for aesthetic reasons. A visibly sagging beam, even if structurally safe, is unsightly
and to be avoided. A stiffer beam (high modulus of elasticity and high second moment of area)
produces less deflection.
Mathematical methods for determining the beam forces (internal forces of the beam and the
forces that are imposed on the beam support) include the "moment distribution method", the
force or flexibility method and the direct stiffness method.

[edit] General shapes

Most beams in reinforced concrete buildings have rectangular cross sections, but the most
efficient[citation needed] cross section for a simply supported beam is an I or H section. Because of the
parallel axis theorem and the fact that most of the material is away from the neutral axis, the
second moment of area of the beam increases, which in turn increases the stiffness.
An I-beam is only the most efficient shape in one direction of bending: up and down looking at
the profile as an I. If the beam is bent side to side, it functions as an H where it is less efficient.
The most efficient shape for both directions in 2D is a box (a square shell) however the most
efficient shape for bending in any direction is a cylindrical shell or tube. But, for unidirectional
bending, the I or wide flange beam is superior.[citation needed]
Efficiency means that for the same cross sectional area (volume of beam per length) subjected to
the same loading conditions, the beam deflects less.
Other shapes, like L (angles), C (channels) or tubes, are also used in construction when there are
special requirements.
STATICS - THEORY

Before the equilibrium of rigid bodies can be

investigated, the supports that hold them in place,
or hold them to other objects, must be first
analyzed.
Supports that are commonly found in statics can be
represented by stylized models called support
conventions. An actual support may be a close
approximation of a model.
The forces and moments exerted on a rigid body by
its supports are called reactions. These forces and
moments are reacting to external loads that are
applied to the rigid body.
In general, if a support prevents translation in a
given direction, then the support exerts a force in
that direction. If rotation is prevented, then the
support exerts a couple, or moment, in the direction
of the rotation.
Basic 2D Boundary Conditions

Supports can be broken down into two categories:

2-D supports and 3-D supports. The table to the left
shows common 2-D support conventions.
To better understand the relationship between
support conventions and support reactions, detailed
explanation of three of the more commonly used
support conventions are presented below. They are
the pin support, the roller support, and the fixed
support.

Pin Support
With a pin support, a bracket and an object are
connected by means of a smooth pin passing
through the object and connected to the bracket.

Pin Support

The pin prevents translation but permits rotation.

Thus, the pin support exerts forces in any direction,
but it cannot exert a moment about the axis of the
pin. In 2-D, the reaction force of a pin can be broken
down into two component forces parallel to the x
and y axes.

Roller Support

The roller support is similar to a pin support but

mounted on wheels. It cannot exert a couple about
any axis, nor can it exert a force parallel to the
surface on which the roller support rests. It can,
however, exert a force perpendicular to the surface
on which it rests.
The roller permits rotation about any axis. It also
permits translation in any direction parallel to the
surface. It prohibits translation towards the surface.
In 2-D, the reaction force of the roller support can
be represented by one force perpendicular to the
surface.

Roller Support

Fixed Support
The fixed support prevents both translation and
rotation about any axis. Thus, the fixed support
prevents translation and rotation in any direction. In
2-D, the fixed support can be represented by
component forces parallel to the x and y axes, and
a couple that is perpendicular to the x-y plane.
The table below includes a more comprehensive
presentation of both 2D and 3D support
conventions and their reactions. Click on any
graphic to view a detailed animation of the support
mechanism.

Fixed Support

2D

3D
Smooth Surface

Smooth Surface

(movie 36k)

(movie 474k)

One force acting

normal to the surface.

One force acting normal to the

surface.

Rope/Cable

Rope/Cable

(movie 48k)

(movie 260k)

One collinear force

acting along the axis
of the rope or cable.

One collinear force acting

along the axis of the rope or
cable.

Link
(movie 48k)

One collinear force

acting along the axis
of the link.

Roller
(movie 504k)

One force acting normal to the

surface.

Roller
(movie 41k)

One force acting

normal to the surface
on which the roller
rests.
Fixed Collar
(movie 33k)

One force acting

perpendicular to the
sleeve, and one
moment.
Pin
(movie 28k)

Two force
components acting
parallel to the
coordinate axes.

Bearing: Circular Shaft

(movie 331k)

Two force components acting

parallel to the coordinate axes,
and two moments
perpendicular to the axis of the
bearing.
Hinge
(movie 344k)

Three force components acting

parallel to the coordinate axes,
and two moments
perpendicular to the axis of the
bearing.
Fixed
(movie 116k)

Three force components acting

parallel to the coordinate axes,
and three moments
perpendicular to the axis of the
bearing.

Fixed
(movie 25k)

Two force
components acting
parallel to the
coordinate axes, and
one moment.

Online Beam Force Calculator

The calculator below can be used to calculate the support forces - R1 and R2 - for beams with up
to 6 asymmetrically loads.

Lenght of beam (m, ft)

10

Force F1 (N, lbf)

100

distance from R1 (m, ft)

1

Force F2 (N, lbf)

890

distance from R1 (m, ft)

8

Force F3 (N, lbf)

0

distance from R1 (m, ft)

0

Force F4 (N, lbf)

0

distance from R1 (m, ft)

0

Force F5 (N, lbf)

0

distance from R1 (m, ft)

0

Force F6 (N, lbf)

0

distance from R1 (m, ft)

0

For a beam in balance loaded with weights (or other load forces) the reactions forces - R - at the
supports equals the load forces - F. The force balance can be expressed as
F1 + F2 + .... + Fn = R1 + R2

(1)

where
F = force from load (N, lbf)
R = force from support (N, lbf)
In addition for a beam in balance the algebraic sum of moments equals zero. The moment
balance can be expressed as
F1 af1 + F2 af2 + .... + Fn afn = R ar1 + R ar2
where

(2)

a = the distance from the force to a common reference - usually the distance to one of the
supports (m, ft)

Example - A beam with two symmetrical loads

A 10 m long beam with two supports is loaded with two equal and symmetrical loads F1 and F2 ,
each 500 kg. The support forces F3 and F4 can be calculated
(500 kg) (9.81 m/s2) + (500 kg) (9.81 m/s2) = R1 + R2
=>
R1 + R2 = 9810 (N)
Note! Load due to the weight of a mass - m - is mg Newton's - where g = 9.81 m/s2.
With symmetrical and equal loads the support forces also will be symmetrical and equal. Using
R1 = R2
the equation above can be simplified to
R1 = R2 = (9810 N) / 2
= 4905 N

Example - A beam with two not symmetrical loads

A 10 m long beam with two supports is loaded with two loads, 500 kg is located 1 m from the
end (R1), and the other load of 1000 kg is located 6 m from the same end. The balance of forces
can be expressed as
(500 kg) (9.81 m/s2) + (1000 kg) (9.81 m/s2) = R1 + R2
=>
R1 + R2 = 14715 (N)
The algebraic sum of moments (2) can be expressed as
(500 kg) (9.81 m/s2) (1 m) + (1000 kg) (9.81 m/s2) (6 m) =?R1 (0 m) + R2 (10 m)
=>
R2 = 6377 (N)

F3 can be calculated as:

R1= (14715 N) - (6377 N)
= 8338 N
Introduction
Normally a beam is analysed to obtain the maximum stress and this is compared to the material
strength to determine the design safety margin. It is also normally required to calculate the
deflection on the beam under the maximum expected load. The determination of the maximum
stress results from producing the shear and bending moment diagrams. To facilitate this work the
first stage is normally to determine all of the external loads.
Nomenclature
e = strain
= stress (N/m2)
E = Young's Modulus = /e (N/m2)
y = distance of surface from neutral surface (m).
R = Radius of neutral axis (m).
I = Moment of Inertia (m4 - more normally cm4)
Z = section modulus = I/ymax(m3 - more normally cm3)
M = Moment (Nm)
w = Distrubuted load on beam (kg/m) or (N/m as force units)
W = total load on beam (kg ) or (N as force units)
F= Concentrated force on beam (N)
S= Shear Force on Section (N)
L = length of beam (m)
x = distance along beam (m)
Calculation of external forces
To allow determination of all of the external loads a free-body diagram is construction with all of the
loads and supports replaced by their equivalent forces. A typical free-body diagram is shown below.

The unknown forces (generally the support reactions) are then determined using the equations for
plane static equilibrium.

For example considering the simple beam above the reaction R2 is determined by Summing the
moments about R1 to zero
R2. L - W.a = 0 Therefore R2 = W.a / L

R1 is determined by summing the vertical forces to 0

W - R1 - R2 = 0 Therefore R1 = W - R2

Shear and Bending Moment Diagram

The shear force diagram indicates the shear force withstood by the beam section along the length of
the beam.
The bending moment diagram indicates the bending moment withstood by the beam section along
the length of the beam.
It is normal practice to produce a free body diagram with the shear diagram and the bending
moment diagram position below
For simply supported beams the reactions are generally simple forces. When the beam is built-in the
free body diagram will show the relevant support point as a reaction force and a reaction moment....
Sign Convention
The sign convention used for shear force diagrams and bending moments is only important in that it
should be used consistently throughout a project. The sign convention used on this page is as
below.

Typical Diagrams
A shear force diagram is simply constructed by moving a section along the beam from (say)the left
origin and summing the forces to the left of the section. The equilibrium condition states that the
forces on either side of a section balance and therefore the resisting shear force of the section is
obtained by this simple operation
The bending moment diagram is obtained in the same way except that the moment is the sum of
the product of each force and its distance(x) from the section. Distributed loads are calculated buy
summing the product of the total force (to the left of the section) and the distance(x) of the centroid
of the distributed load.
The sketches below show simply supported beams with on concentrated force.

The sketches below show Cantilever beams with three different load combinations.

Note: The force shown if based on loads (weights) would need to be converted to force units i.e.
50kg = 50x9,81(g) = 490 N.
Shear Force Moment Relationship
Consider a short length of a beam under a distributed load separated by a distance x.

The bending moment at section AD is M and the shear force is S. The bending moment at BC = M +
M and the shear force is S + S.
The equations for equilibrium in 2 dimensions results in the equations.. Forces.

S - w.x = S + S
Therefore making x infinitely small then..

dS /dx = - w

Moments.. Taking moments about C

M + Sx - M - M - w(x)2 /2 = 0
Therefore making x infinitely small then.. dM /dx = S
Therefore putting the relationships into integral form.

The integral (Area) of the shear diagram between any limits results in the change of the shearing
force between these limits and the integral of the Shear Force diagram between limits results in the
change in bending moment...