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MineralAdmixtures

MineralAdmixtures
Cement
Aggregates
Admixtures
MixtureDesign
FreshConcrete
HardenedConcrete
DimensionalStability

Introduction
AlsocalledSupplementaryCementingMaterials
Usedwhenspecialperformanceisneeded:Increaseinstrength,reductioninwaterdemand,impermeability,
lowheatofhydration,improveddurability,correctingdeficienciesinaggregategradation(asfillers),etc.
Resultincostandenergysavings:Replacementofcementleadstocostsavingsenergyrequiredtoprocess
thesematerialsisalsomuchlowerthancement
Environmentaldamageandpollutionisminimizedbytheuseofthesebyproductsabout67%oftotalCO2
emissionoccursfromtheproductionofcement
Usagedependsonsupplyanddemandforces,aswellasthemarketpotentialandattitudes

Typicalcompositions

Durability

%bymass

PC

GGBFS

FFA

CFA

SF

SiO2

21

35

50

35

90

Al2O3

25

20

Fe2O3

10

CaO

65

40

20

PC:Portlandcement,GGBFS:Groundgranulatedblastfurnaceslag,FFA:TypeFflyash,CFA:TypeCflyash,
SF:Silicafume
Figure1showsthecompositionsofcementandsupplementarycementingmaterialsplottedonaCSAternary
diagram.

Figure1:Compositionofcementandmineraladmixtures
ClassificationofmineraladmixturesbyRILEM
Cementitious
Highlypozzolanic:Silicafume,Ricehuskash(controlledburning)
Normallypozzolanic:ClassFflyash
Cementitiousandpozzolanic:GGBFS,ClassCflyash
AnadditionalcategoryisalsosuggestedbyresearchersWeakpozzolans,suchasslowlycooledandgroundslag,
bottomash,andfieldburntricehuskash

Pozzolans

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Pozzolansaresiliceousoraluminousmaterials,whichpossessbythemselveslittleornocementitiousproperties,but
infinelydividedformreactwithcalciumhydroxideinthepresenceofmoistureatordinarytemperaturestoform
compoundspossessingcementitiousproperties(definitionaccordingtoASTMC595).
Portlandpozzolancementreaction:
C3S/C2S+H2OCSH+CH
CH+ReactiveSiO2PozzolanicCSH
ThepozzolanicCSHisgenerallymoreporousthanthenormalCSH,andalsohasalowerC/Sratio.Apozzolan
mayalsohavereactiveAl2O3,inwhichcasethereactionwithCHleadstotheformationofCAH,whichcangive
risetoproblemsinsulphateattack.
PozzolanicactivityisevaluatedusingthePozzolanicActivityIndextest,whichdefinestheindexas:
PAI(%)=Strength(PC/pozzolanmixture)*100/Strength(PCmixture)
Inthistest,themixdesignisdoneusingavolumetricreplacementofcementbythepozzolan(ASTMC311)as
opposedtotheSlagActivityIndextest(ASTMC989)whereamassreplacementisused.
Characteristicsofpozzolanicreaction:
Limeconsuming
Porerefiner(althoughthereisnotmuchdecreaseinthetotalporevolume)
Interfacerefiner(leadstohigherstrengths)
Slowrateofreactionlowheatofhydration.TimetoattainsamestrengthasPCmaybetermedasteff,or
effectivetime.Figure2showssometypicalvaluesofteffforvariousmineraladmixtures
Betterdurability,duetoreducedpermeabilityandreducedCHcontent
Alkalisandgypsumacceleratethepozzolanicreaction

Figure2:Strengthofpozzolanicmixtures

FlyAsh
Flyashisabyproductobtainedduringthecombustionofcoalinthermalpowerplants.Nearly73%ofIndias
electricitygenerationisthroughcoalburningthermalpowerstations.About120milliontonsofcoalashnowbeing
generatedannuallycouldreach200milliontonsin2010.Onlyabout10%offlyashisbeingutilizedinvarious
industriesremainingamountgetsdumpedinlandfills.AccordingtoWorldBankestimates,by2015,thedisposalof
coalashwouldrequire1000squarekilometersoronesquaremeteroflandperperson.Thus,theutilizationofflyash
isamatterofprimaryconcern.
Thequalityandcompositionofflyashdependsonthetypeofcoalbeingburnt.Therank(orpurity)ofcoalincreases
inthisorder:
5.Lignite(browncoal)
4.Subbituminouscoal(7080%C)
3.Bituminouscoal(8090%C)Softcoal,usedforordinarypurposes
2.SemibituminouscoalGoodheatingvalue,hasasmokelessflame
1.Anthracite(9095%C)hardcoalhightemperatureneededtoburnit
Lowrankcoalscontainimpuritiessuchasclay,shale,quartz,carbonates,andsulfides.Itistheseimpuritieswhich
giveflyashitscomposition.
Flyashuseisnotverycommonforthefollowingreasons:
1.Difficultqualityassurance
2.Poormarketing
3.Conservativeattitudes
4.Storageproblems
5.Presenceoftoxicchemicalsinsideflyash
6.Itiscalledawasteinsteadofpozzolanorcement

Collectionofflyash
Duringcombustionofcoal,7580%oftheashfliesoutwiththefluegas,andisthuscalledflyash.Theashthat
doesntflyoutiscalledbottomash.Thiscanbeprocessedasaggregate,butisgenerallynotusedinconcrete.
Thecollectionofflyashisdoneusingthefollowingtwotypesofprecipitators(seeFigure3):
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1.Baghouseprecipitator
2.Electrostaticprecipitator
Thebaghouseprecipitatorisfoundtobemoreefficient,andremovesoutveryfinematerial.
Sometimes,beneficiationofflyashisdonewherecoarseparticlesaregroundtoafinenesscompatiblewiththe
intendeduse.

Figure3:Electrostaticprecipitatorforflyashcollection
Usesofflyashinconcrete
Asamineraladmixture
Asasyntheticaggregate:Flyashaggregatecanbeproducedbysintering.Theresultantaggregatecanbeused
forlightweightconcrete.However,itisveryexpensive.Aggregatecanalsobesynthesizedbyagglomeration
usinglimeorcementasbinder,asincoldbonding.
Typesofflyash(ASTMclassification)
TypeC:ThisisalsocalledHighCalciumflyash,andpossessesbothcementitiousandpozzolanicproperties.10
15%ofthematerialhasaparticlesizegreaterthan45m,andthefineness(Blaine)is300400m2/kg.The
particlesareprimarilysolidsphereswithasmoothtexture.Theaverageparticlesizeislessthan20m.
TypeF:ThisisalsocalledLowCalciumflyash,andisanormallypozzolanicmaterial.1520%ofthematerial
islargerthan45m,andthefinenessis200300m2/kg.Particlesaresolidsphereswithasmoothtexture,and
theaverageparticlesizeis20m.
Apartfromsolidsphericalparticles,therealsomayexisthollowspheres.Thesmallhollowsphereswithentrapped
gasarecalledcenospheres,whilethelargehollowsphereswithsolidspheresinsidethemarecalledplerospheres(see
Figure4).

Figure4.Structureofflyash
Thelossonignitionofflyashcanrepresenttheamountofunburntcarbonpresent.Toomuchofunburntcarboncan
interferewiththeairentrainingagent,leadingtopoorairvoidparameters.Restrictionsarealsoplacedonthesulfate
(SO3)content,MgOcontent,alkalicontent,andmoisturecontentofflyash.
Effectonfreshconcreteproperties
Thesettingtimeisincreasedwhenflyashisused.
Workabilityandflowofconcreteareincreasedduetothesphericalshapeoftheflyashparticles,whichlendsa
ballbearingtypeeffectontheconcretemixture.
Bleedingandsegregationareusuallyreducedforwellproportionedflyashconcrete.
Thepastevolumeisincreasedwhenmassreplacementofcementbyflyashisdone.
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Effectonhardenedconcreteproperties
Strengthgainofflyashconcreteisslowerthannormalconcrete,asstatedintheprevioussections.The
potentialforthermalcrackingismuchreducedcomparedtoordinaryPCconcrete.Ultimatestrengthsare
usuallyimprovedwhenflyashisused.
Pozzolanicactivityisproportionaltotheamountofparticlesunder10mindiameter.
Creepandshrinkageofflyashconcretearetypicallyhigherthannormalconcrete,becauseoftheincreased
amountofpasteintheconcrete(whenmassreplacementisdone).
Moreairentrainingadmixtureisneededtoentrainairinflyashconcrete.
Theresultsontheeffectsofflyashonsulphateresistanceareinconclusive.
Expansionsduringalkaliaggregatereactionarereducedbytheuseofflyash,becauseofthedilutionof
Portlandcement(implyingtherearelesseralkalisavailable).
Forproperlycuredflyashconcrete,therateofchloridediffusionisreducedcomparedtoordinaryPC
concrete.
Useofflyashinspecializedapplications
Inhighstrengthconcrete,asanadditionalcementitiousmaterial.
Inrollercompactedconcrete.flyashisgoodforbondinginbetweenthelayersofthisconcrete.
Incontrolledlowstrengthmaterials(CLSM),whichareflowablemortarsusedasbackfill
Asasyntheticaggregate
Highvolumeflyashconcrete:Concretewith50%ofthePortlandcementreplacedbyClassFflyash.Hasalow
watercontent,generallylessthan130kg/m3.Forslumpsof150200mm,theuseofasuperplasticizeris
mandatory.TherangeofcharacteristiccompressivestrengthsthatcanbeachievedusingHVFAconcreteis20
50MPa.Thisconcretepossessesexcellentpumpability,andexhibitslittlebleeding(therefore,pronetoplastic
shrinkagecracking)andlowdryingshrinkage.Ithasapplicationsinmassconcreteblocks,buildingcolumns
andfoundations,caissonsandpiles,dams,highways,shotcreteandselfcompactingconcrete.

SilicaFume
AccordingtoACI116R,silicafumeisaveryfineamorphous(noncrystalline)silicaproducedinelectricarcfurnaces
asabyproductoftheproductionofelementalsiliconoralloyscontainingsiliconalsoknownascondensedsilicafume
ormicrosilica.Despitepreviousknowledgeaboutthebenefitsofsilicafume,itsuseasmineraladmixtureforconcrete
reallypickeduponlyinthe80s.
Therearenumerousvariantsofthishighlypozzolanicmaterialavailable:
Condensedsilicafume,microsilica,silicaflour,fumesilica(awhitefluffymaterialproducedfromvapourphase
hydrolysisofchlorosilanessuchasSiCl4intheflameofhydrogenandoxygen,usedinthepaintindustryasfiller),
silicagel,andprecipitatedsilica.
Silicafumeisabyproductoftheferrosiliconindustry.Thepurityofsilicafumedependsontheferrosiliconalloy
fromwhichSimetalisbeingextracted(seeTable1).
Table1.Silicapurityinvariousferrosiliconalloys
Ferrosiliconalloys

SiO2content

FeCrSi
FeMgSi
50%ferrosilicon

1848%
4448%
7277%

70%ferrosilicon
Siliconmetal(98%)

8488%
9398%

Figure5depictstheprocessofcollectionofsilicafume.Afterbeingcollectedoverthefurnace,thesilicafumeis
transferred,cooled,andphysicallytrapped.Cyclonesareusedtoremoveoversizeandotherunwantedmaterials.
Similartoflyash,silicafumeisalsocollectedusingbaghouseprecipitator.

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Figure5:Processofsiliconmetalextraction
Silicafumeisavailableinthefollowingstates(seeFigure6):
Asisbulkpowder:Duetothelowspecificgravityofsilicafume(~2.2),thebulkpowderbecomesverybulky
anddifficulttohandleandtransport.Itisdifficulttohandlepneumaticallyitisstickyandselfagglomerating
withatendencytocreatesmallweaklumps.Furthermore,itslowdensityyieldssmallloadsinbulktankers.It
isprimarilyusedinbaggedproducts(e.g.,grouts,premixedmortars)
Drydensifiedsilicafume:Densificationisperformedbyaeratingandtumblingthesilicafumepowderwith
compressedair,untilthedesiredbulkdensityisreachedduetotheagglomerationcausedbyelectrostatic
chargesthatdevelop.Anefficientsuperplasticizerisrequiredtodeflocculateandcauseagooddispersionofthe
silicafumeinconcrete.Unliketheasispowder,thedensifiedversioniseasytohandleandtransport,andflows
wellpneumatically.
Slurry:50%water+47%silicafume+3%chemicalagent,thatkeepstheparticlesinsuspensionandprevents
gelling.Theslurryformissusceptibletogellingincoldclimates.However,itisaveryefficientwayof
dispensingsilicafume.Also,storagespacecanalsobereduced.

Figure6:Differentformsofsilicafume
Properties
Specificgravity:2.2
Typicalfineness:20000m2/kg(averageparticlesize~0.10.5m)
Bulkdensity:Asproduced130to430kg/m3,slurry1320to1440kg/m3,densified480to720kg/m3
Colour:lightgreytodarkgrey(lighterimpliespurer)
Cost:almost10timesasmuchasPC
Typicallyusedat515%replacementlevel
BenefitsfromsilicafumeareduetothepozzolanicreactionthatproducesadditionalCSH,aswellasdueto
theparticlepacking(fillereffect)ofthefinesilicafumeparticles

Effectsonfreshconcreteproperties

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Becauseofitshighfineness,theuseofsilicafumecausesanincreaseinthewaterdemandofconcrete.Typically
itisalwaysusedinconjunctionwithasuperplasticizer.
Silicafumecausesthemixtobestickyandcohesive.Also,concretemixeswithsilicafumearepronetoslump
lossproblems.Becauseofitscohesiveness,ahigherslumpisneededtoplacesilicafumeconcrete.
Bleedingisreduceddrastically.Infact,mostsilicafumemixesdonotshowanybleeding.Indryareas,ifthe
evaporationrateexceedstherateatwhichconcretesets,plasticshrinkagemayoccur.Figure7showsthe
increaseincapillarypressurewithadecreaseintheporediameter.Silicafumeconcreteisespeciallysusceptible
tothisproblemincasecuringisnotdoneproperly.Asimplecalculationofthecapillarytensionduetoplastic
shrinkagecanbeshownasfollows:
Pc(capillarytension)=0.001YS/(w/c),whereY=surfacetensionofwater=0.0073N/m,andS=surfaceareaof
particles(20000m2/kgforSF,350m2/kgforcement).Assumingaw/cof0.35,
ForPCconcrete,Pc=0.07MPa
ForSFconcrete,Pc=4.20MPa
(formoreinformationonplasticshrinkageproblemswithsilicafume,seethepaper:M.D.Cohen,J.Olek,and
W.L.Dolch,PlasticShrinkageCrackinginPortlandCementandPortlandCementSilicaFumePasteand
Mortar,CementandConcreteResearchVol.20,1990,pp.103119.

Figure7:Relationbetweencapillarypressureanddiameter
Effectsonhardenedconcreteproperties
Poresizerefinementandreductioninpermeabilityoccurswhensilicafumeisused.Duetoacombinedeffectof
silicafumeasahighlyreactivepozzolanandfiller,thetransitionzonebetweenaggregateandpasteis
strengthened.
Compressiveandflexuralstrengthsareincreased,whilethechloridepermeabilityanddiffusionarereduced
significantlycomparedtoordinaryPCconcrete.
Elasticmodulusisincreased(ESFC~1.15EPCC),or,inotherwords,concretebecomesstifferwiththeuseof
silicafume.
Creepandshrinkageareincreasedathighreplacementlevels(1015%)becauseofanincreaseinthevolume
ofthepaste.However,duetothehigherstiffness,theresistancetocreepandshrinkagedeformationishigher.
Amountofairentrainingagentrequiredforaparticularvolumeofairisincreasedinsilicafumeconcrete.
Freezethawresistanceisreducedslightlycomparedtonormalconcrete,butdamageisusuallylimitedowingto
theextremelylowpermeabilityofSFC.
Inmostcases,silicafumeconcreteshowsbetterresistancetochemicalattack(exceptionsbeingammonium
sulphateandmagnesiumsulphateattack),owingtothedecreasedpermeability,aswellasduetoreducedCHin
thepaste.
ExpansionsduetoASRarereducedinsilicafumeconcrete.
Corrosionrateisreducedwiththeuseofsilicafume.Thisisbecauseoftworeasons:thelowpermeabilityof
SFCcausesaloweravailabilityofmoistureandoxygenatthecathodicsites,andthehighresistivityofSFC
makestheflowofelectronsdifficult.
Carbonationdepthisgenerallylowered.
SFChasverygoodabrasionanderosionresistance.Thismakesitanidealchoiceforindustrialflooring.
FireperformanceofSFCisnotverygood.Thisisaconsequenceofthelowpermeabilityofsilicafumeconcrete.
Whenafireoccurs,thefreewaterinsideconcretetransformstosteamandescapesthroughtheinterconnected
voids.Whenthisescapeispreventedtothedensemicrostructure,significantpressuresgetbuiltupinside,
whichultimatelycausetheconcretetoexplodeandspall.Thistypeoffailureoccurredinthelate1990sinthe
EnglishChanneltunnel.

Groundgranulatedblastfurnaceslag
Blastfurnaceslagisabyproductoftheextractionofironfromironore.Cokeandlimestoneareaddedasfluxes
insidetheblastfurnace.Theimpuritiesinironorecombinewiththelimeandriseuptothesurfaceoftheblast
furnace(showninFigure8),whilethemolteniron,whichisheavier,staysatthebottom.
Theuseofblastfurnaceslagasacementitiousmaterialisveryold.1892wasthefirsttimethatPortlandblast
furnaceslagcementwasmanufactured.Inthepresentdayscenario,slagisusedalmostineverycountrytovarying
degrees.

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Thereactivityofslagdependsontherateofcooling.Inincreasingorderofreactivity,thecoolingprocessesmaybe
rankedas:Slowcooling(inair),Rapidcooling(bywaterspray),andQuenching(dippinginwater).
Amongstmineraladmixtures,slagpossessesthehighestspecificgravity(~2.83.0).Becauseitisaprocessed
material,thefinenesscanbecontrolledtoanydesireddegree.However,formosttypicalapplications,slagfinenessis
onlyslightlyhigherthancementfineness.

Figure8:Blastfurnaceusedinironextraction
Typesofslag
Aircooledslag:Lowreactivityslagthatfindsuseasaggregate.Thestrengthandtoughnessofthisaggregate
makesitaverysuitablematerialforrailroadballast.
Expandedorfoamedslag:Lowreactivityslagthatisfoamedwithair.Makesaverygoodlightweightaggregate,
andisusedforthermalinsulation.
Granulated:Thisisahighreactivityslag,andisusuallyquenched.Thehardenedmatteristhengroundtoa
finenesssimilartocement.Thusthename:GroundGranulatedBlastFurnaceSlag(GGBFS).
Pelletizedslag:ThereactivityissimilartoGGBFS,buttheprocessofpelletizationisacomplexone.The
schematicdiagraminFigure9showstheprocessofpelletization.Typically,thistypeofslagisnotusedasmuch
asGGBFS

Figure9:Processofpelletizationofslag
Factorsdeterminingcementitiouspropertiesofslagcements
ChemicalcompositionofGGBFSTheamountofCaOinslagdeterminesitscementitiousproperties.Since
slagisalmostentirelyamorphous,thereactivityoftheCaOwilldeterminetheoverallslagreaction.
AlkaliconcentrationofreactingsystemWhenthealkalicontentishigher,thesystemwillbemorereactive.

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Glass(reactiveSiO2)contentofGGBFSGlassySiO2causesthepozzolanicreactiontotakeplacewiththe
hydratedlime.
FinenessofGGBFSandPCHigherfinenessimpliesafasterreaction.
TemperatureduringearlyphaseofhydrationSlaghydrationisgreatlyenhancedathightemperatures.
Hydrationofslag
GGBFSisamineraladmixturewithbothcementitiousandpozzolanicproperties.Infact,itisclassifiedasa
hydrauliccementinmostcodes.However,anactivatorisnecessarytohydratetheslag.Theactivationofslag
hydrationcanbedoneinthefollowingways:
Alkaliactivation:e.g.bycausticsoda(NaOH),Na2CO3,sodiumsilicate,etc.TheproductsformedareCSH,
C4AH13andC2ASH8(Gehlenite).
Sulphateactivation:e.g.bygypsum,hemihydrate,anhydrite,phosphogypsum,etc.TheproductsformedareC
SH,ettringite,andaluminiumhydroxide(AH3).
Mixedactivation:Whenbothalkaliandsulphatesourcesarepresent,suchasinacementsystem.
Effectsonfreshandhardenedconcrete
Apartfromdelayingtheinitialset,slagdoesnotsignificantlyalterthefreshconcreteproperties.The
workabilityofslagconcreteissimilartoanequivalentPCconcrete,primarilybecauseslagpossessesthesame
leveloffinenessasPC.
Therateofstrengthgainissloweddownconsiderablywhencementisreplacedbyslag.Thedelayincreases
withincreasingreplacement.100%slagconcreteisalsopossible,althoughthecuringdurationtoproducethe
requiredstrengthswouldneedtobesubstantiallyincreased
Theultimatestrengthswithslagaregenerallyimprovedthedurabilityisalsoimprovedwiththereplacement
ofcementbyslag.
Slagistheidealadmixtureformarineconcrete,asslagconcreteshowsexcellentresistancetochemicalattack
andcorrosion
SlagconcreteisreportedtohavehighercarbonationratescomparedtoordinaryPCconcrete

Othermineraladmixtures
Ricehuskash(RHA)
Thisisahighreactivitypozzolanobtainedbycontrolledcalcinationofricehusk.Fieldburntricehuskisalmost
crystallineinnature,andmakesaweakpozzolan.Thus,toobtainahighdegreeofpozzolanicity,agoodcontrolis
neededwhileburning.RHAusuallycontainsalargeamountofunburntcarbonwhichmightadverselyaffectair
entrainment.
RHAisafinematerial,withparticlesizeslessthan45m,andasurfaceareaof60000m2/kg.Theparticlesare
typicallycellular.Ahighamountofreactivesilicaispresentinthesystem(>90%).
Metakaolin
Thisisobtainedfromcalcinationofkaoliniteclayintherangeof740840oC.Thecrystallineclaylosesitsstructure
atthistemperaturebythelossofboundwater.Burningshouldstrictlybedoneinthisrange,sincebeyond1000oC,
recrystallizationoftheclayoccurs.
AgeneralformulaofmetakaolincanbewrittenasAS2.ThisaluminosilicatecompoundreactswithCHproduced
duringcementhydrationinthefollowingform(suggestedbyMuratinCementandConcreteResearch,Vol.13,
1983):
AS2+6CH+9HC4AH13+2CSH
CSHformedinthisreactionisaluminous,withaC/Srangingfrom0.83(forcrystallineformsofCSH)to>1.5
(foramorphousandsemicrystallineformsofCSH).
ThecontentofCSHanditsformationratedependsonthemineralogicalcharacteristicsofthekaolinprecursor.
Metakaolinhasaperformancecomparabletosilicafumeasamineraladmixtureinconcrete.SinceMKisnotaby
product,itsprocessingisanexpensiveaffair.ThusthemarketabilityofMKisnotasgoodassilicafume,whichisa
provenbyproduct.

Proportioningmethodsformineraladmixtures
Simplereplacementmethod:Thisisthetraditionalmethodofproportioning.Replacementofcementcanbe
doneeitheronavolumebasisoramassbasis.Volumereplacementdoesnotchangetheoverallvolumeofthe
paste.However,whenmassreplacementisdone,volumeofthepasteincreases,andthisincreaseisusually
compensatedbyadecreaseinthevolumeifsand.Mixturecharacteristicscanbeadverselyaffectbythe
removalofsandifthevolumeremovedissubstantial(whichcanhappenforlargeamountsoflowspecific
gravityadmixturessuchassilicafume).ForslowreactingpozzolanslikeTypeFflyash,thismethodresultsin
lowearlyagestrengths.Anotherdisadvantageofthismethodisthatitdoesnotaccountforthevariationsin
characteristicsofthemineraladmixtures.Theadvantagesofthismethodareitssimplicityandpositiveeffects
onworkability(whenreplacingmaterialisflyash).
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Additionmethod:Thismethodinvolvesadirectadditionofthemineraladmixturetotheconcretewithout
replacinganypartofthecement.Inhighperformanceconcrete,thisisthemethodofchoice,sinceitincreases
thecementitiouscontent.Thisincreaseiscompensatedbyadecreaseinthefineaggregatecontent.Addition
methodusuallyresultsinhigherstrengths.whenfinematerialssuchassilicafumeareused,thismethodcan
causeasubstantialincreaseinthewaterdemand.
Modifiedreplacementmethod:Inthiscase,partoftheadmixtureisadded,andpartofitisusedasa
replacement.Thequantityofmineraladmixtureputintothemixisgreaterthanthequantityofcement
removed.Thismethodistypicallyusedtoobtainsufficientlyhighearlyagestrengthswithflyash.However,
workabilityandwaterdemandcanbedifficulttocontrolinthismethod.
Rationalmethod:Thisisanefficientmethodofproportioningadmixtures.Itquantifiestheinfluenceofthe
admixtureusingafactorK,whichisthecementingefficiencyfactor.Thisfactorqualifiesthemineral
admixtureasalowergradeorhighergradecement.Inotherwords,Krepresentstheamountofthemineral
admixturethatcanreplace1unitofPortlandcementinthemixturetoachievesimilarproperties.Thismethod
isabletoovercometheslowearlyagestrengthdevelopmentforflyashconcrete.

Thissiteisbestviewedin1024x768resoulution

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