CHAPTER 4

Imperfection in Crystal Structure

Types of Imperfection
Point defect

Line or linear defect

Planar or surface defect

POINT DEFECTS

Point defect are localized disruptions of the lattice

involving one or possibly, several atoms.
This imperfection may be introduced by movement
of atom when gain energy by:

Heating
During processing of the material
Induction of impurities
Intentionally through alloying

Many physical properties are governed by

point defects:

Conductivity and conduction type

Color
Transparency
Diffusion
Mechanical properties
Formation of precipitation

Types of Point Defect:

Vacancy missing atom at a certain crystal
lattice position;

Interstitial impurity atom extra impurity
atom in an interstitial position;

Substitution impurity atom impurity atom,
substituting an atom in crystal lattice;

Frenkel defect extra self-interstitial atom,
responsible for the vacancy nearby.

Schottky defect - a pair of oppositely charged
ion vacancies

Vacancy

Substitutional
Impurity

Interstitial
Impurity

Frenkel

Self
Interstitial

Schottky

Vacancies

Vacancies are introduced into the crystal

during solidification or heating process.
At room temperature, very few vacancies are
present, but this number increases
exponentially as we increase the temperature.
Nv = number of vacancies per m3

Qv
N v = N exp

kT

N = number of lattice point per m3

Qv = the energy required to produce a
vacancy, in J.mol -1
k = gas constant (8.62 x 10-5 eV/atom.K)
eV/atom.K)
T = temperature in Kelvin

Example 1: Estimating Vacancy

Find the equil. # of vacancies in 1m3 of Cu at 1000OC.

Given:

= 8.4 g /cm 3

A Cu = 63.5g/mol

Qv = 0.9eV/atom

N A = 6.02 x 1023

atoms/mole

0.9eV/atom

Nv = N exp Q = 2.7 x 10-4

kT
NA
N =
Answer: ACu

1273K
8.62 x 10-5 eV/atom-K
= 8.0 x 1028 sites/ m3

3
Nv = (2.7 x 10-4()8.0 x 1028)= 2.2x 1025vacancies/m
6

Example 2: Estimating Vacancy

Suggest a heat treatment that will provide

1000 times more vacancies in copper than
are normally present at room temperature.
About 83700 J.mol -1 to produce a vacancy
in copper.

Solution:
N =

NA
A Cu

= 8.0 x 1028

sites/
m3

At room temperature,
T = 25oC + 273 = 298K

Nv = (8.0 x 1028) exp [ -83700J/mol /(8.31 J/mol.K)(298K)]

= 1.7 x1014 vacancies/m3

We wish to produce 1000 time this number or Nv = 1.7
x 1017 vacancies/m3. we could do this by heating the
copper to a temperature at which this number of
vacancies form:

Nv = 1.7 x 1017 =(8.0 x 10 28) exp(-83700/8.31T)

= 1.7 x 1017 / 8.0 x 10 28 = exp(-83700/8.31T)
= exp(-83700/8.31T) = 2.125 x 10 -12
= -83700/8.31T = ln (2.125 x 10 -12) = -26.88
= T = -83700/(8.31)(-26.88)
= 375 K = 102OC

Example 3: Estimate Vacancies

Find the Number of vacancies in 1m3 of Al at 500OC.
Given:

AAl
QV
NA

=2.71 g/cm3
=26.98g/mol
=0.9eV/atom
=6.02 x 10 23 atoms/mole

Ans: 8.22 x 1022 vacancies

Interstitial

Formed when an extra atom is inserted into the lattice

structure at normally unoccupied position.
Introduced by alloying process and heat treatment.

Interstitial alloy
(e.g., C in Fe)
Fe

Substitutional
Introduced when one atom or ion is
replaced by a different type of atom or ion.

Substitutional atoms or ions occupy the
normal lattice site.

Substitutional atoms or ions may be larger
or smaller, this will disturb the crystal
structure.

Introduced by alloying process.

Cu

Ni

Substitutional alloy
(e.g., Cu in Ni)
Ni

Frenkel Defect
Frenkel defect is a vacancy-interstitial pair
formed when an ion jumps from a normal
lattice point to an interstitial site and
leaving behind a vacancy.

Introduced by heating process.

Schottky defect

Commonly occur in ceramic.

In this defect vacancies occur in an ionically
bonded material.
A stoichiometric number of anions and cations
must be missing from crystal if electrical
neutrality is to be preserved in the crystal.
Example: one Mg+2 and one O-2 in MgO
constitute a Schottky pair.

Identify the defects:

LINEAR DEFECTS
Linear defects are associated primarily
with mechanical deformation.

Linear defects are known as dislocations.

Commonly designated by the inverted T
symbol (

10