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DMAIC Guide
Q u i c k
G u i d e
Introduction
The systematic, targeted implementation of the Six Sigma
corporate initiative is very extensively determined by mastery and project-related application of the tools and quality techniques of the DMAIC
methodology.
For this, the appropriate training for Champions, MBBs, BBs and GBs
provides the necessary platforms of knowledge.
In response to numerous requests, and on the basis of knowledge
acquired by the trainer teams, we have condensed the elements of the extensive training material down to their essential content and, by the use of the examples, created understandable aids to
interpretation.
We hope that this tool is of assistance to you in the scope of your project
responsibility.
D. Kuncar
Dr. . Ertrk
E. Spenhoff
DEFINE
1. Project Charter
MEASURE
2. Process Map
3. Cause & Effect Matrix
4. Measurement System Analysis
5. Process Capability Analysis
ANALYZE
6. Failure Mode and Effect Analysis
7. Multi-Vari Analysis
IMPROVE
8. Design of Experiment
CONTROL
9. Control Plan
User Instructions
How do I make use of this brief DMAIC manual?
As a clearly arranged reference work, it provides swift access to
terms and parameters used in the context of the DMAIC
methodology. In discussions and project reviews it can be very helpful
for recalling or checking on concepts and valuation limits in the course of
assessing test results.
The brief DMAIC manual is arranged in line with the structure and chronology of DMAIC. The stages of the DMAIC process and tools, as identified in the margins of the pages, quickly show where the explanatory notes
tie in. In addition, each stage of DMAIC is colour-coded.
The parameters and evaluation criteria serve to evaluate the results from each successive phase of projects. They are
supplemented with explanations of terms where necessary.
Concrete examples to clarify the subject in detail or a graphical presentation providing orientation in cases of complex
relationships (e.g. multi-vari analysis) are given under the heading
Example.
Practical knowledge that can be used to facilitate work is listed under
Useful Hints.
Under Lessons Learned you can make your own notes.
The Pitfalls are cautionary notes based on difficulties and
problems encountered during the course of projects.
The Review Check Questions are listed to enable the reader to conduct an independent check in advance of a review and to ensure that a
list of questions is readily available during the review.
A glossary of terms frequently used in Six Sigma is given at the end of
the book.
DEFINE
Project Charter
Process Map
Project Charter
DEFINE
Project Charter
Purpose
The purpose of a Project Charter is to initiate a Six Sigma project by defining its scope and the project variables. The Project Charter is the basis
for Black Belts and Green Belts to work from in the sense that it clearly
defines the project.
Baseline:
Baseline is the actual performance of the process that is to be improved.
Entitlement:
Entitlement is the best possible performance that has been observed recently or was observed in a Benchmarking study. It can be performance as defined during development or by the equipment manufacturer.
Metrics:
COPQ (Cost of poor Quality): COPQ is a measurement of documented
costs of mistakes or errors, such as complaint costs, rework costs, waste,
etc.
Cpk (Process Capability Index): The CpK measures a process
variables short term performance. It requires ranges to be defined. Target
values are not sufficient to calculate a CpK. Cpks less than 1 indicate
room for improvement whereas Cpks greater than 1.33 indicate only
limited room for improvement.
Control Plan
DoE
Multi-Vari
FMEA
PCA
MSA
C&E Matrix
Conditions
Process Map
Control Plan
DoE
FMEA
PCA
C&E Matrix
DPU (Defect per Unit): The DPU is a general measurement for the
number of errors per unit. In this case, Error is a synonym for unwanted
events (e.g. non-answered telephone calls per day, etc.)
MSA
Ppk (Process Performance Index): The Ppk measures a process variables long term performance. It requires ranges to be defined. Target values are not sufficient to calculate a Ppk. Ppks less than 1 indicate room
for improvement whereas Ppks greater than 1.33 indicate only limited
room for improvement. PPks greater than 1.5 fulfil 6-requirements.
Project Charter
Multi-Vari
DEFINE
Business Ys
Market
Penetration
Growth
MSA
Market
Penetration of
Product A
???
???
???
???
Lagerzeit
Days Sales
Outstanding
PCA
FMEA
Multi-Vari
DoE
Control Plan
Process Ys
Number of
Dead SKUs
Lagerbestand
Cash
Project Ys
Costumer
Satisfaction
New Market
Development
C&E Matrix
Process Map
Project Charter
DEFINE
???
Yield (RTY)
Manufacturing
Cost
Cost
???
Downtime
Energie
Cost
Hopper
Project list
with priority
Yes
Solution is clear
and
Neither clear nor simple
simple
Not easy
and not clear
Not easy
Quick Hits
Is something
broken?
insufficiently defined?
uneducated?
Other initiatives
Driven by initiative
techniques known
low engineering
change of cultures
or rules
10
Six-Sigma-Projects
complex relationships
process oriented
reduce dispersion (mean error)
remove errors
requires analysis
Pitfalls
Projects with too many measurements become problematic.
Projects take too long they should be able to be completed in 4 to 6
months.
Project complexity is too great because too many points need to be
clarified. (Scope/boundaries - Definition)
Even when the solution seems apparent, the DMAIC method should
still be used.
A project is only feasible if a measurable Project Y exists.
A goal should be expressed as change the Project Y from __ to __,
general expressions such as a reduction of __% are not sufficiently
accurate.
The boundaries to Just-do-it-projects is unclear (e.g. reduction of
manufacturing cost through replacement of raw materials. Better:
Reduction of raw material costs.)
The process to be improved is unknown or cannot be influenced.
Projects which plan to incorporate new methods are unsuitable (e.g.
introduction of new software).
11
Process Map
C&E Matrix
Include project goals for all measurements. These goals can be revised
during the project.
Entitlement of complaints should always be set to zero.
Stakeholder Analysis helps to find the right champion.
The Scope should be large enough to encompass points that have a
direct input/influence on the project.
MSA
Manufacturing
RTY
waste disposal cost
productivity
PCA
Inventory
Inventory level
rented warehouse space
ability to deliver
FMEA
Examples:
Primary:
Secondary:
Contrary:
Multi-Vari
DoE
Tips
Project Charter
Control Plan
DEFINE
Review Checklist
1.
2.
Lessons learned
Control Plan
DoE
Multi-Vari
FMEA
PCA
MSA
C&E Matrix
Process Map
Project Charter
DEFINE
12
MEASURE
Process Map
MEASURE
Process Map
Purpose
The Process Map depicts a simple Process diagram to identify the Input
Xs (influences) and Output Ys (Process Ys, result variables). The
process diagram serves as the direction guild line.
Control Plan
DoE
Multi-Vari
FMEA
PCA
MSA
C&E Matrix
Process Map
Project Charter
DEFINE
14
Conditions
Control Plan
DoE
Multi-Vari
FMEA
Process Map
C&E Matrix
Project Charter
MSA
MEASURE
PCA
DEFINE
15
MEASURE
Inputs / Controls
Product name
Order amount
Delivery date
Payment method
Order date
U
U
U
U
U
Size
Production amount
Inventory amount
Production rate
Set up time
Availability
C
U
C
C
C
U
Production date
Process parameters
Materials
C
C
C
Process steps
PCA
Accept order
Outputs
Part number
Inventory amount
Production amount
Order time to delivery
Confirmed delivery time
Production date
Delivery date
Production time
Plan order
Production amount
Delivery date
Settings
Lot number
U
C
C
U
Run time
Product attributes
Produce products
FMEA
Multi-Vari
DoE
Control Plan
MSA
C&E Matrix
Process Map
Project Charter
DEFINE
Tips
A cause and effect diagram (Fishbone, Ishikawa Diagram) can
be helpful to define Inputs by separating them into the categories
Person, Machine, Material, Measurement, Method, Management and
Environment.
The Process Steps are acivities, so use verbs.
Define Process Steps first, followed by outputs, then define the necessary inputs.
Use features (e.g. speed) rather than feature sources
(e.g. Maker G6) for the Input Xs or Output Ys.
16
Forecast
Packing list
Sales
Project Charter
Process Map
Coater
Feature attribute
Attainment x or y
Measurement (e.g. 80 kg)
Measurement (e.g. 183 cm)
Category (e.g. blue)
Category (e.g. female)
Rating (e.g. IQ 120)
Measurement (e.g. 2 m/s)
Measurement (e.g. 50%)
Value (e.g. 10 breakdowns/month)
Value (e.g. 10000 EUR)
Category (e.g. no)
Category (e.g. no)
Category (e.g. yes)
Category (e.g. distributor)
Category (e.g. end user)
C&E Matrix
Person
Feature
Variabe X or Y
Weight
Height
Eye Colour
Sex
Intelligence
Speed
Availability
Downtime
Deviation
Availability
Completeness
Machine readability
Sales method
Customer type
MSA
Feature source
Pitfalls
Control Plan
DoE
Multi-Vari
The process has been defined in too much or too little detail.
Inputs are feature sources and not measurable features.
The Process Map depicts wishful thinking rather than reality.
Experienced team members not available.
PCA
MEASURE
FMEA
DEFINE
17
MEASURE
Lessons learned
Control Plan
DoE
Multi-Vari
FMEA
PCA
MSA
C&E Matrix
Process Map
Project Charter
DEFINE
18
Project Charter
MEASURE
Process Map
DEFINE
Comment
No effect
Weak effect on dispersion
Medium effect on dispersion and position
Strong effect on dispersion and position
MSA
Control Plan
DoE
The weighted sum of the evaluations serves as a filter based on the Pareto
principal. A rule of thumb is: The 5 to 20 largest weighted sums are used to
choose the Input Xs which will be carried over into the FMEA.
PCA
Evaluation
0
1
3
9
FMEA
Multi-Vari
C&E Matrix
19
MEASURE
Conditions:
All Input Xs from the Process Map are evaluated C&E Matrix.
More than 10 Output Ys should be never used.
The Output Ys should be Process Ys and Project Ys.
PROCESS MAP
Inputs
Process
Steps
Outputs
C&E MATRIX
Outputs
Inputs
20
9
3
3
9
3
3
1
1
3
3
3
3
3
3
1
1
1
3
9
3
9
9
9
1
1
1
1
3
1
1
1
1
9
9
9
9
9
3
1
1
0
Sum
Torsion
9
3
3
9
3
3
1
3
3
3
3
AI Content
Particle size
Inputs Xs
AI Content
Viscosity
Solvent content
Duration
Formulation
Solvent/particles
Granulate size
Drying time
Recycling content
Vortex efficiency
Air content
Output Ys
7
5
3
Hardness
Process Step
Melting
Grinding
Grinding
Melting
Grinding
Grinding
Grinding
Grinding
Grinding
Grinding
Grinding
Density
Rating of Importance
FMEA
Multi-Vari
DoE
Control Plan
Sum
PCA
MSA
C&E Matrix
Process Map
Project Charter
DEFINE
177
141
138
134
131
123
119
100
99
90
87
123
119
100
99
90
87
50
Granulate size
Particle content
Formulation
Duration
Solvent content
Viscosity
AI Content
Tips
Control Plan
DoE
C&E Matrix
131
MSA
134
Air content
138
Vortex efficiency
141
100
Recycling content
177
150
Drying time
200
PCA
Pareto Diagram
Process Map
Project Charter
FMEA
MEASURE
Multi-Vari
DEFINE
21
MEASURE
Pitfalls
It is wrong to ask whether the Input Xs and Output Ys
correlate. It is better to ask how strong the effect of X is on Y.
Correlation does not imply causality.
Only Process-Ys are a Customer Requirement for selection purposes
in the C&E Matrix.
If several Output Ys are listed, they can have a higher weighting than a single more important Output Y.
Do not force customer related Output Ys into the C&E Matrix, if
they are not helpful with the project.
Lessons learned
Control Plan
DoE
Multi-Vari
FMEA
PCA
MSA
C&E Matrix
Process Map
Project Charter
DEFINE
22
Project Charter
MEASURE
Process Map
DEFINE
Attributive MSA
Kappa > 0.90
Kappa > 0.70
Kappa < 0.70
MSA
DoE
Classification
good
acceptable
unacceptable
Control Plan
Variable MSA
R&R < 10%
R&R < 30 %
R&R > 30 %
PCA
FMEA
Multi-Vari
C&E Matrix
23
MEASURE
Conditions
To audit business data, audit documents must be produced to show
the relevance and correctness. Relevance must always be checked,
especially for relative values such as square metres per time unit or
material, etc.
In the Gage R&R-Analysis repeated measurements on the same part
must be possible.
When destructive test methods are used, homogenous material must be
used for the Gage R&R-Analysis. In this case the value %R&R must
be up to 50%.
The Attributive MSA can be used on evaluated data only and not for
measurement of defective parts or number of defects.
Control Plan
DoE
Multi-Vari
FMEA
PCA
MSA
C&E Matrix
Process Map
Project Charter
DEFINE
24
Source
Total Gage R&R
Repeatability
Reproducibility
Tester
Tester* Parts
Part to part
Total Variation
Systematic
measurement error
Accidential
measurement error
Trueness
Repeatability
(measurement equipment
influence)
Homogeneity of the
dispersion
Stabiloity over
the time
Reproducibility
(operator influence)
StdDev
(SD)
Study Var
(5.15*SD)
%Study Var
(%SV)
0.10129
0.03944
0.09329
0.00000
0.09329
1.09463
1.09931
0.52163
0.20312
0.48046
0.00000
0.48046
5.63736
5.66144
9.21
3.59
8.49
0.00
8.49
99.57
100.00
25
Process Map
C&E Matrix
MSA
Measurement
Dispersion (R&R)
Process
Dispersion
PCA
Observed Process
Dispersion
FMEA
Multi-Vari
Project Charter
DoE
MEASURE
Control Plan
DEFINE
Process Map
Project Charter
DEFINE
MEASURE
Tips
To validate data from databases (e.g. EUROMS) use known test inputs
or compare with original data (e.g. Delivery note).
Validate data from databases through audit documents of
continuous led audits.
A plausibility check is useful for large amounts of data, whereby the
data for each variable are sorted by size. It is important to return the
data to their original state after the test.
The Gage R&R Analysis and the attribute MSA need to have precisely
defined test conditions.
FMEA
PCA
MSA
C&E Matrix
Pitfalls
It is difficult but usually not impossible to carry out a Gage R&R
analysis in transactional projects.
The attributive MSA is used for any attributive tester data.
The chosen units in the Gage R&R Analysis may not be representative
of the true process variability. The reason for this is that the choice of
units was not arbitrary (e.g. 10 units from one jumbo rather than from
several jumbos, 10 units from one run rather than from several runs).
The measuring equipment does not have a high enough resolution.
Control Plan
DoE
Multi-Vari
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
26
Short term
CP
Cpk
2.00
1.50
1.83
1.33
1.67
1.17
1.50
1.00
1.33
0.83
1.17
0.67
1.00
0.50
0.83
0.33
0.67
0.17
0.50
0.00
long
Pp
2.00
1.83
1.67
1.50
1.33
1.17
1.00
0.83
0.67
0.50
term
Ppk
1.50
1.33
1.17
1.00
0.83
0.67
0.50
0.33
0.17
0.00
Sigma
Level
6.00
5.50
5.00
4.50
4.00
3.50
3.00
2.50
2.00
1.50
DPU
0.0000034
0.0000317
0.0002327
0.0013500
0.0062097
0.0227501
0.0668072
0.1586553
0.3085375
0.5000000
DPMO in
ppm
3.4
31.7
232.7
1350.0
6209.7
22750.1
66807.2
158655.3
308537.5
500000.0
The capability indices marked in red can be improved by the tools of the
DMAIC process. For the capability indices marked in yellow the DFSS
tool could be necessary. No improvement is necessary for the capability
indices marked in green.
If the Cp or Pp of variable features is higher than the Cpk or
Ppk, then the process is not centralised (target deviation). If the
Cp, Cpk, Pp and Ppk are approximately the same but less than
1.33, the process is not mastered (Common Causes). If the Cp and
Pp or Cpk and Ppk differ greatly from each other, then process
failures will result (Special Causes).
27
Process Map
C&E Matrix
MSA
PCA
The PCA evaluates the capability of the process to meet the customer
requirements (Output Ys, CTQ).
FMEA
Purpose
Multi-Vari
Project Charter
DoE
MEASURE
Control Plan
DEFINE
MEASURE
Conditions
Data must be independent to carry out a capability analysis.
The residuals of measurable variables must have approximately a normal distribution.
If the data is not normally distributed because of instabilities such as
exceptions (Outliers), then the lack of stability is the problem and the
non-normality is an aspect of this problem.
If the data are stable and not normally distributed, they need to be
transformed (e.g. with logarithmic transformation).
Tips
To calculate the capability indices (Cp, Cpk, Pp, Ppk), the
specification ranges are required. These can be calculated with standard
deviations and a target value.
MINITAB contains a Six-Pack analysis package.
For I-MR Charts: If all measurement values are within the control ranges
(UCL and LCL) then only common causes exist (the process is
stable), otherwise special causes are present (the process is not
mastered).
Pitfalls
The capability indices are always too small if the data are not independent (autocorrelation, autoregression). It can be checked with MINITAB
run charts.
The order of the data has been changed in some way or sorted, in which
case the calculation of dispersion is nothing more than guesswork.
The analysis does not provide plausible control ranges, because the data
are limited on one or both sides. Use the p-chart for error portions, cchart for number of errors and the logarithmic normal distribution for
measurable data.
Control Plan
DoE
Multi-Vari
FMEA
PCA
MSA
C&E Matrix
Process Map
Project Charter
DEFINE
28
Obser.
Individual Value
Mov.Range
29
Control Plan
DoE
Multi-Vari
FMEA
PCA
0.908687
0.55
0.31
MSA
C&E Matrix
Project Charter
Capability Plot
Capability Histogram
Process Map
Check whether
the process is
normally distributed (points
lie on the red
curve).
This process
tends to a
normal
distribution.
Overall
StDev: 0.905299
Pp:
0.55
Ppk:
0.31
Within
StDev:
Cp:
Cpk:
LCL = 0
R =1.025
UCL = 3.349
LCL = 8.937
Mean =11.66
UCL =14.39
Observation Number
Last 25 Observations
MEASURE
Values
DEFINE
ANALYSE IMPROVE CONTROL
MEASURE
Baseline Data
6.
7.
8.
9.
9.
10.
11.
Lessons learned
Control Plan
DoE
Multi-Vari
FMEA
PCA
MSA
C&E Matrix
Process Map
Project Charter
DEFINE
30
ANALYSE
Failure Mode &
Effect Analysis
M u l t i - Va r i
Analysis
ANALYSE
IMPROVE CONTROL
Control Plan
DoE
Multi-Vari
FMEA
PCA
MSA
C&E Matrix
Process Map
Project Charter
DEFINE MEASURE
32
ANALYSE
IMPROVE CONTROL
Project Charter
DEFINE MEASURE
C&E MATRIX
Outputs
Sum
Process Map
Inputs
FMEA
Error
Effects
RPZ
Measures
FMEA
Control Plan
DoE
The FMEA must be carried out by people with expertise in the process.
The Effects of the error must relate back to the defined Process Ys.
All Input Xs carried over from the C&E Matrix are included in the
FMEA table.
If there is a high RPN, define corrective measures and keep Quick
Hits in mind.
Multi-Vari
Conditions
PCA
MSA
C&E Matrix
Inputs
33
34
high
high
high
high
low
high
low
high
Action
Process improvement
high
low
high
Frequent failures,
detectable, costly
Frequent failures,
reaches user
Frequent failures
with major impact
low
high
low
No action
Address controls
low
high
high
low
low
low
No action
No action
Ideal Situation
Assured Mastery
low
low
low
Occur.
Det.
high
Action
Result
IMPROVE CONTROL
Sev.
Actions
Recommended
RPN
Current Controls
Process Potential Potential
Failure
Step
Failure
Mode
Input
Effects
Severity
(110)
Potential
Causes
Occur.
(110)
Detection
(110)
MSA
FMEA
Multi-Vari
DoE
Control Plan
ANALYSE
PCA
C&E Matrix
Process Map
Project Charter
DEFINE MEASURE
Useful Hints
Multi-Vari
Control Plan
Wrongly defined Inputs Xs,e.g. a non-quantified noun without features leads to many useless potential failure modes. Example:
Wrong Input: Operator
Pot. failure: Operator is too small, too tall, demotivated etc.
Correct Input: Operators qualification
Pot. failure: insufficiently qualified
Causality (observation window) between failure, cause of failure and
failure effect must remain on one level and not be changed.
DoE
Pitfalls
FMEA
PCA
MSA
Project Charter
IMPROVE CONTROL
Process Map
ANALYSE
C&E Matrix
DEFINE MEASURE
35
ANALYSE
IMPROVE CONTROL
Lessons learned
Control Plan
DoE
Multi-Vari
FMEA
PCA
MSA
C&E Matrix
Process Map
Project Charter
DEFINE MEASURE
36
Remarks
No or negligible correlation
Weak correlation
Medium correlation
Strong correlation
Very strong correlation
Functional correlation
Remarks
No significance
Weak significance
Significant finding
Highly significant finding
37
Process Map
C&E Matrix
For the purpose of analysis, use is made of existing historic data if available (passive approach).
MSA
PCA
FMEA
Purpose
Multi-Vari
Multi-Vari Analysis
Project Charter
IMPROVE CONTROL
DoE
ANALYSE
Control Plan
DEFINE MEASURE
ANALYSE
Description
A1 A2
B1 5 10
B2 80 50
discrete X
discrete Y
MSA
0 1
PCA
discrete X
continuous Y
X one level
Hypothesis
of dependence
H0: p11 = p1. p.1
of homogenity
H0: p1 = p2
of normality
H0: F(x) = F0(x)
target
Chi-Square-Test
2 -Test
Anderson-Darling
Test, 1 sample
t-Test (confidence
interval)
H0: 0 = 1
Multi-Vari
FMEA
discrete X
continuous Y
X 2 levels
1 2
discrete X
continuous Y
X 2+ levels
DoE
Control Plan
IMPROVE CONTROL
Requirements
C&E Matrix
Process Map
Project Charter
DEFINE MEASURE
continuous X
continuous Y
y
x
homogenity
of variances
H0: 12 = 22
of mean
H0: 1 = 2
F-Test 2-sample
t-Test
homogenity
of variances
H0: 12 = ... = k2
of mean
H0: 1 = ... = k
Levene-Test,
one-way ANOVA
of correlation
H0: r = 0
of regression
H0: b0= 0
H0: b1 = 0
Correlation- and
regression analysis
38
Pitfalls
Process Map
C&E Matrix
Control Plan
Correlations might also be due to the feature correlations (body measurements, storks nests versus births), inhomogeneous correlations
(shoe size versus income), and formal correlations (solids content versus solvent content). These do not help in
eliminating the causes of spread. On causal correlations, expert decisions have to be taken. Pure correlations are overinterpreted as dependencies (cause-effect relationships).
Historic data are unreliable by reason of unknown background factors
(e.g. changes in material/process).
Multi-collinearity (i.e. dependencies between the Input Xs) may seriously impair the results. If the correlations between the Input Xs are
IRI< 0.3, they are deemed negligible.
MSA
Time effects (e.g. delayed effects, such as turns versus net manufacturing costs) must be taken into account and the data must be
synchronized.
Partial populations (N>1000) should be avoided because,
otherwise, the slightest differences or correlations become
significant although not practically relevant. A sample size of n=200 to
500 is adequate and still readily manageable.
The data should always be left in their original sequence;
otherwise, testing for independence is not possible.
The variables should be sorted into Input Xs and Output Ys.
PCA
Useful Hints
FMEA
Project Charter
IMPROVE CONTROL
Multi-Vari
ANALYSE
DoE
DEFINE MEASURE
39
ANALYSE
IMPROVE CONTROL
Lessons learned
Control Plan
DoE
Multi-Vari
FMEA
PCA
MSA
C&E Matrix
Process Map
Project Charter
DEFINE MEASURE
40
IMPROVE
Design of
Experiment
IMPROVE
CONTROL
Design of Experiment
The optimum setting of the selected process Input Xs will be determined by experiment so that the Process and Project Ys can
achieve their target values. Moreover, the setting is done in such
a way as to ensure that the process is robust on noise variables.
In contrast to the multi-vari analysis, the inputs are varied in
accordance with an experiment plan (active approach) and results are
recorded.
Control Plan
DoE
Multi-Vari
FMEA
PCA
MSA
Process Map
Purpose
C&E Matrix
Project Charter
Effect
85.507
3.919
4.885
2.975
13.840
0.238
-7.219
Coef
85.507
1.960
2.442
1.488
6.920
0.119
-3.609
SE Coef
0.05648
0.05648
0.05648
0.05648
0.05648
0.05648
0.05648
T
1514.04
34.70
43.24
26.34
122.53
2.10
-63.91
P
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.065
0.000
The Lack of Fit shows whether the regression model is adequate. It is the
most important measurement for testing the model-related data. Rejection
of the null hypothesis requires a higher-order model.
42
Adj. SS
192.286
974.853
0.459
0.004
0.456
Adj. MS
64.095
324.951
0.051
0.004
0.057
F
1E+03
6E+03
P
0.000
0.000
0.07
0.803
Conditions
MSA
It is important for the analysis that the data are independent. For measurable parameters, the residuals must be normally distributed. The
experiment plan should be orthogonal,
rotatable or D-optimal. Moreover, the trials must be performed in randomised and repeated manner.
X2
6
X3
X1
43
DoE
Multi-Vari
PCA
Seq SS
192.29
974.85
0.46
0.00
0.46
1167.60
Control Plan
DF
3
3
9
1
8
15
Process Map
Project Charter
CONTROL
C&E Matrix
IMPROVE
FMEA
IMPROVE
Project Charter
C&E Matrix
Process Map
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
X1
+
+
+
+
X2
+
+
+
+
X3
+
+
+
+
X1X2
+
+
+
+
X1X3
+
+
+
+
CONTROL
X2X3
+
+
+
+
Variable: Yield
2** (3-0)-Plan; MQ residuals=.051032
MSA
1.2
1.0
0.8
PCA
0.6
0.4
100
95
90
85
80
75
Multi-Vari
Time
FMEA
0.2
DoE
X1X2X3
+
+
+
+
0.0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1.0
-1.2
-1.2 -1.0 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2
0.0
0.2
Control Plan
Temperature
44
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
Pitfalls
Process Map
Control Plan
DoE
Multi-Vari
C&E Matrix
MSA
Tips
Project Charter
CONTROL
PCA
IMPROVE
FMEA
45
Control Plan
DoE
Multi-Vari
FMEA
PCA
MSA
C&E Matrix
Process Map
Project Charter
IMPROVE
CONTROL
Lessons learned
46
CONTROL
Control Plan
Process Map
Project Charter
CONTROL
Control Plan
Purpose
The documentation of the project results in the Control Plan is used for
mastering the identified critical Input Xs and thus for controlling the processes affected in order to maintain the improvement gained in the project
the Project and Process Ys (over the long term).
Control Plan
DoE
Multi-Vari
FMEA
PCA
MSA
C&E Matrix
48
CONTROL
Audit Plan
DOEs
Reactions
Plans
Mistake
Proofing
SOPs
Capability
Studies
FMEA s
Process
Training
Multi-Vari
Control Plan
FMEA
PCA
Maps
Process Owner
The person with major responsibility for the process outcome must
have the authority and capability to control the process and thus
influence the result. If the improved process is controlled by several persons in their respective partial areas, each of these persons is the
process owner responsible for his/her partial area.
The established management systems (e.g. Controlling, Administration, HR
49
DoE
Customer
Requirements
Control Plan
MSA
Preventive
Maintenance
Parameter
Cards
C&E Matrix
MSA
Documentation Package
Process Map
Project Charter
CONTROL
PROCESS MAP
Inputs
Process
Steps
Outputs
MSA
C&E Matrix
Process Map
Project Charter
C&E MATRIX
Outputs
Sum
FMEA
Inputs
Fault
Effects
RPN
The Key-inputs X
will be analyzed
Control Plan
Process Inputs Outputs M-Sys. %RAR Cpk LSL USL React.
Control Plan
DoE
Multi-Vari
FMEA
PCA
Inputs
50
Pitfalls
Process Map
Control Plan
DoE
Multi-Vari
FMEA
There is not much time at the end of the project to consolidate data and
information and to develop documentation.
The established documentation system is not known.
Additional regulations are created instead of existing ones being
adapted.
C&E Matrix
MSA
Tips
Project Charter
CONTROL
PCA
51
Control Plan
DoE
Multi-Vari
FMEA
PCA
MSA
C&E Matrix
Process Map
Project Charter
CONTROL
What control methods are in place for the Critical Process Input
Variables and Process Output Variables?
2.
How were the control methods determined? Are they
statistically valid?
3.
How are the control methods identified and documented?
4.
What methods exist for updating and controlling the
Control Plan?
5.
How was the Reaction Plan for each Process Input Variable/
Process Output Variable developed?
6.
Who is the Process Owner?
7.
Does the Process Owner accept the results of your project and
support the implementation of proposed process
changes?
8.
Who is responsible for maintaining the control plans and methods?
9.
Who is responsible for implementing the control scheme?
10.What training is needed and for who?
11.Who will conduct necessary training?
12.What confidence do you have that the changes implemented will be effective once the project is completed?
13.Has an audit plan been developed, and documented in the business
units quality management system?
Long-Term Capability
14.How long will data be taken to verify that a successful
process improvement has been accomplished before
closing the project?
15.What data will be taken?
16.Who will take the data?
17.Who will analyze and track the data?
18.What statistical tools will be used to verify the
improvement?
52
2002
August
A
Analyze
3rd phase in the DMAIC process: process data have been identified
and the process is now analysed with regard to causes for mistakes (see Root Cause Analysis) and non-value-adding activities.
B
Baseline
The performance of a process at the start of the improvement processes: How has the process performed up to now?
Black Belt
Six Sigma expert (full time) leading Six Sigma projects/teams and
trained in leadership, project management, statistical methods and
problem solving strategies.
Breakthrough performance
Improvement signifying a jump to a higher performance level.
Significant reduction of the gap between baseline and entitlement
(real possible maximum performance). Leads to substantial improvement in terms of the corporate objectives growth, cost and cash.
Business Critical Y
A business units concrete improvement target. Is related to the
corporate objectives (Corporate Ys) Growth, Cost and Cash.
53
C
Champion
An upper level business leader who facilitates the implementation
of Six Sigma projects. The Champion identifies improvement possibilities in his/her responsibility area, initiates projects, makes the
necessary resources available and supports the Six Sigma teams.
Control
Last phase of the DMAIC process.
Development of standard measures for regular performance review:
How can we sustain the new, higher performance level?
Corporate Y
Target parameter for corporate success, e.g. growth, cost, cash.
Cost of Poor Quality
Costs associated with the delivery of poor quality products or services. Examples: complaint handling, replacements, inspections
and other activities that do not generate added value.
Critical to Quality (CTQ)
Part of a process that has direct impact on the perceived quality.
Critical Y
Parameter to be improved in the Six Sigma process: What exactly
do we want to improve?
54
D
Defect
Any product characteristic that deviates from customer requirements.
Defects per Million Opportunities
Quality measurement parameter that is often used in the Six Sigma
process: number of observed mistakes per million mistake opportunities.
Define
First phase in the DMAIC process: definition of the problem or the
process improvement possibilities or of customer requirements. Not
static, but reviewed again and again in the course of the DMAIC
process and adjusted according to the findings.
DMAIC Process
Key Six Sigma process: Define, Measure, Analyse, Improve and
Control. Its methodology is systematic, scientific and fact-based.
Design for Six Sigma (DFSS)
Methodology similar to DMAIC with the aim of deriving new products and services. Unlike DMAIC, the DFSS methodology consists
of a variety of techniques to be combined.
Design of Experiment (DOE)
Statistical experiment planning which identifies the factors and their
optimum settings that affect the process outcome.
55
E
Entitlement
Actual possible maximum performance (benchmark).
F
Failure Mode and Effect Analysis (FMEA)
Technique enabling systematic analysis of possible mistakes and
assessment of risks through products and process mistakes. Helps
to select high-risk inputs in the context of Six Sigma.
Funnel Effect
Filters down the key input variables of all possible impact variables
of project Y.
G
Gap
Gap between entitlement and baseline.
Green Belt
Has a similar function to the Black Belt but is less comprehensively trained. Dedicates part of his/her working time to coaching
on smaller or partial projects.
H
Hopper
Collection of potential Six Sigma projects.
I
Improve
Fourth phase of the DMAIC process: problem solutions are
developed, tested and implemented and roots of mistakes are
eliminated.
56
M
Master Black Belt
Full-time Six Sigma expert. Is responsible for implementing the Six
Sigma strategy in a region (e.g. Germany) or in a business unit. He
leads and assists several Black Belts, manages a project, and is
responsible for training and communication.
Measure
Second phase in the DMAIC process: measurement, capture and
collection of all relevant process data.
Multi-Vari Analysis
Statistical method for analysing suspected process input variables
in relation to correlations and effects on the process outputs.
P
Process Capability Index
Parameter for identifying whether a process is able to meet the
process output requirements (e.g. customer requirements).
Process Map
A step-by-step pictorial sequence of a process showing process
inputs, outputs, cycle time, decision points and activities involved
at a glance.
Process Owner
The person responsible for the process output. This person has the
authority and ability to influence and control the process.
Project Y
Parameter to be improved in a Six Sigma project (e.g. inventory
reduction, output increase of a production line, market share increase in a certain segment). Helps to achieve higher corporate
objectives.
57
R
Rolled Throughput Yield (RTY)
Yield of a process expressed in percentage. It is calculated by multiplying the yields of each process step. Example: The yield of the
first step is 98% of input, in the second, 90%, and in the third, 95%.
The Rolled Throughput Yield (RTY) thus amounts to 84% (0.98 x
0.90 x 0.95 = 0.84).
Root Cause Analysis
Analysis of the exact cause for a process deviating from the desired result.
S
Six Sigma
Statistical measure for the extent to which a process deviates from
perfection. Six Sigma stands for 3.4 mistakes per million mistake
possibilities (see Defects per Million).
Super Y
Clustering similar Six Sigma projects into one topic with general
significance for the company (e.g. production, inventories) with the
aim of increasing transparency and efficiency by sharing information and experience.
V
Variation
Spread r (result) differences) within a process. Variation is a
parameter for the stability or predictability of a process. Any process improvement (in the context of Six Sigma) aims at reducing
variation as far as possible.
58
Analyze-Roadmap: 2 -Test
Independence test of two variables
at two or more levels
Action
Minitab
Remarks
Define
Hypothesis
Collect
Data
Examine
independence
of the variables
Evaluate
Table
59
Define
Hypotheses
Randomized data collection.Direct analysis of implausible results. Secure the time sequence of the data.
Do not round off the measured values.
Collect
Data
Study homogeneity of
the variances
Check ND
Fit
Study
Autocorrelation
Test for
equal
Varances
One-way
Normality
Test
I-MR-Chart
Use the I-MR-Chart to study autocorrelation and stability. The process is disturbed if special
causes or patterns exist. This result may distort the
hypothesis test.
Analyze-Roadmap: Regression
Simple and multiple regression and correlation
Action
Minitab
Define
Model and
Hypotheses
Randomized data collection. Direct analysis of implausible results. Secure the time sequence of the data. Do
not round off the measured values.
Collect
Data
Check correlation
and regression of
the variables
Check NT
Fit
Remarks
Normality
Test
Analyze-Roadmap: DoE
Factorial or central composite experiments
Action
Define
Model and
Hypotheses
Minitab
Create
Factorial
or
Response
Surface
Design
Collect
Data
Determine
Effects of
Inputs
Graphical
Presentation
of Model
Check NT
Fit
Remarks
Define factors, experiment scope and model type
(first or second grade)
HO: All regression coefficients equal zero.
HA: At least one regression coefficient does not equal
zero.
Evaluate consequences of wrong decisions. Define
error probability and the necessary
sample sizes.
Analyse
Factorial
or
Response
Surface
Design
Normality
Test
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Carl-Schurz-Strasse 1
41453 Neuss
Phone 0 21 31/14 0
Fax 0 21 31/14 32 00
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