LESSON 2

The French Revolution and Napoleon

ESSENTIAL QUESTION Why is history important?

The French Revolution drew on some of the ideas of the American Revolution.

The Revolution Begins

Why did revolution break out in France?
The American Revolution had an immediate effect on many people in France. They also wanted political changes
based on the ideas of freedom and equality. The French Revolution began in 1789. It dramatically changed France
and all of Europe.

Enlightenment and Revolution

Enlightenment thinkers, many of whom lived in France, talked of change and making life more fair. They spoke of
social contracts, the organization of government, and human rights, or the basic rights given to all people. A few, like
John Locke, said that under certain conditions people had a right to rebel in an effort to bring about change.
The American colonists who wanted change put such ideas into practice when they defied their home country, Great
Britain. They protested British taxes, crying no taxation without representation. They challenged the power of royal
governors colonial officials appointed by the king. They defended the rights of colonial assemblies, a cornerstone of
government by consent of the governed.
The American Declaration of Independence, written in 1776, excited many people in France. Young nobles, like the
Marquis de Lafayette, volunteered to fight with the Continental Army in an effort to bring about a change in
govenment. King Louis XVI disliked rebellion. He joked, I am a royalist by my trade, you know. But he disliked the
British even more. British victory in the Seven Years War (known as the French and Indian War in North America)
resulted in the loss of many French lands. The French king saw a chance to strike back at the British. He threw
French support behind the Americans. During the Revolution, France sent some 12,000 soldiers and 32,000 sailors to
help Americans win the war.
France and the American Revolution
1775France, angry at the loss of land to the British, secretly aids American Patriotspeople who
favored independence from Great Britain.
1776Colonists issue the Declaration of Independence, written by Thomas Jefferson. Young French
nobles volunteer to fight in America.
1777Marquis de Lafayette arrives in Philadelphia. He becomes a major general in the Continental
Army. French author Pierre de Beaumarchais supplies colonists with weapons to fight the Battle of
Saratoga.
1778France signs a treaty of alliance with colonists.
1780General Rochambeau lands in Rhode Island with some 6,000 French soldiers.
1781George Washington, supported by Rochambeau and Lafayette, traps the British at Yorktown.
French warships, commanded by Admiral de Grasse, prevent British escape by sea.
1783Americans and British meet in France to sign the Treaty of Paris, recognizing the U.S. as an
independent nation.
American success in ending British rule in North America inspired supporters of liberty elsewhere. French volunteers
returned home with thoughts of reforming French government. Working people and peasants gained a new courage
to resist tyranny, or the unjust use of power, by the French monarchy.

LESSON 2

The French Revolution and Napoleon

ESSENTIAL QUESTION Why is history important?

The Causes of the French Revolution

In the 1700s, France was one of the most powerful countries in Europe. French kings ruled with absolute power.
Nobles lived in great wealth and enjoyed many privileges. The absolute monarchy of France controlled one of the
richest and most powerful nations in Europe, yet the mass of people did not share in the wealth. Working men and
women lived in poverty and held few rights. They had little education and struggled to make a living. They longed for a
better way of life. The French people had many reasons to revolt.
The French people were divided into three estates, or classes. This system determined a person's legal rights and
social standing. It also created great inequality in French society.
The First Estate was the Catholic clergy, or church officials. They did not pay taxes, and they received money from
church lands. The aristocracy, or nobles, made up the Second Estate. They held the highest posts in the military and
in government. Like the clergy, the nobles paid no taxes. They lived in luxury at the kings court or in their country
houses surrounded by large areas of land.
Everyone else in France belonged to the Third Estate. At the top of this group were members of the middle class,
known as the bourgeoisie (burzh wah ZEE). Merchants, bankers, doctors, lawyers, and teachers were members
of the bourgeoisie. Next were the city workersartisans, day laborers, and servants. At the bottom were the
peasants, who made up more than 80 percent of the French people. Although the members of the Third Estate paid
taxes to the king, they had no voice in governing the country.
The Third Estate had no voice in government, but it paid all of the nations taxes. Members of the First and Second
Estates lived tax-free, even though they owned 35 percent of the land.
As the middle class learned more about Enlightenment ideas, they began to resent the privileges of the nobles and
clergy. An Englishman traveling in France discovered how widespread the unrest had become:
"Walking up a long hill . . . I was joined by a poor woman who complained of the times, and that it was a sad country; .
. . she said her husband had but a morsel [small piece] of land, one cow, and a poor little horse, yet they had [42 lbs.]
of wheat and three chickens to pay as rent to one [lord], and [4 lbs.] of oats, one chicken, and 1s. [a coin] to pay to
another, besides very heavy tallies [land taxes] and other taxes."
from Travels, by Arthur Young, 1789

The National Assembly

In 1788, food shortages and rising prices caused great discontent throughout France. At the same time, the French
government was almost bankrupt because of costly wars and rising expenses for the court of King Louis XVI
(LOOee). French banks became reluctant to lend money to the government. The king, desperate for funds, asked the
nobles and clergy to pay taxes. When these groups refused, Louis called a meeting of the countrys legislature, the
Estates-General in May 1789. (It had not met since 1614.) This assembly was made up of representatives from all
three estates. If the Estates-General agreed, Louis could impose new taxes.
In the Estates-General, the nobles and clergy refused to give up their privileges, including not paying taxes. Each
estate had one vote apiece. Members of the Third Estate wanted more votes because they represented many more
people. The king refused. Frustrated, the delegates of the Third Estate decided to meet separately. They formed a
new groupthe National Assemblyand agreed not to break up until they wrote a constitution for France.

Fall of the Bastille

King Louis XVI banned the Third Estate from meetings with the Estates-General, which were held in Versailles. He
also began gathering troops, but before he could use them, Paris exploded in rebellion.
The people of Paris celebrated this victory, but they worried about the kings troops. They got ready to fight. On July
14, 1789, a large crowd stormed a prison called the Bastille (baSTEEL).
News of the fall of the Bastille spread to the countryside, where the peasants rose up against the nobles. To satisfy
the people, the National Assembly ended the privileges of the clergy and nobles. It also issued the Declaration of the
Rights of Man and the Citizen. Based on Enlightenment ideas, the declaration stated that the governments powers
came from the people, not the king. All people, it said, were equal under the law.
In 1791, the National Assembly made France a constitutional monarchy. France was to be ruled by an elected
legislature. Louis, however, refused to accept these changes and tried to flee Paris. As Europe's kings threatened to
crush France's revolution, some leaders in Paris pushed for greater change. In 1792, they set up a new government
called the National Convention.
Identifying What political reforms did the National Assembly adopt?

A Republic in France
How did supporters of France's revolution enforce their reforms?
The National Convention ended the monarchy and made France a republic. It wrote a new constitution giving the vote
to every man, whether or not he owned property. Meanwhile, two groups fought for control of the Convention. One
group, called Girondists, believed the revolution had gone far enough. The other group, known as Jacobins, favored
more radicalchange. The Jacobins finally won and took power.

Toward the Future

In late 1792, the National Convention put King Louis XVI on trial and found him guilty of aiding France's enemies. A
month later, Louis was beheaded on the guillotine (GEE oh teen)a new machine designed to quickly execute
people.
Louis's execution alarmed Europe's ruling monarchs. The rulers of Austria and Prussia were already at war with
France. In early 1793, Britain, Spain, the Netherlands, and Sardinia joined them in battle against France's
revolutionary army.
As the threat of foreign invasions rose, many French people rushed to defend the revolution. The people of Paris were
dedicated supporters, shopkeepers, artisans, and workers who saw themselves as heroes and heroines and
demanded respect from the upper classes. They addressed each other as "citizen" or "citizeness" rather than "mister"
or "madame."

The Reign of Terror

Despite widespread support, the revolution had many enemies within France. To deal with growing unrest, the
National Convention set up the Committee of Public Safety to run the country. The Committee took harsh steps
against anyone they felt opposed the revolution. Revolutionary courts sentenced to death by guillotine anyone
believed to be disloyal. This included Girondists, clergy, nobles, and even women and children. To blend in, wealthy
people adopted the simple clothing of the lower classes. About 40,000 people died, including Queen Marie Antoinette.
This period, from July 1793 to July 1794, became known as the Reign of Terror.

During this time, the Committee came under the control of a lawyer named Maximilien Robespierre (mak see meel
ya ROHBZ pyehr). Robespierre wanted to create a "Republic of Virtue." By this he meant a democratic society
made up of good citizens. Under Robespierre's lead, the Committee opened new schools, taught the peasants new
farming skills, and worked to keep prices under control. Robespierre even created a new national religion that
worshipped a "Supreme Being." This attempt to replace France's traditional Catholic faith, however, did not last.
With France facing pressure from foreign invasions, the Committee decided to raise a new army. All single men
between the ages of 18 and 25 were required to join this new army.
With this new force of almost a million soldiers, France halted the threat from abroad. Revolutionary generals gained
confidence from their military victories. They soon became important in French politics.
With the republic out of danger, people in France wanted to end the Reign of Terror. Robespierre lost his influence,
and his enemies ordered him to be executed without trial. Wealthy middle-class leaders then came to power.
France's new leaders tried to follow more moderate policies. They wrote a new constitution that allowed only men with
property to vote. In 1795, a five-man council known as the Directory was created to run the country. The Directory,
however, was unable to handle food shortages, rising prices, government bankruptcy, and attacks by other countries.
By 1799, the Directory had lost much support. The French people began to look for a strong leader who could restore
order.
As the Directory weakened at home, the French army won victories in the war with Europe's monarchies. One battle
front was in Italy, where the French were fighting against Austrian troops. In those battles, a young French general
captured public attention. His name was Napoleon Bonaparte (nuh POH lee uhn BOH nuh pahrt).
Born on the Mediterranean island of Corsica in 1769, Napoleon Bonaparte went to military school and became an
officer. He supported the revolution. His great talent for military work helped him rise to the rank of general by the time
he was 24 years old. After his successes in Italy, Napoleon attacked the British in Egypt in 1799. While in Egypt, he
heard of the political troubles back home. He immediately returned to France. There, he opposed the Directory and
took part in a coup d'etat (koo day TAH). This is when a group seeking power uses force to suddenly replace top
government officials. Napoleon took the title of First Consul and became the strong leader many French people
believed they needed.
Napoleon quickly reorganized the government to strengthen his control. He changed France's finances and tax
system. He appointed local officials and created many new schools. In addition, he created a new legal system known
as the Napoleonic Code. This code of laws was based on Enlightenment ideas. Finally, Napoleon established a more
peaceful relationship with the Catholic Church, which had opposed the revolution.
Napoleon did not carry out all of the French Revolution's ideas. People were equal under the law, but freedom of
speech and the press were restricted. A new class of nobles was created, based on ability rather than wealth or
family. Then, in 1804, Napoleon crowned himself emperor, and France became an empire. Now his dream could be
fulfilled.
Explaining How did Napoleon strengthen his control after becoming First Consul?

The Creation of an Empire

How did Napoleon build and then lose an empire?
Napoleon wanted to do more than govern France. He wanted to build a great empire. Beginning in 1803, Napoleon
won a number of military battles that helped him reach his goal. By 1807, Napoleon controlled an empire that
stretched across Europe from the Atlantic Ocean to Russia.

Many different territories were part of Napoleon's empire. Napoleon directly ruled France and parts of Germany and
Italy. He named relatives to govern other lands in his empire, such as Spain and the Netherlands. Outside the empire,
independent countries, such as Prussia, Austria, and Sweden, were forced to ally with France.
Two forces, however, helped to bring Napoleon's empire to an end. One was nationalism, or the desire of a people for
self-rule. The nations conquered by Napoleon's army rejected his rule and the French practices forced on them. The
other force was the combined strength of Britain and Russia working against him.

Napoleon Meets Defeat

Napoleon hoped to cross the English Channel and invade Britain. He never achieved this goal. A major French defeat
took place off the coast of Spain. There, in 1805, the British admiral Lord Horatio Nelson defeated the French navy in
the Battle of Trafalgar.
After Trafalgar, Napoleon decided to strike at Britain's economic lifelinetrade. In a plan called the Continental
System, Napoleon forbade the countries in his empire to trade with Britain. However, the Continental System was
difficult to enforce and finally proved unsuccessful.
Napoleon next decided to invade Russia. He organized the Grand Army, a force of about 600,000 soldiers from all
over Europe. Napoleon led the Grand Army into Russia in the summer of 1812. Except for one battle, the Russians
refused to fight. Instead, they drew Napoleon's army deeper into Russia. When the harsh Russian winter arrived,
Napoleon's soldiers were unprepared, helpless, and far from home. Their retreat proved to be a disaster. Fewer than
100,000 soldiers returned alive.
France's enemies then captured Napoleon and exiled him to Elba, an island off the coast of Italy. Napoleon escaped
and returned to France in the spring of 1815. He easily won public support and assembled his old army. At Waterloo
in Belgium, an international force led by Britain's Duke of Wellington finally defeated Napoleon. This time, Napoleon
was sent to the island of St. Helena in the southern Atlantic Ocean, where he died in 1821.

What Was the Congress of Vienna?

In September 1814, European leaders gathered in Vienna, Austria. Their goal was to return peace and stability to
Europe. This meeting, called the Congress of Vienna, was led by Austria's foreign minister, Klemens von Metternich
(MEH tuhr nihk).

Metternich and the other leaders were conservative. That is, they opposed changes that threatened traditional ways.
Today, conservatives in the U.S. believe in traditional ways but also support self-rule. European conservatives of the
early 1800s supported powerful monarchies. They opposed individual liberties and the right of self-rule. Hoping to
crush revolutionary ideas, the conservative leaders at the Congress restored the royal families who had ruled in
Europe before Napoleon.
European leaders at Vienna also redrew Europe's borders. France lost the lands won by Napoleon. It also had to pay
other countries for war damages. At the same time, Russia, Prussia, Austria, and Great Britain expanded in size.
Russia increased its share of Poland, Prussia gained more German lands, and Austria acquired territory in Italy.
Adding to its overseas empire, Britain won colonies in Asia, Africa, and the Caribbean.
The Congress above all wanted to create a balance of power, or equal strength among their countries. They hoped
that such a balance would prevent any one nation from controlling Europe. To keep the peace, the leaders agreed to
meet from time to time. These meetings were called the Concert of Europe.

LESSON 2 REVIEW
Review Vocabulary
1. Use the word bourgeoisie in a sentence about the Third Estate in French society.

2. Explain how a coup detat is different from an election.

Answer the Guiding Questions

3. Differentiating What were the three estates in France before the revolution, and how were their tax responsibilities
different?

4. Assessing What was the result of Napoleon's invasion of Russia in 1812?

5. Evaluating What happened at the Battle of Trafalgar, and why was it significant?

6. How was the French Revolution a change brought about by the Enlightenment and the American Revolution?

7. What were some of the other causes of the French Revolution?

8. How did the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte affect French society?

9. How did other European nations react to the French Revolution?

10. INFORMATIVE/EXPLANATORY Explain the results of the Congress of Vienna in a short paragraph.

11. Look up the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen on the internet. Step back into the past and imagine
you have just learned of this document. Write a letter to a friend in the new United States explaining the changes this
document promises to bring to French government.

12. Find Waterloo, located in Belgium, on a map. Design a historical marker explaining the importance of this site.
(Clue: It has something to do with Napoleon Bonaparte.) Napoleon was defeated by Lord Nelson of Britain, whose
forces defeated the French navy. It was significant because it weakened Napoleons power in Europe.