Beruflich Dokumente
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LAB MANUAL
To instil in students the attitude, values and vision that will prepare them to
lead lives of personal integrity and civic responsibility.
b)
c)
engineering problems.
identify, formulate and analyze multifaceted engineering problems.
design a system, component, or process to meet desired needs within realistic
constraints such as economic, environmental, social, political, ethical, health and safety,
d)
e)
f)
practice.
understand the impact of engineering solutions in a global, economic and societal
g)
context.
design and develop eco-friendly systems, making optimal utilization of available
h)
i)
j)
k)
l)
natural resources.
understand professional ethics and responsibilities.
work as a member and leader in a team in multidisciplinary environment.
communicate effectively.
manage the projects keeping in view the economical and societal considerations.
recognize the need for adapting to technological changes and engage in life-long
learning.
Course Objectives:
To give orientation on electronic components and basic electronic
lab instruments.
input
signal,
voltage
measurement,
time
domain
measurements.
To determine the characteristics of junction diode, FET, and BJT.
To perform the analysis, design, and test of various electronic
circuits.
Course Outcomes:
1. Understand the specifications of different types of electronic components and lab
equipment, testing of active components.
2. Verify the I-V characteristics of PN junction diode, Zener diode, BJT, FET, UJT
and SCR.
3. Verify the performance characteristics of half wave and Full wave rectifiers
without and with capacitor filter, Zener voltage regulator.
4. Measure the h-parameters of BJT.
5. Verify the frequency response characteristics of CE, CC and FET CS amplifiers.
Mapping of Course Outcomes with Program Outcomes
Course
Outcomes
CO1
CO2
CO3
CO4
CO5
Syllabus:
PART A:
Electronic Workshop Practice
1. Identification, Specifications, Testing of R, L, C Components (Colour Codes),
Potentiometers, Coils, Gang Condensers, Relays, Bread Boards.
2. Identification, Specifications and Testing of active devices, Diodes, BJTs, JFETs, LEDs,
LCDs, SCR, UJT.
3. Soldering Practice- Simple circuits using active and passive components.
4. Study and operation of Ammeters, Voltmeters, Transformers, Analog and Digital
Multimeter, Function Generator, Regulated Power Supply and CRO.
6. SCR Characteristics
7. UJT Characteristics
8. Transistor Biasing
9. CRO Operation and its Measurements
10. BJT-CE Amplifier
11. Emitter Follower-CC Amplifier
12. FET-CS Amplifier
Part A:
1. Resistors
Coppers have many free electrons. Other materials have fewer free electrons and
substances such as glass, rubber, and mica have practically no free electron movement
therefore making good insulators. Between the extremes of good conductors such as
silver, copper and good insulators such as glass and rubber lay other conductors of
reduced conducting ability, they "resist" the flow of electrons hence the term
resistance.
A 470 resistor with 10V across it, needs a power rating P = V/R = 10/470 =
0.21W.
In this case a standard 0.25W resistor would be suitable.
A 27 resistor with 10V across it, needs a power rating P = V/R =
10/27=3.7W.
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There are many types of capacitor but they can be split into two groups, polarised and
unpolarised. Each group has its own circuit symbol.
Polarized capacitors (Electrolytic) (large values, 1F +)
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Electrolytic capacitors are polarized and they must be connected the correct way
round, at least one of their leads will be marked + or -. They are not damaged by heat
when soldering.
:
Fig. 1.10: Different types of capacitors
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Number
Black
Brown
Red
Orange
Yellow
Green
Blue
Violet
Grey
White
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the top three-color bands giving the value in pF. Ignore the 4th band (tolerance) and
5th band (voltage rating). For example: brown, black, orange means 10000pF =
10nF = 0.01F. Note that there are no gaps between the color bands; so 2 identical
bands actually appear as a wide band.
Variable capacitors
Variable capacitors are mostly used in radio tuning circuits and they are sometimes
called 'tuning capacitors'. They have very small capacitance values, typically between
100pF and 500pF (100pF = 0.0001F).
Variable capacitors are mostly used in radio tuning circuits and they are sometimes
called 'tuning capacitors'. They have very small capacitance values, typically
between 100pF and 500pF (100pF = 0.0001F).
Circuit Symbol
Potentiometers (variable resistors)
Construction
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Variable resistors consist of a resistance track with connections at both ends and a
wiper, which moves along the track as you turn the spindle. The track may be made
from carbon, cermets (ceramic and metal mixture) or a coil of wire (for low
resistances). The track is usually rotary but straight track versions, usually called
sliders, are also available. Variable resistors may be used as a rheostat with two
connections (the wiper and just one end of the track) or as a potentiometer with all
three connections in use. Variable resistors are often called potentiometers. They are
specified by their maximum resistance, linear or logarithmic track, and their physical
size. The standard spindle diameter is 6mm. The resistance and type of track are
marked on the body:
4K7 LIN means 4.7 k linear track.
1M LOG means 1 M logarithmic track.
Rheostat
This is the simplest way of using a variable resistor. Two terminals are used: one
connected to an end of the track, the other to the moveable wiper. Turning the spindle
changes the resistance between the two terminals from zero up to the maximum
resistance. Rheostats are often used to vary current, for example to control the
brightness of a lamp or the rate at which a capacitor charges.
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Fig.
:
1.20
Preset
(open style)
Presets
Multiturn preset
(closed style)
Different types of Presets
Switches
Selecting a Switch
There are three important features to consider when selecting a switch:
Contacts (e.g. single pole, double throw)
Ratings (maximum voltage and current)
Method of Operation (toggle, slide, key etc.)
Switch Contacts
Several terms are used to describe switch contacts:
Pole - number of switch contact sets.
Throw - number of conducting positions, single or double.
Way - number of conducting positions, three or more.
Momentary - switch returns to its normal position when released.
Open - off position, contacts not conducting.
Closed - on position, contacts conducting, there may be several on positions.
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For example: the simplest on-off switch has one set of contacts (single pole) and one
switching position which conducts (single throw). The switch mechanism has two
positions: open (off) and closed (on), but it is called 'single throw' because only one
position conducts.
a) Single Pole, Double Throw (SPDT) ON-ON
This switch can be on in both positions, switching on a separate device in each case. It
is often called a changeover switch. For example, a SPDT switch can be used to
switch on a red lamp in one position and a green lamp in the other position. A SPDT
toggle switch may be used as a simple on-off switch by connecting to COM and one
of the A or B terminals shown in the diagram. A and B are interchangeable so
switches are usually not labeled.
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Fig.
COM = Common, always connect to this; it is the moving part of the switch.
NC = Normally Closed, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is off.
NO = Normally Open, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is on.
Connect to COM and NO if you want the switched circuit to be on when the
relay coil is on.
Note: Connect to com and nc if you want the switched circuit to be on when the relay
coil is off.
Choosing a relay
You need to consider several features when choosing a relay:
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4. For example: A 12V supply relay with a coil resistance of 400 passes a
current of 30mA. This is OK for a 555 timer IC (maximum output current
200mA), but it is too much for most ICs and they will require a transistor to
amplify the current.
5. Switch ratings (voltage and current)
The relay's switch contacts must be suitable for the circuit they are to control.
You will need to check the voltage and current ratings. Note that the voltage
rating is usually higher for AC, for example: "5A at 24V DC or 125V AC".
Advantages of relays
Relays can switch AC and DC, transistors can only switch DC.
Relays can switch high voltages, transistors cannot.
Relays are a better choice for switching large currents (> 5A).
Relays can switch many contacts at once.
Disadvantages of relays
Relays are bulkier than transistors for switching small currents.
Relays cannot switch rapidly (except reed relays), transistors can switch many
times per second.
Relays use more power due to the current flowing through their coil.
Relays require more current than many chips can provide, so a low power
transistor may be needed to switch the current for the relay's coil.
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Bread boards
Breadboards are used to test circuits. Wires and components are simply pushed into
the holes to form a completed circuit and power can be applied. One of the main
advantages of using a breadboard is that the components are not soldered and if they
are positioned incorrectly they can be moved easily to a new position on the board.
On the breadboard (diagram 1) seen opposite, letters are used to identify vertical
columns and numbers to identify horizontal rows.
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2. PN Junction diode
Introduction
A diode is an electrical device allowing current to move through it in one direction
with far greater ease than in the other. The most common type of diode in modern
circuit design is the semiconductor diode, although other diode technologies exist.
Semiconductor diodes are symbolized in schematic diagrams as such:
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show a very low resistance. Connected the other way across the diode, it should show
a very high resistance.
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Transistors
Function
A transistor may be used as a switch and as an amplifier. The amount of current
amplification is called the current gain, symbol hFE.
There are two types of standard transistors, NPN and PNP, with different circuit
symbols. The letters refer to the layers of semiconductor material used to make the
transistor. Most transistors used today are NPN because this is the easiest type to
make from silicon. If you are new to electronics it is best to start by learning how to
use NPN transistors. The leads are labeled base (B), collector (C) and emitter (E).A
bipolar transistor consists of a three-layer "sandwich" of doped (extrinsic)
semiconductor materials, either P-N-P or N-P-N. Each layer forming the transistor has
a specific name, and each layer is provided with a wire contact for connection to a
circuit. Shown here are schematic symbols and physical diagrams of these two
transistor types:
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The only functional difference between a PNP transistor and an NPN transistor is the
proper biasing (polarity) of the junctions when operating. For any given state of
operation, the current directions and voltage polarities for each type of transistor are
exactly opposite each other. Bipolar transistors work as current-controlled current
regulators. In other words, they restrict the amount of current that can go through
them according to a smaller, controlling current. The main current that is controlled
goes from collector to emitter, or from emitter to collector, depending on the type of
transistor it is (PNP or NPN, respectively). The small current that controls the main
current goes from base to emitter, or from emitter to base, once again depending on
the type of transistor it is (PNP or NPN, respectively). According to the confusing
standards of semiconductor symbology, the arrow always points against the direction
of electron flow:
Bipolar transistors are called bipolar because the main flow of electrons through them
takes place in two types of semiconductor material: P and N, as the main current goes
from emitter to collector (or visa-versa). In other words, two types of charge carriers
-- electrons and holes -- comprise this main current through the transistor.
Identification of terminals in a transistor
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hFE : This is the current gain (strictly the DC current gain). The guaranteed minimum
value is given because the actual value varies from transistor to transistor - even for
those of the same type. Note that current gain is just a number so it has no units. The
gain is often quoted at a particular collector current IC which is usually in the middle
of the transistor's range, for example '100@20mA' means the gain is at least 100 at
20mA.
Meter check of a transistor
Bipolar transistors are constructed of a three-layer semiconductor "sandwich," either
PNP or NPN. As such, they register as two diodes connected back-to-back when
tested with a multimeter's "resistance" or "diode check" functions:
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Fig. 2.8: Testing of a PNP transistor using DMM in forward bias condition
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Fig. 2.9: Testing of a PNP transistor using DMM in reverse bias condition
Meter readings will be exactly opposite, of course, for an NPN transistor, with both
PN junctions facing the other way. If a multimeter with a "diode check" function is
used in this test, it will be found that the emitter-base junction possesses a slightly
greater forward voltage drop than the collector-base junction. This forward voltage
difference is due to the disparity in doping concentration between the emitter and
collector regions of the transistor: the emitter is a much more heavily doped piece of
semiconductor material than the collector, causing its junction with the base to
produce a higher forward voltage drop.
Junction field-effect (J-FET) transistor
Field-effect transistors are unipolar rather than bipolar devices. That is, the main
current through them is comprised either of electrons through an N-type
semiconductor or holes through a P-type semiconductor. This becomes more evident
when a physical diagram of the device is seen:
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Generally, N-channel JFETs are more commonly used than P-channel. The only
practical difference between N- and P-channel JFETs is biasing of the PN junction
formed between the gate material and the channel. With no voltage applied between
gate and source, the channel is a wide-open path for electrons to flow. However, if a
voltage is applied between gate and source of such polarity that it reverse-biases the
PN junction, the flow between source and drain connections becomes limited, or
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regulated, just as it was for bipolar transistors with a set amount of base current.
Maximum gate-source voltage "pinches off" all current through source and drain, thus
forcing the JFET into cutoff mode.With the gate-source PN junction reverse-biased,
there should be nearly zero current through the gate connection. For this reason, we
classify the JFET as a voltage-controlled device, and the bipolar transistor as a
current-controlled device. If the gate-source PN junction is forward-biased with a
small voltage, the JFET channel will "open" a little more to allow greater currents
through.
Meter check of a JFET
Testing a JFET with a multimeter might seem to be a relatively easy task, seeing as
how it has only one PN junction to test: either measured between gate and source, or
between gate and drain.
Fig. 2.12: Testing of a N-channel FET using DMM in reverse bias condition
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Fig. 2.13: Testing of a N-channel FET using DMM in forward bias condition
Power transistors
A Power MOSFET is a specific type of Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field-Effect
Transistor (MOSFET) designed to handle large power. Compared to the other power
semiconductor devices (IGBT, Thyristor...), its main advantages are high
commutation speed and good efficiency at low voltages. It shares with the IGBT an
isolated gate that makes it easy to drive. The power MOSFET is the most widely used
low-voltage (i.e. less than 200 V) switch. It can be found in most power supplies, DC
to DC converters, and low voltage motor controllers.
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The schematic symbol for an LED is a regular diode shape inside of a circle, with two
small arrows pointing away (indicating emitted light), shown in Figure below.
This notation of having two small arrows pointing away from the device is
common to the schematic symbols of all light-emitting semiconductor devices.
Conversely, if a device is light activated (meaning that incoming light stimulates
it), then the symbol will have two small arrows pointing toward it. LEDs can
sense light. They generate a small voltage when exposed to light, much like a
solar cell on a small scale. This property can be gainfully applied in a variety of
light-sensing circuits.
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Avalanche photodiodes
They have a similar structure to regular photodiodes, but they are operated with much
higher reverse bias. This allows each photo-generated carrier to be multiplied by
avalanche breakdown, resulting in internal gain within the photodiode, which
increases the effective responsitivity of the device.
3. Phototransistors
They consist of a photodiode with internal gain. A phototransistor is in essence
nothing more than a bipolar transistor that is encased in a transparent case so that light
can reach the base-collector junction. The electrons that are generated by photons in
the base-collector junction are injected into the base, and this current is amplified by
the transistor operation. Note that although phototransistors have a higher responsivity
for light they are unable to detect low levels of light any better than photodiodes.
Phototransistors also have slower response times.
Applications of Photo diodes
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1. P-N photodiodes are used in similar applications to other photo detectors, such
as photoconductors, charge-coupled devices, and photomultiplier tubes.
2. Photodiodes are used in consumer electronics devices such as compact disc
players, smoke detectors, and the receivers for remote controls in VCRs and
televisions.
3. In other consumer items such as camera light meters, clock radios (the ones
that dim the display when it's dark) and street lights, photoconductors are often
used rather than photodiodes, although in principle either could be used.
4. Photodiodes are often used for accurate measurement of light intensity in
science and industry. They generally have a better, more linear response than
photoconductors.
5. They are also widely used in various medical applications, such as detectors
for computed tomography (coupled with scintillators) or instruments to
analyze samples (immunoassay). They are also used in blood gas monitors.
6. PIN diodes are much faster and more sensitive than ordinary p-n junction
diodes, and hence are often used for optical communications and in lighting
regulation.
7. P-N photodiodes are not used to measure extremely low light intensities.
Instead, if high sensitivity is needed, avalanche photodiodes, intensified
charge-coupled devices or photomultiplier tubes are used for applications such
as astronomy, spectroscopy, night vision equipment and laser range finding.
4. Photo Resistor
A photo resistor or LDR is an electronic component whose resistance decreases with
increasing incident light intensity. It can also be referred to as a light-dependent
resistor (LDR), photoconductor, or photocell.
A photo resistor is made of a high-resistance semiconductor. If light falling on the
device is of high enough frequency, photons absorbed by the semiconductor give
bound electrons enough energy to jump into the conduction band. The resulting free
electron (and its hole partner) conduct electricity, thereby lowering resistance.
Photo resistors come in many different types. Inexpensive cadmium sulphide cells can
be found in many consumer items such as camera light meters, clock radios, security
alarms, street lights and outdoor clocks. They are also used in some dynamic
compressors together with a small incandescent lamp or light emitting diode to
control gain reduction. Lead- and indium antimonite-LDR are used for the mid
infrared spectral region. At the other end of the scale, Ge:Cu photoconductors are
among the best far-infrared detectors available, and are used for infrared astronomy
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and infrared spectroscopy. Continues power dissipation is 80mW and the Maximum
voltage which can be applied to its 100V.
4. Opto Coupler
An opto-isolator (or optical isolator, opto coupler, photo coupler, or photoMOS) is a
device that uses a short optical transmission path to transfer a signal between elements
of a circuit, typically a transmitter and a receiver, while keeping them electrically
isolated since the signal goes from an electrical signal to an optical signal back to
an electrical signal, electrical contact along the path is broken.
Silicon-Controlled Rectifier (SCR)
Shockley diodes are curious devices, but rather limited in application. Their
usefulness may be expanded, however, by equipping them with another means of
latching. In doing so, they become true amplifying devices (if only in an on/off
mode), and we refer to them as silicon-controlled rectifiers, or SCRs. The progression
from Shockley diode to SCR is achieved with one small addition, actually nothing
more than a third wire connection to the existing PNPN structure:
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latch the SCR. By applying a small voltage between gate and cathode, the lower
transistor will be forced on by the resulting base current, which will cause the upper
transistor to conduct, which then supplies the lower transistor's base with current so
that it no longer needs to be activated by a gate voltage. The necessary gate current to
initiate latch-up, of course, will be much lower than the current through the SCR from
cathode to anode, so the SCR does achieve a measure of amplification. This method
of securing SCR conduction is called triggering, and it is by far the most common
way that SCRs are latched in actual practice. In fact, SCRs are usually chosen so that
their break over voltage is far beyond the greatest voltage expected to be experienced
from the power source, so that it can be turned on only by an intentional voltage pulse
applied to the gate. It should be mentioned that SCRs may sometimes be turned off by
directly shorting their gate and cathode terminals together, or by "reverse-triggering"
the gate with a negative voltage (in reference to the cathode), so that the lower
transistor is forced into cutoff. I say this is "sometimes" possible because it involves
shunting all of the upper transistor's collector current past the lower transistor's base.
This current may be substantial, making triggered shut-off of an SCR difficult at best.
A variation of the SCR, called a Gate-Turn-Off thyristor, or GTO, makes this task
easier. But even with a GTO, the gate current required to turn it off may be as much as
20% of the anode (load) current! The schematic symbol for a GTO is shown in the
following illustration
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TRIAC controls are more often seen in simple, low-power circuits than
complex, high-power circuits. In large power control circuits, multiple
SCRs tend to be favored
Main terminals 1 and 2 on a TRIAC are not interchangeable.
To successfully trigger a TRIAC, gate current must come from the main
terminal 2 (MT2) side of the circuit.
All other continuity measurements performed on an SCR will show "open" ("OL"
on some digital multi meter displays). It must be understood that this test is very
crude and does not constitute a comprehensive assessment of the SCR. It is
possible for an SCR to give good ohmmeter indications and still be defective.
Ultimately, the only way to test an SCR is to subject it to a load current.
If you are using a multi meter with a "diode check" function, the gate-to-cathode
junction voltage indication you get may or may not correspond to what's expected of a
silicon PN junction (approximately 0.7 volts). In some cases, you will read a much
lower junction voltage: mere hundredths of a volt. This is due to an internal resistor
connected between the gate and cathode incorporated within some SCRs. This resistor
is added to make the SCR less susceptible to false triggering by spurious voltage
spikes, from circuit "noise" or from static electric discharge. In other words, having a
resistor connected across the gate-cathode junction requires that a strong triggering
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signal (substantial current) be applied to latch the SCR. This feature is often found in
larger SCRs, not on small SCRs.
Uni - Junction Transistor (UJT)
A Uni-junction transistor (UJT) is an electronic semiconductor device.
There are two types of uni-junction transistor:
The original unijunction transistor, or UJT, is a simple device that is
essentially a bar of N type semiconductor material into which P type material
has been diffused somewhere along its length.
The uni junction transistor (UJT) is a three terminal device with characteristics very
different from the conventional 2 junctions, bipolar transistor. It is a pulse generator
with the trigger or control signal applied at the emitter. This trigger voltage is a
fraction (n) of inter base voltage, Vbb. The UJT circuit symbol, junction schematic,
and characteristic curve are shown below.
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DIAC
Like all diodes, Shockley diodes are unidirectional devices; that is, they only conduct
current in one direction. If bidirectional (AC) operation is desired, two Shockley
diodes may be joined in parallel facing different directions to form a new kind of
thyristor, the DIAC:
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1. Use a soldering iron in good condition. Inspect the tip to make sure that it is not
past good operation. If it looks in bad condition it will not help you solder a good
joint. The shape of the tip may vary from one soldering iron to the next but generally
they should look clean and not burnt.
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4. The heated soldering iron should then be placed in contact with the track and the
component and allowed to heat them up. Once they are heated the solder can be
applied. The solder should flow through and around the component and the track.
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should melt away around the joints as you solder, but in the Electronics Club
we have generally had better results by removing the coating.
2. Drill the holes with a 1mm diameter bit. This is easiest with a proper electric
PCB drill in a stand, but a hand-held miniature electric drill can be used if you
take care to avoid twisting and snapping the small drill bit. Wear safety
spectacles. A hand-drill is not suitable for such small bits unless you are very
skilled.
3. A few may holes may need to be larger, for example preset resistors usually
need a 1.5mm diameter hole. It is simplest to re-drill these special holes
afterwards.
4. Check carefully to make sure you find all the holes.
5. Multi meter
Multi meters are very useful test instruments. By operating a multi-position switch on
the meter they can be quickly and easily set to be a voltmeter, an ammeter or an
ohmmeter. They have several settings (called 'ranges') for each type of meter and the
choice of AC or DC. Some multi meters have additional features such as transistor
testing and ranges for measuring capacitance and frequency.
Choosing a multi meter
A digital multi meter is the best choice for your first multi meter; even the cheapest
will be suitable for testing simple projects.
If you are buying an analog multi meter make sure it has a high sensitivity of 20k /V
or greater on DC voltage ranges, anything less is not suitable for electronics. The
sensitivity is normally marked in a corner of the scale, ignore the lower AC value
(sensitivity on AC ranges is less important), the higher DC value is the critical one.
Beware of cheap analog multi meters sold for electrical work on cars because their
sensitivity is likely to be too low.
Digital multi meters
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Digital meters have a special diode test setting because their resistance ranges cannot
be used to test diodes and other semiconductors.
Analog multi meters
Analog meters take a little power from the circuit under test to operate their pointer.
They must have a high sensitivity of at least 20k /V or they may upset the circuit
under test and give an incorrect reading. See the section below on sensitivity for more
details.
Batteries inside the meter provide power for the resistance ranges, they will last
several years but you should avoid leaving the meter set to a resistance range in case
the leads touch accidentally and run the battery flat.
Typical ranges for analog multi meters like the one illustrated:
(the voltage and current values given are the maximum reading on each range)
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Diodes
a = anode
k = cathode
Digital multi meters have a special setting for testing a diode, usually labeled
with the diode symbol.
Connect the red (+) lead to the anode and the black (-) to the cathode. The
diode should conduct and the meter will display a value (usually the voltage
across the diode in mV, 1000mV = 1V).
Reverse the connections. The diode should NOT conduct this way so the meter
will display "off the scale" (usually blank except for a 1 on the left).
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Set the analog multi meter to a low value resistance range such as 10.
It is essential to note that the polarity of analog multi meter leads is reversed
on the resistance ranges, so the black lead is positive (+) and the red lead is
negative (-)! This is unfortunate, but it is due to the way the meter works.
Connect the black (+) lead to anode and the red (-) to the cathode. The diode
should conduct and the meter will display a low resistance (the exact value is
not relevant).
Reverse the connections. The diode should NOT conduct this way so the meter
will show infinite resistance (on the left of the scale).
The base-emitter (BE) junction should behave like a diode and conduct one
way only.
The base-collector (BC) junction should behave like a diode and conduct one
way only.
The collector-emitter (CE) should not conduct either way.
The diagram shows how the junctions behave in an NPN transistor. The diodes are
reversed in a PNP transistor but the same test procedure can be used.
Function Generator
A function generator is a piece of electronic test equipment or software used to
generate electrical waveforms.
Analog function generators usually generate a triangle waveform as the basis for all of
its other outputs. The triangle is generated by repeatedly charging and discharging a
capacitor from a constant current source. This produces a linearly ascending or
descending voltage ramp. As the output voltage reaches upper and lower limits, the
charging and discharging is reversed using a comparator, producing the linear triangle
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wave. By varying the current and the size of the capacitor, different frequencies may
be obtained.
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supply. Actually I think this is quite important because one of the first projects a
hobbyist should undertake is the construction of a bench supply. While a dedicated
supply is quite handy e.g. 5V or 12V, it's much handier to have a variable supply on
hand, especially for testing.
Types of Power Supply
There are many types of power supply. Most are designed to convert high voltage AC
mains electricity to a suitable low voltage supply for electronics circuits and other
devices. A power supply can by broken down into a series of blocks, each of which
performs a particular function.
For example a 5V regulated supply:
Power supplies made from these blocks are described below with a circuit diagram
and a graph of their output:
Transformer only
Transformer + Rectifier
Transformer + Rectifier + Smoothing
Transformer + Rectifier + Smoothing + Regulator
Dual Supplies
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The cathode ray is a beam of electrons, which are emitted by the heated cathode
(negative electrode) and accelerated toward the fluorescent screen. The assembly of
the cathode, intensity grid, focus grid, and accelerating anode (positive electrode) is
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called an electron gun. Its purpose is to generate the electron beam and control its
intensity and focus. Between the electron gun and the fluorescent screen is two pair of
metal plates - one oriented to provide horizontal deflection of the beam and one pair
oriented to give vertical deflection to the beam. These plates are thus referred to as the
horizontal and vertical deflection plates. The combination of these two deflections
allows the beam to reach any portion of the fluorescent screen. Wherever the electron
beam hits the screen, the phosphor is excited and light is emitted from that point. This
conversion of electron energy into light allows us to write with points or lines of light
on an otherwise darkened screen.
In the most common use of the oscilloscope the signal to be studied is first
amplified and then applied to the vertical (deflection) plates to deflect the beam
vertically and at the same time a voltage that increases linearly with time is applied to
the horizontal (deflection) plates thus causing the beam to be deflected horizontally at
a uniform (constant> rate. The signal applied to the vertical plates is thus displayed on
the screen as a function of time. The horizontal axis serves as a uniform time scale.
The linear deflection or sweep of the beam horizontally is accomplished by use
of a sweep generator that is incorporated in the oscilloscope circuitry. The voltage
output of such a generator is that of a saw tooth wave as shown in Fig. 2. Application
of one cycle of this voltage difference, which increases linearly with time, to the
horizontal plates causes the beam to be deflected linearly with time across the tube
face. When the voltage suddenly falls to zero, as at points (a) (b) (c), etc...., the end of
each sweep - the beam flies back to its initial position. The horizontal deflection of the
beam is repeated periodically, the frequency of this periodicity is adjustable by
external controls.
60
electron gun
Y plates
cathode
fluorescent screen
electron beam
anode
X plates
ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS
LAB
61
Power and Scale Illumination: Turns instrument on and controls illumination of the
graticule.
Focus: Focus the spot or trace on the screen.
Intensity: Regulates the brightness of the spot or trace.
Basic operation
Before doing the experiments you should adjust the controls for focus, brilliance, X
and Y shift until you have a dot in the middle of the screen. The simplified diagram
above shows the inside of a cathode ray oscilloscope.
Vertical Amplifier Section
Position: Controls vertical positioning of oscilloscope display.
Sensitivity: Selects the sensitivity of the vertical amplifier in calibrated steps.
Variable Sensitivity: Provides a continuous range of sensitivities between the
calibrated steps. Normally the sensitivity is calibrated only when the variable knob is
in the fully clockwise position.
AC-DC-GND
Selects desired coupling (ac or dc) for incoming signal applied to vertical amplifier, or
grounds the amplifier input. Selecting dc couples the input directly to the amplifier;
selecting ac send the signal through a capacitor before going to the amplifier thus
blocking any constant component.
Horizontal-Sweep Section
Sweep time/cm: Selects desired sweep rate from calibrated steps or admits external
signal to horizontal amplifier.
Sweep time/cm Variable: Provides continuously variable sweep rates. Calibrated
position is fully clockwise.
Position: Controls horizontal position of trace on screen.
Horizontal Variable: Controls the attenuation (reduction) of signal applied to
horizontal amplifier through Ext. Horiz. Connector.
Trigger: The trigger selects the timing of the beginning of the horizontal sweep.
Slope: Selects whether triggering occurs on an increasing (+) or decreasing (-)
portion of trigger signal.
62
63
centre of the screen. The Y gain should be set at 1V / division and the time base set at
1 ms / division
1. Connect one 1.5 V cell to the Y inputs and adjust the Y gain, if necessary, so
that the line moves up 1.5 divisions.
2. Now connect two cells and then three cells. Record the line deflection each
time.
3. Reverse the leads and repeat number two.
4. Now connect the 1 V ac supply from the high current power supply (Extra low
voltage supply or Westminster power supply) to the Y inputs. If the signal
source and oscilloscope both have earthed terminals make sure that the earthed
lead of the oscilloscope (often black) is connected to the earthed terminal of
the supply (often yellow), or you will short out the signal generator through
the CRO. Record the size and shape of the trace. Repeat with the 2 V ac input
and then the dc input, recording the trace each time.
Precautions
Oscilloscopes use high voltages to create the electron beam and these remain
for some time after switching off - for your own safety do not attempt to
examine the inside of an oscilloscope.
64
Fig. 6.8: Trace on the CRO screen after switch on the device
1. Switch on the oscilloscope to warm up (it takes a minute or two).
2. Do not connect the input lead at this stage.
3. Set the AC/GND/DC switch (by the Y INPUT) to DC.
4. Set the SWP/X-Y switch to SWP (sweep).
5. Set Trigger Level to AUTO.
6. Set Trigger Source to INT (internal, the y input).
7. Set the Y AMPLIFIER to 5V/cm (a moderate value).
8. Set the TIMEBASE to 10ms/cm (a moderate speed).
9. Turn the time base VARIABLE control to 1 or CAL.
10. Adjust Y-SHIFT (up/down) and X-SHIFT (left/right) to give a trace across the
middle of the screen, like the picture.
11. Adjust INTENSITY (brightness) and FOCUS to give a bright, sharp trace.
12. The oscilloscope is now ready to use.
65
Part B :
1. PN JUNCTION DIODE CHARACTERISTICS
Aim:
a. To Plot VI characteristics of PN junction diode
Part A: Germanium Diode (Forward bias& Reverse bias)
Part B: Silicon Diode (Forward Bias only)
Name of the
Equipment/ Component
PN junction diode
1N4001(Si)
PN junction diode
OA79 (Ge)
Resistor (1K)
4
5
Ammeter
7
Bread board
8
Connecting wires
Circuit Diagrams
Specifications
VR (max)=1000V
IR(max)=50mA
VF =1 V, IF = 1A
VR (max)=30V, VRRM
(max)=45V,
IF (max)=35mA, IFRM
(max)=100mA
Power rating=0.5W,
Carbon type
(0-30V), 1A
(0-1V), (0-10V)
(0-20mA),
(0-300A)
-------
Quantity
1
1
1
Each 1
Each 1
1
Sufficient
66
67
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
0.44
0.47
0.50
0.52
0.53
0.545
0.603
0.629
0.645
0.658
0.667
0.676
0.683
0.689
0.696
0.04
0.11
0.19
0.30
0.39
0.48
1.37
2.56
3.47
4.53
5.40
6.51
7.54
8.43
9.68
0.215
0.267
0.273
0.308
0.339
0.366
0.611
0.803
0.995
1.154
1.311
1.462
1.616
1.738
1.872
0.21
0.33
0.35
0.46
0.51
0.60
1.33
2.15
2.95
3.86
1.72
5.66
6.59
7.39
8.26
Germanium diode
Diode
Diode
Voltage
Current
VR(Volts)
IR (A )
0.10
3.5
1.03
11.4
2.03
43.5
3.02
97.8
4.09
159.2
4.83
209.7
5.87
268.4
6.80
334.2
7.65
372.8
8.69
423
9.69
433
Model Graph
68
Inference
69
The cut-in voltage of silicon made PN junction diode is 0.4V where as the cutin voltage of germanium made PN junction diode is 0.2V
70
Name of the
Equipment/ Component
Zener Diode ( BZ 9.1)
Resistor (1K )
3
4
5
6
7
8
S. No
Specifications
VZ = 9.1V
Power
rating=0.5W,
Carbon type
(0-30)V, 1A
(0-1)V, (0-10)V
(0-25) mA
10 -1M
-
Quantity
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Sufficient
Theory
A PN junction diode does not conduct when reverse biased. But if reverse
voltage is increased, at a particular voltage it starts conducting heavily. This voltage is
called break down voltage. High current through the diode can permanently damage
it. But the Zener diode in reverse bias maintains almost constant voltage across its
terminals whatever may be the input voltage and current through it. So a Zener diode
is a PN-junction diode specially made to work in break down region. It is used in
voltage regulators.
Circuit Diagrams
71
72
Tabular Forms
Table 4.1:Voltage and current readings of Zener diode under forward bias
Diode
Diode
Applied
Voltage
Current
voltage(V)
VF (Volts)
IF (mA )
0.0
0
0
0.1
0.163
0
0.2
0.237
0
0.3
0.367
0
0.4
0.435
0
0.5
0.511
0
0.6
0.587
0.02
0.7
0.644
0.11
0.8
0.659
0.19
0.9
0.669
0.27
1
0.699
0.32
2
0.737
1.21
3
0.755
2.22
4
0.766
3.27
5
0.773
4.32
6
0.779
5.29
7
0.784
6.25
8
0.788
7.25
9
0.791
8.25
10
0.795
9.37
Table 4.2: Reverse voltages and reverse currents of Zener diode
Diode
Diode
Applied
Current
Voltage
voltage
IR (mA ) VR (Volts)
0
0
0.00
2
0
1.97
4
0
4.01
6
0
6.04
8
0
7.05
10
1.40
8.50
12
3.49
8.60
15
6.52
8.60
20
11.68
8.70
25
16.82
8.70
30
21.68
8.70
Table 4.3: Line Regulation
Load Resistance, RL=5K
Input Voltage,
Output Voltage,
Vin (V)
VO (V)
0
0.008
73
4
6
8
10
12
14
15
16
17
3.3
5.0
6.7
8.4
8.60
8.61
8.61
8.62
8.62
8.61
8.61
8.61
8.61
8.61
8.61
8.61
8.61
10
8.61
12
8.61
15
8.61
Model Graphs
74
Precautions
1. Connections must be given very carefully.
2. Readings should be noted without any parallax error.
3. The applied voltage, current should not exceed the maximum ratings of
the zener diode.
Result
The V-I Characteristics of the given Zener diode and its regulation
characteristics are verified.
Inference
The breakdown voltage observed in reverse bias is 8.61V for the given Zener
diode. It provides Constant Voltage by entering into the breakdown region.
Questions& Answers
1. Define Reverse Break down voltage.
A. The maximum reverse voltage at which the junction breaks down and
sudden raise in current occurs.
2. List the Applications of Zener diode.
A. Constant voltage source, Voltage regulator.
75
Apparatus Required
S.No
Name of the
Specifications
Quantity
Equipment/component
Transformer
230V/6-0-6V,500mA
Resistor(1K)
Power rating=0.5W
Carbon type
76
Diode(1N4001 or 1N4007)
VR (max)=1000V
Capacitor(1000F/25V)
IR(max)=50mA
Electrolytic type,
1
1
5
6
Theory
The ac voltage across the secondary winding of the transformer changes polarity after
every half cycle of ac input voltage. The diode is forward biased and hence it
conducts current. During the negative half cycle of input ac voltage, the diode is
reverse biased and it conducts no current. In this way, the current flowing through the
resistor is in the same direction. Hence DC output is obtained across the resistor.
When a capacitor filter is placed across the rectifier, output is parallel to the load
resistance, the pulsating DC voltage can be made as a pure DC voltage is applied to
the capacitor filter, as the rectifier voltage increases, it charges and supplies current to
the load at the end of the quarter cycle, the capacitor charges to peak value Vm of the
rectifier voltage. Now the capacitor starts to discharge through load and voltage across
it will decrease very slightly because the next voltage peak comes and charges the
capacitor. This process is repeated and the output waveform is obtained.
In the full wave rectifier circuit the transformer has a center-tap in its
secondary winding. It provides out of phase voltages to the two diodes. During the
positive half cycle the input, the diode D 2 is reverse biased it does not conduct. But
diode D1 is in forward bias and it conducts. The current flowing through D1 is also
passes through the load resistor, and a voltage is developed across it. During negative
half cycle diode D2 is forward biased and diode D1 is reverse biased. Now the current
flows through diode D2 and load resistor. The current flowing thought the load resistor
RL passes in the both half cycles. The DC voltage obtained at the output is given by
Vdc = 2Vm / . Where Vm is peak AC voltage between center-tap point and one of the
diodes. It can be proved that the ripple factor of a full- wave rectifier is 0.482.The
output of the full-wave rectifier contains an appreciable amount of AC voltage in
addition to DC voltage. But, the required output is pure DC with out any AC voltage
in it. The AC variation can be filtered by a shunt capacitor filter connected in shunt
with the load. The capacitor offers low impedance path to the AC components of
77
current. Most of the AC current passes through the shunt capacitor. All the DC current
passes through the load resistor. The capacitor tries to maintain the output voltage
constant at Vm
Circuit Diagram for half wave rectifier
78
transformer.
3. Connect the CRO at the secondary winding of the transformer and measure the
maximum voltage (Vm) and time period (T) at the input. Calculate the RMS
input voltage, Vrms=Vm/2
4. Now connect the multimeter at the secondary and measure the rms voltage of
the input signal. The rms voltage measured by both CRO and multimeter must
be same.
5. Now connect the CRO across the load resistor and measure the maximum
voltage, Vm and time period, T of the output voltage. Calculate the rms and
average (dc) values of the output signal using the formula V
rms
= Vm / 2 and
terminals and measure the both ripple AC voltage and DC voltages. Also
measure the time period of ripple AC voltage.
8. Tabulate the values with filter and without filter and compare.
Observations
79
80
b) Using multimeter
Vac = 4.88v
Vdc = 4.08v
Ripple factor, r = Vac / Vdc =1.1
Output waveform with filter
a) Using CRO:
Vm = 10v
Vrpp=4v
Vac= Vrpp/43 = 0.57v
Vdc = Vm- Vrpp/2 = 8v
Ripple factor, r = Vac / Vdc = 0.072
Charging time period, T1= 2ms
Discharging time period, T2=18ms
T= T1+ T2=20ms
b) Using multimeter
Vac = 0.668v
Vac = 10.52v
Ripple factor, r = Vac / Vdc = 0.063
Tabular form
With-Out Filter
Half-Wave
Rectifier
CRO
Multimeter
Vac (V)
Vdc (V)
Ripple Factor, r
6v
3.819v
1.21
4.88v
4.08v
1.1
With Filter
Multimete
CRO
r
0.57v
0.668v
8v
10.52v
0.072
0.063
transformer.
81
3. Connect the CRO at the secondary winding of the transformer and measure the
maximum voltage (Vm) and time period (T) at the input. Calculate the RMS
input voltage using Vrms=Vm/2.
4. Now connect the multimeter at the secondary and measure the rms voltage of
the input signal. The rms voltage measured by both CRO and multimeter must
be same.
5. Now connect the CRO across the load resistor and measure the maximum
voltage, Vm and time period, T of the output voltage. Calculate the rms and
average (dc) values of the output signal using the formule,
V rms = Vm / 2 and Vdc=Vavg = 2Vm / .
6. Measure the AC and DC voltages across the load resistor using multimeter and
and DC voltages. Calculate the ripple factor. Also measure the time period T
of ripple AC voltage.
11. Tabulate the values with filter and without filter.
Observations
82
83
Vac = 7.88 V
Ripple factor, r = Vac / Vdc = 0.484
Output waveform with filter
a) Using CRO
Vm = 12 V
Vpp= 2 V
Vac= Vpp/23 = 0.577 V
Vdc = Vm- Vpp/2 = 11 V
Ripple factor, r = Vac / Vdc = 0.052
Charging time period, T1= 2ms
Discharging time period, T2= 8ms
T= T1+ T2= 10ms
b) Using multimeter
Vac = 0.392v
Vac = 11.16v
Ripple factor, r = Vac / Vdc = 0.035
Tabular form
Full-Wave
Rectifier
Vrms (V)
Vdc (V)
Ripple Factor, r
Multimeter
3.82 V
7.88 V
0.484
With Filter
CRO
0.577 V
11 V
0.052
Multimeter
0.392 V
11.16 V
0.035
Precautions
1. Connections must be given very carefully.
2. Readings should be taken without any parallax error.
3. The applied voltage and current should not exceed the maximum ratings of the
diode.
Result
Input and output waveform with and without filter of a full wave rectifiers are
observed. The ripple factor with and with out filter are calculated.
84
Inference
The ripple factor of Full wave rectifier with filter is less compared to that with out
filter.
Question & Answers
1.What are the limitations of half wave rectifier
A. Poor efficiency, less ripple factor.
2. Give theoretical values for ripple factor and efficiency of center tapped full wave
rectifier.
A. r=0.48,=81.2%
Name of the
Equipment/Component
Specifications
Quantity
85
Resistors-39K,1K
3
4
5
6
7
Icmax=100mA,PD=300mW
Vceo=45V, Vbeo=50V
Power rating=0.5W
Carbon type
(0-30)V,1A
(0-1)V,( 0-10)V
(0-300)A, (0-10)mA
-
1
Each 1
1
1
1
1
Sufficient
Circuit Diagrams
86
87
0.658
210
0.685
208
0.704
212
10
0.660
237
0.687
235
0.705
235
Model Characteristics
88
Questions& Answers
1. List various operating regions of Transistor
89
FET.
Apparatus required
S. No
Name of the
Component/Equipment
Diode (1N4007)
JFET (BFW10)
Resistor (100)
4
5
6
7
Specifications
VR (max.)=1000V
IR(max.)=50mA
VDS (max.)= 30V
VGS (max.)= -30V
IG (max.)= 10mA
P (max.)= 300mW
Power
rating=0.5W
Carbon type
(0 30V), 1 A
(0-10V)
(0-15mA)
4 digit
Quantity
1
1
1
2
1
1
90
Circuit Diagram
Fig 5.1: Circuit diagram for Static Drain and Transfer static characteristics of
JFET
Theory
Like an ordinary junction transistor, a field effect transistor is also a three
terminal device. It is a unipolar device, because its function depends only up on one
type of carrier. (The ordinary transistor is bipolar, hence it is called bipolar-junction
transistor) Unlike a BJT, a FET has high input impedance. This is a great advantage.
A field effect transistor can be either a JFET or MOSFET. Again a JFET can
either have N-channel or P-channel. An N-channel JFET has an N type semiconductor
bar. The two ends of which the drain and source terminals on the two sides of this bar,
PN junctions are made. These P regions make gates. Usually, these two gates are
connected together to form a single gate. The gate is given a negative bias with
respect to the source. The drain is given positive potential with respect to the source.
In case of a P channel JFET, the terminals of all the batteries are reversed.
In this case, PN junction is reverse biased and hence the thickness of the
depletion region increases. As VGS is decreased from zero, drain is positive with
respect to the source with VGS = 0.Now the majority carriers flow through the N
channel from source to drain. Therefore the conventional current flows from drain to
source. Since the current is controlled by only majority carriers, FET is called as a
unipolar device.
The drain current ID is controlled by the electric field that extends into the
channel due to reverse biased voltage applied to the gate. The drain current depends
on the drain voltage VDS and the gate voltage VGS. Any of these variables may be fixed
and the relation between the other two are determined when V DS = VP, ID becomes
91
maximum. When VDS is increased beyond VP, the length of the pinchoff region or
saturation region increases.
The important parameters of a JFET are defined below.
I.
II.
III.
Procedure
a. Static Drain Characteristics
1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig 5.1.
2. First fix VGS at some value say -1V. Increase the drain voltage V D slowly in
steps of 1V from 0V to 12V. Note drain current for each step. Now change
VGS to another value say -3V and repeat the above.
3. Plot the drain characteristics.
4. Use the definitions given in brief theory to calculate the JFET parameters
from the characteristics.
b. Transfer characteristics
Fix VDS at some value say 5V. Increase the gate voltage VGG in steps of
0.5V from 0V to 10V. Note drain current for each step. Plot the transfer
characteristics.
Calculations
1. resistance, rd = VDS / ID = (1.04-0.77)/(3.78-3)X10-3= 346
2. Trans conductance, gm = ID / VGS = (4.8-0.77)m/(2-1) =4.03 x 10-3 /
3. Amplification factor, = VDS/ VGS = = (3.5-1)X10-3/ (3-2)=2.5 x 10-3
Tabular Forms
Table 5.1: Static Drain Characteristics of Junction Field Effect
Transistor in Common Source Configuration
Applied Voltage
VGG(V)
VGS = -1V
VDS(V)
VGS = 0V
ID(A) VDS(V)
ID(A)
0.01
0.05
0.03
0.26
0.75
0.17
0.78
0.58
1.4
0.35
1.54
0.97
2.0
0.59
2.4
92
1.4
2.42
0.77
3.0
2.11
2.75
1.04
3.78
2.98
2.88
1.3
4.4
3.9
2.95
1.66
5.02
4.8
3.02
2.1
5.56
5.8
3.10
2.85
5.86
10
6.74
3.123.
4.3
6.32
VDS=5V
Applied voltage
VGG (V)
VGS(V)
ID ( mA )
0.57
14
0.7
12
0.8
9.5
1.5
6.5
2.8
3.5
4.5
0.5
5.5
6.5
7.5
10
8.5
93
Model Graphs
Result
The drain or output and transfer characteristics are obtained and plotted on the graph.
Inference
1. Drain dynamic resistance is observed as 346 for the given FET (BFW10).
2. Amplification factor of the given FET (BFW10) is observed 2.5 x 10-3
Questions& Answers
1. FET is voltage controlled device. Justify?
A. The voltage at input terminal controls the output current. Hence FET is called
voltage controlled device.
2. Define Pinch off voltage?
A. The drain source voltage at which the drain current become nearly constant is
called Pinch off voltage.
94
6. SCR CHARACTERISTICS
Aim
a) To obtain the forward characteristics of SCR.
b) To identify the break over voltage at different gate voltages.
Apparatus Required
S.No
Name of the
Equipment/Component
Specifications
Quantity
IH (max.)=4A
1
SCR(TYN 604)
Variable resistor
Resistor - 1K
4
5
6
P (max.)=10W
VH (max.)=5V
0-10K
Power rating=0.5w
Carbon type
0-30V,1A
0-25mA
4 digit
1
1
1
1
2
1
Theory
SCR acts as a switch when it is forward bias. When the gate is kept open I G = 0 and
the operation of SCR is similar to PNPN diode. When I G < 0 the break over voltage
95
required to allow the current through SCR is large. When I G > 0 less amount of break
over voltage is sufficient. With very large positive gate currents break over may occur
at a very low voltage such that the characteristic of SCR is similar to ordinary PN
diode. As the voltage at which SCR is switched ON can be controlled by varying gate
current. Once the SCR is turned ON, the gate losses control and cannot be used to
switch the device OFF. One way to turn the device OFF is by lowering the anode
current below the holding current by reducing the supply voltage below the holding
voltage, keeping the gate open. At this point even if the gate signal is removed the
device keeps ON conducting, till the current level is maintained to a minimum level
of holding current.
Circuit Diagram
96
IG1 = 3mA
IG > IG1
S.No
Voltage
VAK
IA
VAK
IA
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
V1 (V)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
(V)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
(mA)
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
6
12
14
16
20
22
24
(V)
0
1
2
3
4
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
(mA)
0
1
1
1
1
4
6
8
10
14
16
18
20
22
Model Graph
97
98
7. UJT CHARACTERISTICS
Aim
To plot the V I characteristics and observe the Negative resistance region of Uni
Junction Transistor (UJT).
Component / Equipment required
Name of the
S.No.
Component/Equipment
1.
UJT 2N2646
2.
Resistors - 100, 1K
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Specifications
Quantity
= 0.56 0.75,
VEB1=3.5V,
VB2E=30V,
E(RMS)=60mA,
PD(max)=300mW
Power Rating = 0.5W
Carbon type
(0 30V), 1A
(0 10V)
(0 10mA)
1
1
1
Circuit Diagram
99
Procedure
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram shown in figure 7.1.
2. Keep the supply voltage VBB at 1V. Now vary the supply voltage VEE from 0V
to 1V in steps of 0.2V and in steps of 1V upto 10V.
100
3. Note down the values of Emitter voltage VEB2 and Emitter current IE for each
value of VEE.
4. Repeat the step 3 by setting VBB to 2V and 5V respectively.
5. Plot the graph between emitter voltage and emitter current for different values
of base voltages (VBB).
6. Now observe the negative resistance region of UJT from the V I
characteristics in figure7.2.
Model Graph
Applied
S. No
VBB = 5V
VBB = 7.5V
VBB = 10V
voltage
VEE
VBE(V)
(V)
IE
(mA)
VBE(V)
IE
(mA)
VBE(V)
IE
(mA)
1.7
1.25
1.08
2
3
4
2
3
4
2.0
1.01
1.02
0
2.08
2.80
2.13
1.04
1.05
0
0
0
2.04
3.18
4.11
0
0
0
101
5
6
7
8
9
10
5
6
7
8
9
10
1.03
1.05
1.06
1.07
1.08
1.09
3.74
4.99
6.03
6.92
8.19
8.81
1.06
1.07
1.08
1.09
1.10
1.11
3.97
4.98
5.96
6.97
7.95
8.95
5.08
1.10
1.11
1.12
1.13
1.14
0
4.96
5.95
6.99
7.91
8.93
Precautions
1. Connections must be given carefully.
2. Readings should be taken without any parallax error.
3. The applied voltage and current should not exceed the maximum ratings of the
given Uni-Junction Transistor.
Result
The V-I characteristics of UJT were plotted and observed its negative resistance
region.
Inference
From V- I characteristics, it is observed that in Negative resistance region, emitter
current increases while emitter voltage decreases. Hence UJT can also be called
Negative resistance device.
Question & Answers
1. What is the important property of UJT?
A. UJT exhibits negative resistance between Peak point voltage and valley point
voltage.
2. What are the applications of UJT?
A. It can be used as Relaxation Oscillator, Time base generators, Sawtooth signal
generator, etc.
102
8. TRANSISTOR BIASING
Aim
To design, analyze and test BJT self bias circuit for the given specifications. And
observe the variation of operating point with respect to variation in IB and .
Equipments/components required
Name of the
Equipment/Component
S.No
1
Resistors-39K,1K
3
4
5
6
7
Specifications
Quantity
Icmax=100mA,PD=300mW
Vceo=45V, Vbeo=50V
Power rating=0.5W
Carbon type
(0-30)V,1A
(0-1)V,( 0-10)V
(0-300)A, (0-10)mA
-
1
Each 1
1
1
1
1
Sufficient
Theory
The transistor can be operated in three regions cut-off, active and saturation by
applying proper biasing conditions as shown in the table below.
Table.8.1: Operating regions and bias conditions
Region of
Emitter base
Collector base
Operation
junction
junction
Cut-off
Reverse biased
Reverse biased
Active
Forward biased
Reverse biased
Saturation
Forward biased
Forward biased
103
ii)
iii)
Stabilization technique
It refers to the use of resistive biasing circuits which allow Ib to vary so as to keep Ic
relatively constant with variations in Ico, and VBE.
Compensation technique
It refers to the use of temperature-sensitive devices such as diodes, transistors,
thermistors etc., which provide compensating voltages and currents to maintain the
operating point stable.
Disadvantages of fixed bias circuit
104
1. The circuit does not provide any check on the collector current which
increases with the rise in temperature, i.e. thermal stability is not provided by
this circuit. So the operating point is not maintained.
Ic = .IB + ICEO
2. Since Ic = .IB and IB is already fixed; Ic depends on which changes unit to
unit and shifts the operating point.
Thus stabilization of operating point is very poor in the fixed bias circuit.
Note: if the transistor is replaced by another transistor, even though the same type
their characteristics may differ slightly. In fixed bias circuit, the change in the
characteristics of transistor changes the operating point. If there is a change in value
of , there is change in
Ic = . IB as IB is constant in fixed biased circuit. The change in Ic changes the
operating point and hence we can say that a fixed bias circuit is unsatisfactory if the
transistor is replaced by another of the same type.
Self bias of emitter-feedback bias
To improve the stability of the biasing circuit over the fixed bias circuit, the
emitter resistance is connected in the biasing circuit. Such biasing circuit is known as
emitter bias circuit.
Circuit diagram
105
=> RC=750
106
(10x5.7x103)/R1=(17.3x10-6)(5.7x103)+0.7+1
R1=34K
1/RB=1/R1+1/R2=.1/R2=1/RB-1/R1=1/(5.7X103)-1/(34X103)
1/R2=0.146X10-6
R2=684K
Procedure
1. Connect the as shown in fig 8.1
2. Verify IBQ, ICQ and VCEQ for the given specifications
3. To observe the variation in operating point with respect to I B. vary RB, such
that IBQ10A and measure IC and VCE
4. To observe the variation in operating point with respect to , replace BJT with
another (having different ) of same type and observe the variations in IB, IC
and VCE
PRECAUTIONS
1. Connections must be done carefully
2. The applied voltage should not exceed the maximum voltage ratings of the
transistor
OBSERVATIONS
Table.8.2: Variation of operating point with respect to variations in IB.
RB(K)
RB(k )
IB (A)
Ic (mA)
VCE(v)
2.2 K
7.1
1.18
8.54
2.9 K
10
1.69
7.04
3.9 K
13.5
2.32
5.05
107
IB (A)
Ic (mA)
VCE(v)
158
11.1
1.73
7.01
220
10
1.69
7.04
311
5.9
1.73
6.9
RB(k )
Result
Hence with the given specifications of BJT the self bias circuit is designed
and also observed the variations of operating point by varying IB and of the
transistor were observed.
Inference
As varies the collector current and the current through base varies as per the
relation Ic = . IB and the amplification factor varies with respect to resistance also.
108
2. Pole lamp
3. Intensity
4. Focus
5. Trace rotation -
6. Voltage selector
7. Power connector
8. CH-1 or Xin connector
109
110
111
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Transistor (BC-107)
Capacitors(designed values)
Resistors (designed values)
Function Generator
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
Regulated Power Supply
Bread Board
Connecting Wires
Specifications
Ic(max)=100mA
PD=300mW,
Vceo=45V,
Vbeo=50V
Electrolytic type,
Voltage rating= 1.6V
Power rating=0.5W
Carbon type
0 -1MHZ
20MHZ
0-30V,1Amp
-
Quantity
1
3
4
1
1
1
1
Sufficient
Theory
Common Emitter amplifier has the emitter terminal as the common terminal
between input and output terminals. The emitter base junction is forward biased and
collector base junction is reverse biased, so that transistor remains in active region
throughout the operation. When a sinusoidal AC signal is applied at input terminals of
circuit during positive half cycle the forward bias of base emitter junction V BE is
increased resulting in an increase in IB ,The collector current Ic is increased by times
the increase in IB, VCE is correspondingly decreased. i.e output voltage gets decreased.
Thus in a CE amplifier a positive going signal is converted into a negative going
output signal i.e.180o phase shift is introduced between output and input signal and it
is an amplified version of input signal.
Characteristics of CE amplifier
1. Large current gain (AI)
2. Large voltage gain (AV)
3. Large power gain(AP=AI.AV)
4. Phase shift of 180o
112
113
3.
4.
To perform DC Analysis:
a. Disconnect the ac voltage source and the capacitors
b. Note down the following voltages and currents i.e.,
VBE, IB, IC, VCE
c. Note down the DC operating point
5.
To perform AC Analysis:
a. Feed an ac signal of 20mV at the input of the amplifier with different
frequencies ranging from 100HZ to 300 MHZ and measure the amplifier
output voltage.
b. Calculate the gain in decibels at various input signal frequencies.
c. Draw a graph with frequencies on X-axis and gain in dB on Y-axis and
calculate Bandwidth.
Frequency
(HZ)
50
100
200
114
500
800
1K
2K
4K
6K
8K
10K
20K
50K
100K
500K
800K
1M
10M
20M
50M
60M
80M
100M
2x500mV
1.6x1V
2x1V
3.8x1V
3.2x2V
1.4x5V
1.6x5V
1.6x5V
1.6x5V
1.6x5V
1.6x5V
1.6x5V
1.6x5V
1.6x5V
1.6x5V
1.4x5V
1.2x5V
1x5V
0.6x5V
0.4x5V
27.95
32.04
33.97
39.5
44
44.8
46.02
46.02
46.02
46.02
46.02
46.02
46.02
46.02
46.02
44.8
43.5
41.9
37.5
37.5
Model graph
115
= 3.3 KHz
= 54 MHz
= 5, 39,965 Hz
11. CC AMPLIFIER
Aim
To plot the frequency response characteristics of CC amplifier.
Apparatus Required
S. No
1.
Name of the
Component/Equipment
CC Amplifier Circuit Board
Specifications
Quantity
___
116
2.
3.
4.
Signal Generator
Regulated Power Supply
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
0-1MHz
0-30V, 1A
20 MHz
1
1
1
Theory
The CC amplifier can also be called as emitter follower. This amplifier has a voltage gain
which is very close to unity. The voltage drop across the emitter resistor may be either
positive or negative depending on whether a PNP or NPN transistor is used. The input
resistance of emitter follower is high (tens of kilo ohms to hundreds of kilo ohms). The output
resistance of emitter follower is low (about 25 ohms). This circuit performs impedance
transformation over a wide range of frequencies with voltage gain close to unity. In addition
to this, emitter follower increases the power level of the signal.
Circuit Diagram
Fig.11.1: CC Amplifier
Procedure
1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig 11.1.
2. Apply the supply voltage , VCC=12V
3. Now feed an ac signal VS of 40mV peak to peak at the input of the amplifier,
vary the frequency of input signal ranging from 10HZ to 1MHZ and measure
the amplifier output voltage V0.
4. Now calculate the gain in dBs at various input signal frequencies
5. Draw a graph with frequency in Hz on X-axis and gain in dB on Y-axis. From
graph calculate bandwidth
117
Input Frequency
(Hz)
Output
Voltage
10
Vo (mV)
14
15
20
-6.02
20
28
-3.09
4
5
50
32
-1.93
100
32
-1.93
500
32
-1.93
1K
32
-1.93
5K
32
-1.93
9
10
10K
50K
32
32
-1.93
-1.93
11
12
100K
200K
28
14
-3.09
-9.11
-9.11
Model graph
Observations
Maximum gain (Av) =-1.93dB
Lower cutoff frequency (FL) =16.5Hz
Upper cutoff frequency (FH) =140K Hz
Band width (B.W) = (FH FL) = 140 KHz-16.5 Hz = 139.98 KHz
Gain bandwidth product = Av (B.W) = 139.98X16.5=270.16KdBHz.
Precautions
1.Connections must be given very carefully.
2.Readings should be noted without parallax error.
3.The applied voltage, current should not exceed the maximum rating of the given
transistor.
118
Result
The frequency response of CC Amplifier characteristics was obtained and bandwidth is
calculated.
Inference
The bandwidth of given CC amplifier is observed as 139.98 KHz.
Name Of the
Component/Equipment
Field Effect Transistor
(BFW10)
Capacitors(designed values)
Specifications
IGS=10mA, PD=300mw
VGS= -30V, VDG=-30V
Electrolytic type,
Voltage rating= 1.6V
Power rating=0.5W,
Quantity
1
3
4
119
4
5
6
7
8
Function Generator
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
Regulated Power Supply
Bread Board
Connecting Wires
Carbon type
0 -1MHZ
20MHZ
0-30V,1Amp
-
1
1
1
1
Sufficient
Theory
In common source amplifier circuit source terminal is made common to the
other two terminals. In common source amplifier circuit input is applied between gate
and source and output is taken from drain and source. The coupling capacitors C 1 and
C2 are used to isolate the D.C biasing from the applied ac signal, and acts as short
circuit for the ac analysis. The high frequency characteristics of the FET amplifier are
determined by the inter electrode and wiring capacitance. The CS amplifier which
provides good voltage amplification is most frequently used. In cascade amplifier
input impedance of the second stage acts as shunt across output of first stage and R d is
shunted by Ci. Since the reactance decreases with increasing frequencies, the output
impedance will be low at high frequencies; this will result in decreasing the gain at
high frequencies.
Circuit Diagram
120
121
assume, RG=1M
Ci = 1/(2fXc1) =1/(2f Xci) = 1/(2xx1000x105)=1.59nF
5. Xco = Rd/10 = 3.25K/10=325
Co = 1/(2fXc2) = 1/(2f Xcs)=1/(2x1000x325)=0.489F
Standard values: RD=3.25K, RS=0.5K, RG=1M, Ci=1.59nF, Co=0.489F,
Cs=3.18F
Procedure
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram as shown in Fig.12.1.
2. Apply supply voltage, VDD of 30V.
3. For the DC analysis, remove all the capacitors and AC voltage source. Note down
the DC voltages and currents such as VGS, VDS, ID.
4. Feed an AC signal of 20mV at the input of the amplifier with different
frequencies ranging from 100HZ to 100 MHZ and measure the amplifier output
voltage.
5. Now calculate the voltage gain in decibels at various input signal frequencies.
6. Draw a graph with frequency on X- axis and gain in dB on Y- axis and calculate
bandwidth.
Tabular Form
Table 12.1: Simulation
AC Input voltage Vi=40mV (peak-peak)
Frequency (Hz)
Gain in decibels
AV=20 log (Vo/ Vi)
100
200
500
800
1K
2K
5K
6K
8K
10K
30K
50K
80K
100K
100
280
440
460
480
500
500
500
500
500
500
500
500
500
12.04
16.90
20.82
21.21
21.58
21.93
21.93
21.93
21.93
21.93
21.93
21.93
21.93
21.93
122
200K
500K
800K
1M
5M
10M
20M
50M
80M
100M
200M
400M
500
500
500
500
500
500
500
480
440
400
320
180
21.93
21.93
21.93
21.93
21.93
21.93
21.93
21.58
20.82
20
18.06
9.54
Model Graph
123
124