Ministry Of Higher Education

Higher Technological Institute

Tenth of Ramadan City
Chemical Engineering Department

At Cairro Oil Refining Company

(C. O. R. C)

Submitted By:
GAMAL MOHAMED ABO EL ELA
20010815

Supervised By:
Dr.MAHER GAMAL

Date: summer term

July-August
2006

INDEX
Acknowledgement
Introduction
Classification of F.C signs
Chapter One : Distillation
Distillation definition
Equilibrium
Physical meaning of points on
McCabe-Thieles
Chapter two :Treatment (reformer)
Unit-20
Unit -21
Unit-22
Unit -11
Unit-19
Chapter-three: Isomerization unit
Unit-29 (pre-treatment )
Unit -30(penex unit )
Chapter four :Labs and quality control
Quality control and products laboratory
Analytical laboratory
Chromatographic analysis laboratory
Chapter Five :Water treatment and supply
Chapter-Six : Technology and development
Chapter-Seven :planning and production
Chapter eight: Safety
References

7
10
24
25

31
32
36
41
45
51
55
56
60
64
70
71
72
79
85
94

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First of all , I wish to express to my thanks to my supervisors : Dr. Maher
soliman and Dr. Soaad Mohamed ( chemical engineering department)
Cairo Oil Refining Company, I would like to than so much the
General manager of cairo oil refining company,, who accepted us
for the summer training period as trainees.
I wish to express my deep gratitude for eng. Mohsen Hasan Mohamed
(assistant general manager of distillation department);who gave us this
nice and valuable opportunity to have that training in the company.and on
providing us with all needed data for making our report .
I would like also to thank eng. Hamdy Mohamed (distillation supervisor)
Who provided us very useful ; interesting ; and important remarks in
distillation field . as it as sonsidered to be the most essential part in refineries
.
My thanks also ; to all eng. Whop trained us and provided us with modern
technologe and principles of oil refrining field . and that in : reformer units,
isomerization units, water treatment unit, and all chemists in laboratories.
My last thanks are to the library supervisor who gave us the permission &
Opportunity to enter the company library and use some of its references .
And also to Mr . magdy labenah (training supervisor), who offered us all
kind of facilities during training period . ..

INTRODUCTION
The government works hardly on encouraging local
industry , as it is considered to be the essential base for
countries " development , and it follows multi-ways and
methods , that leads to the rising of special local industry
that can fulfill the countries " needs from side , and the
competition in international markets , from another side .
For the petroleum sector, there was a great portion in
performing this policy, through companies, which one of
them is "Cairo oil refining company, which was established
on 1st of January 1982.
It is considered to be one of the most pioneering
companies in local manufacturing operations for the
equipments of petroleum refining units, and others. And that
because of what it has from facilities, and specialized technical
experiences for technical studies, engineering designs, and
workshops with facilities of manufacturing all these equipments
like: Heat exchangers, drums, columns...etc.
Cairo oil refining company produces the following:
-Propane.
- Butane gas (butagas)
-Gasoline of high octane number
- Kerosene
- Summer diesel (treated Solar)
-Solar
- Mazot
- Solvents
I'd like to present this report, as a demonstration for the field
of oil refining techniques, and showing most of the stages, that
crude oil passes through it for refining process.

Chapter One

Introduction:
Crude oil is separated to its components by fractional
distillation process and it is considered to be one of the most
important natural processes that face workers in petroleum
field. It represents the most efficient way for separation of
similar mixtures that consists of two components or mixtures of
multi-components.
Distillation process depends on the mass transfer
between two phases; one of them is in the vapor state, which
consists of the main liquid phase by heating.
For a distillation process and refining process in general,
these equipments are required for most of units:
1-Filters
2-De-salters
3-Heat exchangers
4-Heaters (furnaces)
5-Separation /Distillation columns (Towers)
6-Water coolers (condensers)
7-Air coolers
8-Re-boilers
9-Drums (separators)
10-Control valves (Pressure /Flow/ Level/ Temperature)
11-Pumps
12-Pipe lines
13-Containers (storage)
Distillation department is divided into four zones:
1- Distillation unit

2- Purification unit (Kerosene

3- V.R.U (Vapor Recovery Unit)
4- Re-Run unit

Turbine)

Distillation:
Is a physical method or process for separating a
liquid mixture into its constituents
It is based on observations made for centuries that
when such a mixture is partially vaporized, the vapor normally
has a composition different from that of the residual liquid
Implied in the method is the condensation of vapor to from
distillation product liquid from the distillation process. The
residual liquid is often called the bottoms product.
Distillation in crude form was practiced before the
time of Christ .usually for the concentration of alcoholic spirits.
The first formalized documentation of the process appears to
have been the treatise by Brunswig .published in 1500 (1).
During the past two centuries. Distillation has
emerged as the key separation method in the chemical
processing and related industries .having little competition
today as a simple .effective, and economical means foe
mixture separation on a commercial scale.
Early distillations were of the batch. Takeover type
sometimes called simple distillation or differential distillation.
A charge of liquid mixture was vaporized from a still pot, by
heat addition and the product vapor condensed into one or
more fractions. Hence the term fractional, or fractionation,
became associated with any distillation operation designed

to make separations into defined or specified constituent

fractions.
Another important development in distillation
technology was the discovery that a simply distillation,
operated on a continuous basis (flash vaporization) could
have its effect multiplied through the use of staging, i.e.,
operating several flash vaporizations in series with liquid
residue in counter flow.

By combining the stages into a vertical, cylindrical

vessel (the bubble tower) with addition of liquid reflex at the
top and vapor from a heated still pot at the bottom, a vapor
liquid countercurrent contacting operation called rectification
was established and found to be economically attractive.
Most distillation today are of the multistage rectification type ,
operated continuously or in the batch mode .
They are characterized by vertical bubble towers (distillation
columns) with internal contacting devices (usually trays or
packings) that provide intimate contacting of vapor and liquid to
enhance the separation process .when operated continuously (the
usual preferred mode), the towers are normally fed with a liquid
mixture toward the center of the tower, providing a stripping zone
below the feed point in addition to the rectifying zone for "enriching
") above the feed point.
A diagram of a typical distillation column is shown in fig .1.
Heat is added at the base of the column by vapor from a reboiler
and is removed at the top of the column when vapors are
condensed into an overhead liquid product plus additional liquid for
return to the column as reflux.

The usual sequence of steps in designing a

distillation process of the type shown in fig 1 is :
1- Define the system to be separated and establish the
degree of separation to be achieved
2- Obtain appropriate physical property data, especially
those covering vapor-liquid equilibrium relationships for the
composition, temperature, and pressure conditions of the
separation.
3- Determine the required stages (or transfer units) for the
required separation
4- Specify the equipment needed for the process. The
emphasis here is usually on the distillation column. But the
auxiliary components in the process must not neglected
The following sections take up basic theory and conventional
practice in the design or analysis of distillation systems, with
general orientation according to the steps listed immediately
above.

INTRODUCTION:

Nomenclature and Subscripts

These terms are used just about universally in the industry:
X=
Y=
X=
Y=
D=
R=
F=
B=
L=
V=
K=
=
R=
P=
T=
H=
Q
C=
Q
R=
I=

Mol fraction in liquid phase

Mol fraction in vapor phase
Moles / hour in liquid phase
Moles / hour in vapor phase
Moles / hour of distillate
Moles/hour of external reflux
Moles / hours of feed
Moles/ hours of bottoms
Moles/ hours of internal liquid flow
Moles/hour of internal liquid flow
Vapor liquid equilibrium ratio =y/x
Relative volatility= K 1/ K2
Ratio of moles components , light/ heavy
Column pressure , psia
Pure state vapor pressure ,psia
Temperature , F
Molal enthalpy
Condenser heat duty
Reboiler heat duty
Heat of vaporization
The following subscripts are utilized:
1
2
D
F
B

= the light component (usually unnecessary).

= the heavy component (here x2=1-x1).
= in the distillate.
= in the feed.
= in the bottoms.

Example x1D means moles per hour of light component in the

distillate .since we are talking about binary distillation, we can skip
the 1-2 subscripts if we wish and always understand that we refer
to the light component when we say
For example x. Then (1-x), of course, means mol fraction of
heavy component.
Sometimes the following superscripts are utilized
1, 2, 3 n, n+1 = tray numbers

Tools for distillation Analysis:

Tools to analyze and solve distillation problems are:
1-Material Balances.
2-Heat Balances.
3-Equilibrium Relationships .

Envelope Technique:

As an aid to developing these relationships, the "envelope

technique" On a sketch of a fractionator or portion thereof,
envelopes are drawn around which material and heat balance
can be written.
Let us consider a simple fractionator (one feed and just
top and bottom products) with five trays with the overhead
product being all liquid and the reflux is not sub cooled.
We will write material and heat balances around three
possible envelopes. Each tray will be defined a theoretical
tray where the liquid and vapor phases leaving each tray are
in equilibrium (v1 with L1 ,V2 with L2 ,etc
Envelope
Mass Balance
In =out
F=B+D
Heat Balance
In=out
Fhf+QH=DHD+BHB+QC
Envelope 3
MassBalance
In=Out
5
3
V +L =V4+L4
Heat Balance
In= out
5
3
4
V hv5+L HL3=V HV4+L4HL4

Envelope 2
Mass Balance
In=out
3
0
V +L =v1+L2
Heat Balance
In=out
3
0
1
V HV3+L H0L=V HV1+L2HL2

Binary distillation material balances:

Binary Concept:
We now simplify the system by defining the feed to consist of two
components. The liquid and vapor mol fraction of the light
component will be designated x and y
Example: Material Balance for Envelope 1 for the light
Component
FXF= DXD+BXB
Constant Molal Overflow Concept
In distillation calculations, the simplifying concept of constant
molal overflow eliminates the need for heat balances except
around the feed tray. Constant molal overflow means that in a
section of the column, the vapor and liquid molal flows do not
change. A section is defined as a portion of the fractionator
between two adjacent entering and / or exit streams.
For our simple fractionator , there are only two sections : a
top or rectifying section and a bottoms or stripping section .
Therefore, v3= v2=v1 and L1=l2; also V4 =V5 and L3= L4=L5.
Commercial fractionation such as benzene/ toluene, isobutane
/n-butane, ethyl-benzene/styrene and propylene / propane can be
considered binary distillations with constant molal overflow
Constant Molal overflow occurs when:
1-latent heats of both components are similar (at tray
temperatures
2-Sensible heat changes (from tray to tray) are negligible in
comparison with latent heats.
Rectifying and Stripping sections:
Now let us consider the fractionator not to be limited in trays
and derive material balances for each section of the column.

Where the molal latent heats of both components are the

same on both the feed tray and in the feed:
(d)

q= HVF HF

q Is the total heat required to convert a mol of feed to saturated

vapor divided by the molal latent heat of vaporization.
The convenient definition of q eliminates the need for feed
tray heat balances. It also allows the development of
relationships. Graphically, this is the locus ( yn +1 ) of the
intersection of the lines representing the material balance
equations equations .inserting the definitions in (c ) into equations
(a) and (b) and eliminating L and V results in :
(e)

Y n+1 = (q/ (q-1)xn (1/(q-1)XF

Summary of Equations:

(A)

Rectifying section Operating Line

YN+1= (L/V) Xn + (D/V) XD

(B)

Stripping Section Operating Line

Yn+1 = (L/V) Xn (B/V ) XB

(C)

L= L+ QF

(D)

Q= Hv f HF

(e)

q line
yn +1 = (q/(q-1)xn (1/ (q-1 )xf

EQUILIBRIUM
Concept:
A vapor and a liquid in a system containing two components
quickly come into equilibrium when mixed or agitated. At this
condition of fixed temperature and pressure, molecules of either
component in the vapor are condensing at the same rate as
molecules of these components in the liquid are evaporating. The
composition of each phase is then constant forever, as long as
the temperature and pressure do not change.
The more light material there is in the liquid, the more light
material there will be in the vapor. This is common sense. We can
say that y is proportional to x.
Y1= K1x1
y2= k2x2
In binary distillation, K2 is always less than 1.0 on all trays and
K1 is always greater than 1.0. When K1= K2 an azeotrope occurs
and then separation by distillation is impossible. Another useful
concept is relative volatility or a (alpha). This is simply K1/K2 and
its use has the advantage that it remains nearly constant over a
rather wide variation of temperature and pressure. For some
binaries where the boiling points are very close to each other , it
is not a bad approximation to use the same value of a all the way
from the top to the bottom of the column .
But more important, (a) is the best single criterion of the
difficulty of separation. Difference in boiling point is not always a
good indicator. For instance , if two materials boil close together ,
the relative volatility will be much greater if the binary pair are

low-boiling , compared to a high-boiling pair , For instance , it is

much easier to fractionate a pair boiling at 30 F and 40 f
respectively, than it is to fractionate a pair at 320 F and 330 F .
The for the first pair is about 1.27 and for the second pair is
about 1.10. It can be shown that the reflux ratio is approximately
inversely proportional to ( -1)

Thus the relative reflux rate for the high-boiling pair will be
nearly three times greater than for the low- boiling pair. For
hydrocarbons belonging to the same family, that is, the same
general molecular structure, the mixtures behave nearly ideally
Then these relationships hold:
K1= PO1

= PO1
PO2

Physical Meaning of points on McCabe- Thiele:

At this point, it may be well to back up and briefly describe
the process of separation of two components to a high degree of
purity by distillation to get an insight as to how it works. When the
feed is introduced into the column, the more volatile component
will be in somewhat higher concentration in the vapor from the
feed tray. As the vapor rises through the tray above the feed, the
heavier component tends to condense first, the vapor being
contacted intimately with the colder internal reflux from above.
This enrichment is directly related to the relative volatility, a,
and to the internal reflux ratio. An equivalent amount of
enrichment occurs successively on each tray as we proceed in a
similar manner up the column.

At each tray, if perfect mixing takes place, the vapor rising

from that tray is at its dew point, and the liquid leaving that tray is
at its bubble point. For a perfect tray, a horizontal plane a-b
drawn through the vapor liquid interface represents the x and y
values corresponding to a point on the equilibrium curve. A
horizontal plane C-D drawn through the space between the trays
represents the x and y values corresponding to a point on the
operating line.

Chapter Two

REFORMER UNITS,
(TREATMENT)
INTRODUCTION:
After "distillation process", the main part of refining processes,
both Heavy and Light Naphtha undergo a number of stages, in
shape of units; i.e: Reformer units.
These units are very important to the produced Naphtha for
both of its two kinds, in which these units are able to increase and
improve the properties (ex: Octane number, vapor pressure),for
better quality and more and successful marketing .
These reformer units are:
-Unit-20:
Pre-treating unit for Unit -21.
-Unit -21
Reformer Unit, for increasing Octane number of heavy
Naphtha.
-Unit -22
Vapor Recovery Unit, V.R.U, for treatment sector.
-Unit -11
Treatment of summer diesel, Solar, and getting rid of S,N2,
AND
O2 impurities .
-Unit -19
Treatment of "STABILIZED GASOLINE", in order to be the
feed for
Isomerization units.

UNIT-20 PRETREATMENT UNIT

Introduction:
The main purpose of this unit is the pre-treating of Heavy
Naphtha for Unit -21, in which there are some special conditions
must be available for Heavy Naphtha before treatment in Unit -21.
Pretreatment of H.N for the Catalyst in U-21
*******************************************************
Heavy Naphtha coming from the main tower OVHD in
distillation unit must be treated in unit -20 from some impurities ,
in which Units -21 (reformer unit ) can increase the octane
number of H.N in order to be used as a fuel for vehicles with high
Octane number (80-90 ), and high vapor pressure for better
quality of ignition in the engine .
Unit -20 (pretreatment unit ) works on the removal of Sulphur
(S) Nitrogen (N2), and Oxygen (O2 )by the injection of Hydrogen
gas (H2 ), in which these components are very harmful for
pipelines and all equipments , as they are converted into acidic
gases , which cause severe corrosion .
H2 + S
H2+N2
H2 +O2

H2S
NH3
H2O

Sulphur components are one of the most dangerous

components, in which it is converted into Sulphuric acid (H2SO4
), which is considered one of the strongest corrosive acids .
That's why we must get rid of it or reduce its percent as much as
we can, in which H.N (Heavy Naphtha) enters Units -21
(Reformer unit) by a maximum percent for Sulphur components of
(0.5 .ppm)
Some other salts like Potassium (K), Magnesium (Mg), and
Sodium
(Na) must be separated. Also some undesirable metals like

Copper (Cu), Iron (Fe), and Zinc (Zn), are precipitated at low
temperatures
For applying the pervious treatments, there must be
available:
**************************************************************************
**
- High Temperature (366 0C)
-High pressure (42 .8 kg/cm 2)
- Hydrogen injection (75 m3/hr)
- Catalyst in reactor (Cobalt (Co), and Molybdenum (Mo))
-Treatment procedure
***************************
Heavy Naphtha enters as a feed for Unit-20 and passes with
a drum (20D-1) with the same time of injection an absorber gas,
in which all undesirable (C3) gases are separated from Heavy
Naphtha in the drum and goes out from flare.
After that, Heavy Naphtha is pumped by the feed pump (20p-5
) and passes by a number of heat exchangers (20EIB,C,D,E)shell , in order to be preheated from (670C) to (3160C)
for getting ready for entering the heater at about (3160C) .In mean
time , Heavy Naphtha passes by a flow control valve (FCV)
before entering the reactor, an that for adjusting the quantity of
both Hydrogen gas & Naphtha that enter the reactor .

The range of feed flow is:

-1800 m3/day for Hydrogen (H2).
- 2100m3/day for Heavy Naphtha
On reaching the temperature (366 0 C ) after heating in heater

(20H-1) , and pressure of (47.8kg/cm2) Hydrogen (H2) flows

inside the reactor, in the presence of the catalyst (Co/Mo) , the
removal of impurities reactions, undergo
When the reactions cycle ends , H.N passes by the heat
exchangers (20E-1B,C,D,E) / tubes, in order to be cooled to
about (116oC) and then to water cooler then to " High pressure
Separator ,H.P.S" (20D-2) ,in which all acidic gases like :
Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S) , Ammonia (NH3), AND Water vapor
(H2o) are separated , same for Fuel Gases .
By passing treated Heavy Naphtha on a number of heat
exchangers (20E-7), and entering the splitter column , treated
H.N is separated and produced from the tower bottom , then
pumped heat exchangers again for cooling , in which enters as
Reformer unit feed (Unit-21 ) , at about
A pressure of (27.6 kg/cm2) and temperature of (750c), where its
normal octane number before reformer unit is: 56
Beside the production of treated Heavy Naphtha, some side
products are produced from the stripper column OVHD, they are:
-Hydrogen rich gas (H2) to unit -11
- Stripper OVHD vapor to unit -22
- Stripper OVHD liquid to absorber DEETHANIZER (22C-2)
- F.G from High pressure Separator (HPS)

UNIT 21-REFORMER UNIT

Introduction:
The main purpose of this unit is to increase the octane number
(56 90-920) of Heavy Naphtha
Theory of Reforming
The feed of this unit comes from unit -20 (pretreatment unit),
which is treated Heavy Naphtha (free from impurities, and S
(Sulphur) < 0.5 ppm)
The theory of increasing the Octane number depends on
converting straight chains of n-paraffins into branched chains of
iso-paraffins .And that undergoes inside the three reactors ,
contained in the reformer unit (Unit -21 ), consecutively .
Ex: Feed is:
-Paraffins
-Aromatics
-Iso-paraffins
Reaction Direction (Octane number increase)
-c-c-c-c-c-c-c-c

octane number .65 (max )

-c-c-c-c
C
CH

Octane number .83 (max)

Octane number .90

Octane number .100

The three reactors are:
Every reactor has its own role of reactions (percent). Where the

reactions that undergo inside the 3 reactors are:

- Reaction of Dehydrogenation
- Reaction of cracking /isomerization.
- Reaction of cyclization, the reactions are distributed
As follows:
R1: 60 % of reactions are dehydrogenation
40% of reactions are isomerization & cyclization.
R2: 60 % isomerization/cracking
40% dehydrogenation & cyclization
R3: 60% cyclization (increasing octane number)
40 % dehydrogenation & isomerization

Catalyst of Unit -21 (Reformer unit)

************************************************
The catalyst used in Unit -21, consists of two components:
- Metallic components (platinum / Rhenium, which gives more
Stability for reaction)
- Acidic component (Hydrochloric acid, HC1)
Factors affecting the efficiency of reactions in the reactors:
1-Temperature;
In which it must not exceed the specified range in order
not to make "CRACK EFFECT" that results in the precipitation of
Carbon (c) on the pores of the catalyst's deactivation.
2- Pressure
3-Mole ratio : (ex: Benzene: Hydrocarbons)
1
: 5
Benzene: Hydrogen

* Amount of Hydrogen
Rate of reaction
Due to the precipitation of Carbon on the catalyst's surface, the
following may occur:
-Octane number decrease
-Amount of gases, increases from V.R.U
-Purity of product decreases.
Regeneration of the catalyst:
***********************************
For getting rid of precipitated Carbon on catalyst's surface ,
Oxygen gas (O2) is added until all Carbon inside is reacted with
it, and completely converted into Carbon Dioxide gas (co2), in
which Nitrogen in air takes place instead of it . On the starting of
the reactor, Hydrogen enters instead of Nitrogen, which resulted
from burning of Carbon.
C+O2
CO2
The following reaction undergoes under high temperature (400455 0c)
Beside, the reactor must not be opened until the complete
release / burning of Carbon, in order not to explode.
It is advised that, that catalyst undergoes regeneration within
15-20 months, while it is completely changed every7-8 years of
operation.
Reforming procedure:
***************************
The reformer feed from Unit -20 (pretreatment Unit) enters
the pipelines of Unit-21 (Reformer Unit) at temperature of (75 0C),
and pressure of (27.6kg/cm2). It enters the heat exchangers
(21E-1A, B, C, D, E) shell, in order to be heated to (410oC), and
then to the heater to reach a temperature of (5230C). After that, it
passes by the three reactors (21R-1, 21R-2, and 21R-3)
respectively, in which the stated reactions take place in each
reactor. In mean time, the feed is refluxed with the heater after
both 1st and 2nd reactors.

After the 3rd reactor at temperature of (492 OC) , the feed is

heat exchanged in the heat exchanged in the exchangers (21E1A,B,C,D,E) /tubes , then the feed is air-cooled , then water
cooled to enter the gases ; scrubber , in which any produced
gases are separated from its OVHD . The scrubber bottom is
preheated (107 185 0C) in shell of H.E (21E-5A) to enter a
stripper column , where its bottom is cooled by passing in H.E
(21E-5A,D)/tubes, then air & water cooled (21E-11,21E-12 ) to
have at the end , the reformat product with a temperature of (40
0c) and pressure of (7kg/cm2), with normal octane (90-92 ) ,
which can be increased by adding a percent of MTBE (Methyl
Tertiary Butyl Ether ) Aromatic compound .
The OVHD product of the stripper column is water
cooled from (80 400C) and then enters a drum (21D-3) for
the separation of gases and liquids , in which both go to unit
-22 tower (22C-2) as recycled .

UNIT 22- VAPOR RECOVERY UNIT, V.R.U

Introduction
:
The vapor recovery unit is capable to produce the
following products:
-Dry gases
-Propane gas
-Butane gas
-Light Naphtha
*The amounts produced, depends on the kind of feed entering
the unit, and the kind of reactions in Unit -21.
This unit is fed from the following sources:
1- Liquids and gases from the drum (20D-3) , " splitter column
OVHD
(20C-2) .Unit -20
2- Liquids and gases from the drum (21D-3 ), "Stabilizer OVHD
(21C-1)..Unit -21.
In this unit there are four towers (columns), and their
names are:
************************************************************************
******
1- (C3+) compounds, absorbing column, from dry gases... (22C1)
2- (C2-) compounds, eraser column ..(22C-2)
3- Propane producer column (22C-3)
4- Butane producer column . (22c-4)

Theory and bases of operation:

**************************************
The feed starts by entering the column (22C-2), in which
the column does the following:
1- Produce a bottom product free from (C2) (1% volume as
maximum)
2- produce an OVHD product; dry gases free from (C3+ ) , (1%
volume as maximum ), the column (22C-1) works on catching
(C3+) gases, that escapes with the column(22C-2) OVHD, and
that by using an " absorber liquid , (a part of the column (20C2) bottom product is used for that purpose), while dry gases
free from (C3+) ,are produced from the column (22C-1)VOHD.
The bottom of the column (22C-2) ,goes as a feed to the
column (22C-3)for having "Propane " as an OVHD product ,while
the bottom product goes to the column (22C-4)for having "Butane
, L.P.G" as OVHD product, and Light Naphtha as bottom product .
Separation techniques in Unit -22 (VRU), undergoes by two
theories:
1st theory:
'' Separation by using absorption method, ex: (22c-1)
column".
2nd theory:
"Separation by using the distillation refining method, ex:
(22C-4) column
In the column (22C-2), both theories are applied .From both
theories, a group of compounds can be separated from each
other
The 1st theory depends on the using of the difference in
dissolving of different compounds ' property with respect to the

absorption liquid used .while the 2nd theory depends on the use
of the volatility of products.
And on the following, the two theories are classified:
-Separation process by absorption:
It is done by the meeting of the absorption liquid with a
group of gases, in which a gas or more dissolves in that liquid
giving its solution in the absorption liquid, EX: the meeting of
the absorption liquid coming from the top of the upper tray (tray
# 10) with the elevating gases coming from under the 1st tray in
(22C-1) column.
-Separation process by the distillation refining:
It undergoes by using a heater as re-boiler (22E-1, 4, 6),
which, by them, different compounds are separated due to the
difference in volatility.
The more volatile compounds are concentrated in the
vapor medium , while the less volatile compounds are
concentrated in the liquid medium .By the repetition of this
process, more pure compounds of are produced .
And this operation undergoes on each tray of distillation
towers, in which a partial condensation for elevating vapors
from down part, undergoes. While a partial evaporation for
descending liquids from upper part occurs, in which there are
heat and materialistic exchange between liquid and vapors
Entrance of columns "feed zones:
1- Column (22C-1)
-Gases of column (22C-2) OVHD to under the tray #
1
-Absorption liquid from column (20C-2) to over the
tray #
10
2- Column (22C-2)

- Gases &Liquids of units 20 and 21 on tray # 15

-Inner returned zone: * Upper zone, tray # 31
* Lower zone, tray # 33
-OVHD feed to over the tray # 42
3- Column (22C-3)
-The feed entrance to the column to the tray # 26
-The returned to the column to over the tray # 40
4- Column (22C-4)
-The feed entrance to the column to the tray # 15
-The returned to the column, over the tray # 30

UNIT 11 S.S.K TREATING UNIT

Introduction:
The main purpose of this unit is the treating of: Solar
(used for heavy vehicles), Kerosene (ovens), and summer
diesel (used in army purposes and tanks). Another aim of
this unit, is improving Sulphur percentage found in feed,
beside the improving of product's quality.
1 Sulphur removal
Sulphur can be removed by the addition of Hydrogen, in
which it is converted to Hydrogen Sulphide gas (H2S), then
separated from liquids by means of: "High Pressure
Separator, HPS", in the shape of gases.

H-C-C-H
|| ||
H-C-C-H
\ /
S

H H H H
|
| | |
+ 4 H H --------- H--C--C--C--C-H + H - S H

2 Saturation of unsaturated Hydrocarbons

In which, unsaturated Hydrocarbons are converted saturated
Hydrocarbons, by Hydrogen.

H
H

H
H
\ / `
C
/ \
C CH
|
||
+ H H -----------
C CH
\ /
C
/ \
H H

HH
\ /
C
H /
\ H
C
C
H
H
H
H
C
C
H \ / H
C
/ \
H H

Nitrogen removal
Nitrogen compounds are converted into saturated
Hydrocarbons compounds. Ammonia (NH3) gas and
Ammonia salts are produced from the reaction:
H
|
C
// \
HC
C H
|
||
+ 5 H2 ------ CH3 (CH2)3 CH3 +
NH3
HC
C H
\\
/
N
Unit points of view
1 At higher reaction conditions (Temperature &
Pressure), some other undesirable side-reactions
occur, such as "Cracking reactions". From which
Carbon is precipitated on the surface of the catalyst at a
temperature reaching (400 C) inside the reactor.
1 At a temperature range (380 400 C), "Cracking

reaction" occur, that leads of "low billing range

compounds", than that found in feed.
1 Mercaptan compounds found in the feed have more
"boiling rang" tan that of produced Parafins from
reactions, and that means, produced compounds during
the reaction are more volatile.
1 Most of metals found in feed, undergo the reaction and
precipitate on the surface of the catalyst, and the
previous reactions consume Hydrogen, in which the
rate of conversion increases by the increase of
Hydrogen concentration, used during the reaction.
Hydrogen Consumption
The amount of necessary Hydrogen consumed for the
decreasing of:" Propane number ", with a standard rate of 1
% is (6 8 Ft3) / feed barrel).
The amount of consumed Hydrogen for the decreasing of
Sulphur found in feed by the rate of 1 % is (50 100 Ft3) /
feed barrel) or (8.4 17 m3 Hydrogen / m 3 feed).
Amount of Hydrogen consumed for side reactions due to
presence of Oxygen and Nitrogen compounds is (4.2 17
m3) Hydrogen / m3 feed).
The estimated total amount of excess Hydrogen is about
(34 m3 feed)
Hydrogen reactions are "Exothermic reactions", in which
amount of temperature generated due to the shortage of
Sulphur by a rate of 1 &, reaches (4 kcal / kg). Also an
amount of temperature is estimated to (2 kcal / kg) on the
saturation of "Olefins".

High pressure is required during the previous reactions ,

where heavy distillate need higher conditions (Temperature
& Pressure). That means, as EX: Solar needs higher
conditions than Kerosene.
Catalyst for Unit-11
The catalyst used for the treatment of (Solar, Kerosene, and
summer diesel) in Unit-11 is from type (U.O.P Hydrogen 5-7)
or (U.O.P Hydrogen 5-6). The one found in the reactor (11R1) is from the type (U.O.P hydrogen 5-7).
The catalyst found, is in the shape of balls of diameter (1/16
inch, 21.6 mm of each ball contains Cobalt Oxide (CoO), and
Molybdenum Oxide (Mo2O3), loaded on Aluminum Oxide
(Al2O3).
During previous reactions, the present oxides are
converted, in the presence of the catalyst, into Sulphides,
which can be converted again into oxides again during the
activation of the catalyst.
The catalyst (U.O.P Hydrogen 5-7) is activated by using
"Nitrogen" as a revolving gas, and that is in the presence of
"Oxygen". While the catalyst (U.O.P Hydrogen 5-6) is
activated by using steam and air.
The carbon precipitated after the reaction can be got rid of
it, by using Nitrogen as a revolving gas at high temperature,
in the presence of Oxygen. And that undergoes during the
activation of the catalyst.
Life of the catalyst is about (60 feed barrels / Ton catalyst)
or (18 ton feed / kg catalyst). Also the hydrogen purity during
reactions must not be less than (70% by volume).

By time, for the continuous operations, the activity of the

catalyst decreases as a result of the precipitation of Carbon
on the surface of the catalyst. And from the special signs
that show the decreasing of the catalyst's activity, is that the
reactor's outlet (products) is of dark color (brownie).
When the percentage of Carbon precipitated on the
catalyst, reaches an excess range, then t will affects the
pressure difference between the inlet and the outlet of the
reactor, also , it will affects the specifications of the produced
(Solar, Summer diesel, and Kerosene. So in such case, the
catalyst must be reactivated.
There are some other materials other than Carbon, leads
to te deactivation of the catalyst such as: Lead (Pb), Zinc
(Zn), which both are found in feed. Therefore a sample from
the feed must be taken, to analyze the percentage of both
Lead and Zinc.
On the following some information on the efficiency of the
unit, the properties of Kerosene after treatment (as
example):
The efficiency of the unit is estimated to be about;
- 2100 Ton / day kerosene.
- 2300 Ton / day Solar.
Properties of fed Kerosene:
- Specific weight at 60/60 F : 0.825
- Boiling range : 150 300 C
- Sulphur % by wt.: 0.363
- Smoke point : 23 C
- Inflammation point: 114 F
- Color: +4

Chemical used in Unit-11

* Ammonia
a) If in gaseous state.
- Chemical formula: NH3
- Molecular weight: 17
Physical properties:
1 Colorless gas, if dry.
2 Reacts with humid air to give a fog effect (mist).
3 Lighter than air.
4 Converted to liquid under cooling and pressure, or
under pressure only.
b) If in liquid state
- Chemical name: Ammonium Hydroxide solution
(water solution)
- Chemical formula: NH4OH
- Molecular weight: 35
- Specific weight: 0.9101 0.9164
- Concentration: 23 25 % by wt (Ammonia)

UNIT 19 PRETREATMENT OF ST. GASOLINE

Introduction:
The purposes of establishing this unit is:
1 Preparing the required feed for isomerization units.
2 The availability of the feed quantity for Reformer
units, (bottom of tower to B-12 Unit -20)
3 Saving the consumption of "Lead", (Tetra Ethyl Lead,
T.E.L), which is harmful for public health and leads to
Environmental pollution.
* Feed of Unit 19
The feed of Unit 19, is "Stabilized Gasoline, St.G."
produced from the bottom of column (22C-4) in V.R.U. and
all (V.R.U) units in company, beside the produced from
distillation units.
* Theory of operation
Theory of operation for Unit 19 depends on the natural
separation process of the feed's components, where this
process undergoes in tower (19C-1) of Unit 19.
Separation process is done as follows:
1 Separation each of C5, C6, and compounds of lower
densities from the top of the tower (19C-1), [Feed of
Isomerisation units].
2 Separation of C7 and compounds of higher densities
from the bottom of the tower (19C-1), [Reformer Units,
20 and 21].
* Simple description for Unit - 19
Unit 19 is divided into three main zones:

I
II
III
I

Feed zone.
Splitter column zone.
Heater zone.

Feed Zone, consists of the following equipments:

- Feed steam Heat exchanger (19E-0).
- Feed drum (19D-1)
- Booster feed pump (19P-0A, S)
- Feed / Bottom Heat exchanger (19E-1A)

* Operation conditions control, (General types of control):

- Feed drum (19D-1) temperature, the temperature of the
drum is controlled at a temperature of (73C), by means of a
"Temperature Control Valve, TCV" (19TCV.2), which
controls the amount of saturated steam on heat exchanger
(19E-0)
- Feed drum (19D-1) pressure, the pressure of the drum is
controlled at a pressure of (1.5 kg/cm2), by means of a
"Pressure Control Valve, PCV" (19PCV-1A,B) as follows:
1- In case of the increase of (19D-1) pressure over (1.5
kg/cm2), the PCV (19PCV-1A) works on the conjugation of
excess pressure of the flame or to the quench drum.
2- In case of the decrease of (19D-1) pressure under (1.5
kg/cm2), the PCV (19PCV-1A) works on the compensation of
the pressure from the drum's gases (21D-3) line or rom the
drum's gases line of "Fuel Gases".
- Feed drum level; the level of feed in the drum (19D-1) is
controlled by the "Level Control Valve, LCV" (19LCV-1),
which is found on the feed line of the unit.

- Feed path control; the control (19XV-1) works on

converting the feed path to Gasoline containers (depository),
instead of entering the unit, and that in case of any
obligatory shut down.

* In case of the presence of any water traces with the feed, it

is collected in the bottom of the drum (19d-1), in which it is
conjugated periodically.
II- Splitter column zone,
It consists of the following equipments:
- Splitter column (19C-1) [consists of 20 trays].
- OVHD drum (19D-2)
- OVHD vapor condensers.
- OVHD product Cooler (19E-3)
- Bottom product cooler (19E-4)
- OVHD product and Reflux pump (19P-2A,S)
- Bottom product pump (19P-3A,S)
III- Heater zone,
It consists of the following equipment:
- Re-boiler feed pump (19P-4A,S)
- Column bottom re-boiler (19H-1)
* Operation process:
1- A part of the collected liquid in the column bottom is
pumped by the pump (19P-4A,S) to the column bottom
heater (19H-1) in which a part of it is vaporized by raising its
temperature from (141 145 C).

2- Vapor and liquid mixture goes back from the heater (19H1) to the column under the tray # 30 (last tray).

Chapter three
ISOMERIZATION UNITS
Introduction:
* What is Isomerization?
This is a process deigned to induce a rearrangement of
atoms within a particular molecule. In the petroleum field it is
commonly applied to the conversion of normal paraffin to the
iso-paraffin.
Therefore, for the purpose of the conservation of the
environment safety, the isomerization units were
established. It aims to produce (330,000 ton / year) of high
octane and unleaded Gasoline, by the use of developed
technology. In which the verified octane number during tests
in 84 , while the designed on , number was 83.2 .

The Isomerization unit is divided into two consecutive units:

- Unit 29 (Pretreatment unit, with Hydrogen)
- Unit 30 (Penex unit; isomerization unit).

UNIT 29 PRETREATMENT UNIT WITH H2

Introduction:
This unit aims to the treatment of Light Naphtha from
metallic impurities as: Lead (Pb), Iron (Fe), Zinc (Zn), and
Copper (Cu). And converting Sulpurated (S), Oxygenated
(O2), and Nitrogenated (N2) organic compounds, in the
presence of Hydrogen (H2), into easy separated compounds
as: Hydrogen Sulphide gas (H2S), Water vapor (H2O), and
Ammonia gas (NH3). That conversion occurs by using the
catalyst (UOP, N-108), [Mo, and Co as main constituents], in
order to have Hydro-treated Naphtha, free from impurities
and harmful compounds that affects the Platinum catalyst
badly, which is considered to be the base and foundation of
operating in the "Penex unit" , (Isomerization unit).
* Feed for Unit 29
The feed for unit 29 (Pretreatment unit), is Light
Naphtha (C5, C6, and traces of C7+ [2%] Sulphur (S) entering:
3 ppm.
* Catalyst used for Unit 29:
The catalyst used in this unit is (UOP, N-108), which
contains Molybdenum (Mo) and Cobalt (Co) as main
constituents; it can be reactivated every two years, cheap
compared to the catalyst of "Penex unit", (Unit 30,
isomerization unit).
During the operation of the unit there must be Sulphur
injection in the pipe lines, it is injected with feed by specific
amounts by the rate of (15 20 ppm). In the state of "Di
Methyl, Di sulphide" , [DMDS], and that in order to keep for

the specified percentage of Sulphur found in the catalyst.

In case of lack of injection of Sulphur, the catalyst will be
de-activated.
Ex: Sulphur removal
P: 25.8 kg/cm2
S C C S + H2

H C C H + H2S
T= 325 C

Exothermic reaction

* Hydrogen gas must be available during reaction for the

catalyst in the reactor, and that for the catalyst's protection,
in order not to be precipitated on the surface of the catalyst,
which leads to the increasing of ( P), beside the feed
specifications starts in change.
* Unit equipments:
Unit 29 consists of:
Naphtha pumps
Heat exchangers
Heaters, works with fuel gases (F.O)
Rector
Molecular sieves (absorbs the excess
quantity of Sulphur (S 0.5 ppm).
- Splitter column
- Chemicals and water injection systems
-

* Unit Procedure:
The feed enters the unit into the "feed surge drum" (29D1), for the separation of any sour water (complete drying).
The feed is pumped to the heater (29H-1), after the
injection of DMDS (Di- Methyl Di-Sulphide), and the passing

by the heat exchangers (29E-1A-G)/ shell, in order to heat

the mixture of Naphtha and gas rich with Hydrogen, to a
temperature of (340 C), and pressure of (28 Kg / cm2), and
that for the leveling of entering the reactor (29R-1) at (343
C), which contains the catalyst (UOP, N-108).
After the reactions occur, and Naphtha is free from
impurities, Naphtha passes by heat exchangers (29E-1 AG)/ tube, then air cooled, then enters the separator (29D-2)
after the injection of water and makeup Hydrogen (coming
from Reformer unit).
And that "separator", is to separate any acidic gases and
sour water in Naphtha, produced as the result of the
reactions occurred.
Treated Naphtha is heat exchanged in Heat exchangers
/ shell, and then the feed specifications are configured /
adjusted (specific gravity- I.B.P F.B.P), in the splitter
column (29C-1).
In which the splitter column OVHD is a gas product,
which is separated from any sour water in the drum (29D-4),
and the pure gases go as Fuel gases (F.O). While the
bottom at a temperature of ( 157 0c) , is heat exchanged to
reach (127 0C) , in order to pass by the "Molecular Sieves"
(29D-5) , which its main constituent is Nickel (Ni ) , which
absorbs the excess quantity of Sulphur and decrease its
percent to be less than (0.5 ppm ) , before its enters the
isomerization unit (Unit -30)
The Hydro treated Naphtha is cooled by air (29 AC-3) and
water (29CW-2) coolers, in order to be ready as a feed for
"penex unit (Unit -30)

Unit 30-ISOMERIZATION UNIT (PENEX)

Introduction:
This important unit aims to the improvement of "Octane
Number " for Naphtha without the addition of "Tetra Ethy1
Lead ,T.E.L", which is considered to be very harmful to the
environment and human being for the poisonous component
Lead (pb ). And this improvement undergoes by converting
paraffins of straight chains into paraffins of branched chain
(Isomer), in the presence of Hydrogen and "Chlorine " in the
shape of per Chloro Ethylene (C2CL4) , in order to keep the
specified percent of Chlorine in the platinum catalyst
(UOP,1-8)used for this unit in the reactor , and which must
be completely changed within 2 years of operation . This
isomerization unit can also produce some V.R.U products:
Propane, Butane (L.P.G) that beside cars 'fuel of high octane
number (Gasoline).
The Unit feed:
The feed of this unit is the hydro-treated Naphtha (Outlet
of Unit -29)
Operation equipments:
The isomerization unit (Penex) consists of driers for
Naphtha, and gas rich of Hydrogen. Also it consists of two
reactors work consecutively, both containing the platinum
catalyst .And heat exchangers heaters; operated with fuel
gas, stabilizer .Washing column gases with Caustic Soda
(NaOH ) and Water (H2O), and chemicals injection system .
Isomerization unit, operation procedure:

The (C5,C6) Light Naphtha charge from Unit-29 (29C-1bott),

enters the penex unit and passes as a 1st stage by a drier
(30DR-2A ,B )to get rid of any water traces with the Naphtha.
Light Naphtha is pumped by feed pumps (30P-1A,B) from
the drums (30D-1A,B), which controls the flow of the
Naphtha feed to the heater (30H-1) , but that after the
injection of " Makeup Hydrogen " ( from Unit -20 ), which by
the drum (30D-7) to get rid of any oil traces that is harmful
for the catalyst and then a "Dier" (30DR-1A,B ) to get rid of
any humidity in Hydrogen injected .
After the injection of Hydrogen in the pipe line , the
mixture of (H2) and Naphtha , passes by a number of heat
exchangers for raising temperature from (38- 111 0C) ,
Chloride injection (Per Chloro Ethylene , C2CL4 ) from drum
(D-2) , takes place after heat exchanging .
The mixture of Naphtha , Hydrogen , and Chloride
(C2CL4), enters the heater at a temperature of (111 0C) and
heated about (139 0C) , in which it is ready to undergo
reactions inside the 2 reactors A and B (30 R-1A, B) , where
70 % of the reaction undergoes in the reactor (A ), then 30 %
in reactor (B), respectively .
After the reactions are complete, the feed mixture enters
the stabilizer that separates gases from liquids. Where the
bottom of the stabilizer , passes by air-cooler (30AC-2 ) ,then
water cooler (30CW-2) , in order to go out as an "Isomerate
" product (to storage ) of Octane number (~ 84.5 ) and vapor
pressure (V.P:3 Kg/cm 2)
Where as , the OVHD product of the Stabilizer , passes
by air cooler (30AC-1) and water cooler (30CW-1) , to
enter the drum ( 30D-3) , in which the liquid separated ,
enters the "Net-Gas Scrubber " , which purify the gases ( C3,

C4 , Hydrogen (5 12 % )) , going to Unit -22 (V.R.U) , by

Caustic Soda (NaOH ) ,
And that to get rid of any Hydrochloric acid (HCI, vapor)
produced during the reaction inside the reactor, in the
presence of Hydrogen gas. Which will cause severe
corrosion when found

H2 +
CI (g)
Corrosive
NaOH + HCI (g)

HCL (g) - - NaCL + H2O ------

Curing

After the purification process is done in "Net- Gas

scrubber" the OVHD goes out as a gas product to V.R.U
(C3, C4, Hydrogen) while the bottom is recycled as "Spent
Caustic), which goes to "Caustic De-gazing Drum ".
*To obtain the " Gasoline " used in our life as fuel for cars
of Octane number (80/90) and vapor pressure (V.P): 12 ~14
Kg/cm2, a mixture of certain and calculated percent is taken
from both of Isomerization unit (Penex unit, Isomerate
product)and the Re- format product from (Unit -21 ) and by
the addition of a specific percent of MTBE ( Methyl Tertiary
Butyl Ether ), (Increases the Octane number ).
From which we can have a Gasoline product "of Octane
number (80 or 90) and V.P (Vapor pressure) 12 ~ 14 Kg
/cm2 , which can be used in gas stations as cars "fuel .

Chapter Four
LABS AND QUALITY CONTROL

Introduction:
For the aim of producing a product of high quality for best
marketing, some tests must be applied for both crude oil and
products to adjust any kind of defects. That's why; any faults
must be controlled before production, and sometimes after
production.

The importance of analyzing crude oil samples

and oil products:
a) Quality control and products laboratory:
1- Water percentage in crude oil:
This test undergo, for the determination of water
percentage in crude oil and that because Water is considered
to be one of the undesirable impurities , as it effects the
refining processes and leads to overflow in distillation towers
(Volume of 1 unit of water represents 1700 units of its VAPOR
), and that overflow results in the irregularity in the distillates .
Beside on the increase of water percentage, dissolved salts will
increase. Which leads to the corrosion of equipments.
2- Salts percentage in crude oil:
This test undergoes for determination the percentage of
dissolved salts in crude oil, which results from the contact
between crude oil and ground water in the Earth's interior or
seawater .Salts are usually found in the form of Chlorides that
is undesirable, as it results in the blockage of pipelines,
especially Heat exchangers, and that also leads to the
corrosion of

3- Specific weight (Usually measured at temperature of

60/60 0F)
Definition: is the weight of a specific volume from the
petroleum material at temperature of (60 0 F), over the weight
of the same volume of water at the same temperature. When
the density of water equals (1gm /1), then the specific weight
for the petroleum material is equal its density.
The specific weight is considered to be simple and fast
way for determining the product's type. It is used also the
transfer, negotiation, and storage processes for the calculation
of weights and volumes.
Specific weight differs by the difference of the product type
; ex : for liquefied gases , specific weight is in the range ( 0.5058 ), while for liquids it is ( 0.60-0.75 ) ,and it reaches (0.95 )
in heavy products .
4- Distillation test:
This test is similar to distillation processes that undergo in
distillation towers, and that test is to determine the boiling
range of the sample .in which, the "Initial Boiling Point, I.B.P",
is taken and the thermometer reading is recorded on the 1st
liquid droplet condensed from the sample in the glass cylinder.
Also, the "Final Boiling point, F.B.P "is recorded, which is
the highest temperature during the test.
The distillation test gives an indicator on products ' type, its
range of vaporization, and its tendency of volatility during
storage process.

The apparatus used for that test is "DISTEL-GECTL ".

5-Flash point:
It is the lowest temperature, at which the sample's vapors
flashes then extinguished. And that happens on approaching
direct flame to the sample's vapors. It must be regarded that
negotiation and storage of products must be in a temperature
less than flash point.
6-Inflammation point:
This test determines the inflammation point for petroleum
products as: Kerosene and Solar.
Inflammation point is defined as: the lowest temperature,
where the sample's vapor flames.
7- Vapor pressure:
This test undergoes for products as: Butane gas (Butagas,
L.P.G), Gasoline and also on petroleum crude which can
volatilize easily at low temperatures.
This test is important for the fuel of "Internal Combustion
Engine", because it gives the indication of easy engine starting
at the beginning of starting. For crude oil, it gives the indication
on the pressure exerted (arising) during refining process and
lost vapor during storage process.
8- Liquidity or Viscosity:

This test is done for fuel Oil (furnaces 'fuel). In which it is

the calculation of flowing time of a volume from sample through
a specific hole at specific temperature. And that test gives the
indication of ease flow of furnaces 'fuel through operation pipes
without any blockage in them.

9- Freezing point:
It is the temperature, at which the product is freezed. This
test undergoes for products like: Turbine, Solar, Summer
Diesel, and Mazot, that in order not to result in any storage,
transferring, and negotiating problems.
10- Pour point:
This test undergoes on jets (airplanes) fuel, to determine
the temperature at which the fuel starts the formation of
crystals that results from cooling because airplanes are
exposed to low temperatures in upper layers of atmosphere.
11- Corrosion test by using a copper tape:
Is done to recognize the presence of Hydrogen sulphide
(H2S) and Sulphur compounds that leads to the corrosion and
pollution of the Environment by Sulphur gases, which results
during burning process.
12- Smoke point:
It is applied on Kerosene samples, in which the flame
length is measured without smoke and that indicates the
presence of perfumery materials beside, the quality of product

in using it in lighting.
13- Octane number for Gasoline:
For Gasoline, these must be suitable specifications for
ignition, in order not result in early knocking or inflammation in
the internal combustion engine.
The Octane number is defined as: It is volumetric
percentage for a mixture of "iso octane ", and n- heptanes,
which gives the same knocking resistance like sample under
test. The increase of Octane number indicates better quality.
It was dealed that Octane number for "iso-octane" is 100,
while for "n-heptanes" is 0 (zero).
The Egyptian standard specified Octane number for
normal Gasoline is (80), while for excellent Gasoline is (90)
14- Deducing the amount of Mercaptan in Butane gas
sample (L.P.G)
a) For making a blank (as a standard)
-Titration of Ammonium Thiocyanate (25ml) with Silver
-Nitrate (AgNo3) (25ml)
-Indicator used: Ferric Alum (2 drops)
-An onion color will be precipitated
blank
b) Butane gas passes by several steps:
-Water bath (cooling)
-Cadmium Sulphide scrubber (absorbs H2S)
-Sliver Nitrate scrubber (absorbs all Mercaptan found
in the
(25ml) sample)
-Gas meter (used for determining amount of gas
consumed in
Liters)
* After taking the reading of Gas meter (~ 6L), Silver
Nitrate undergoes titration again with Ammonium Thiocyanate

till we have the same color of the 1st titration (onion color), in
which we have two titrations (2 precipitates)
- With Mercaptan
- Mercaptan free
c) Multiplying the difference between the two volumes of
the two titrations in the following factors, in which the
product is the amount of Mercaptan (ppm) in the sample
as follow:
Difference x 640
factor )
Density of Butane gas
(min: 6L)

2.38

x 6.5

(constant
(liters

15- "Burrell / Orthet " for determination Hydrogen

percentage in Naphtha
Before determining the percentage of Hydrogen in
Naphtha, the following undergoes:
-Separation of Hydrogen (H2) by hot copper oxide
(CuO at400OC)
-Potassium Hydroxide, KOH (absorbs acidic gases;
H2S)
-Byron Gallo acid (Oxygen absorber)
-Copper (II) Chloride, CuCl2 (absorbing CO2 and
remove
S)
16- "Totter" for determining the percentage of H2S in
hydrogen.
It contains:
-Starch
-Iodine (as indicator):

1- Low concentration for low % of H2S

2- High concentration for high % of H2S
On passing hydrogen, Starch is changed from turbid
white color into dark blue in the presence of iodine. The
amount of iodine used to change for dark blue color is
multiplied in a certain factor for iodine, in order to determine the
amount of H2S in Hydrogen.
On passing hydrogen, Starch is changed from turbid white
color into dark blue in the presence of iodine . The amount of
iodine used to change for dark blue is multiplied in a certain
factor for iodine, in order to determine the amount of H2S in
Hydrogen.
17- " Shelling ", determining the density of sample:
Is the determining the density of samples by dividing the
square of time displacement for sample in "Shelling" cylinder,
by the squaring of time displacement of air in cylinder. The
product is multiplied in the density of air that is (1.2233) to have
the sample's density.
b) Analytical laboratory:
It consists of some equipments / instruments for analyzing
both water and oil.
1- An instrument for measuring the percentage of Sulphur in
the Naphtha sample. It depends in its measuring on the theory
of "Potential difference" between two electrodes, in which
Silver precipitate on Cathode,
While Sulphur precipitate on anode. From which the
percentage of Sulphur can be determined.

2- An instrument for determining the metallic impurities such

as: Copper, iron .In which its percentage is determined in water
& Naphtha.
3- An instrument for determining the amount of oil in water
after using in refining operations , in which we can deduce if it
is heavy polluter or not . That determination undergoes by
infrared radiation.
4- An instrument for determining the percentages of Carbon,
Nitrogen, and Hydrogen in Naphtha sample.
5- An instrument for determining Sulphur and Lead percent
by the using of X-rays
C) Chromatographic analysis Laboratory:
It is a kind of advanced technology for materials '
analysis, which can be applied on all kinds of liquid, gases and
Hydrocarbons, which depends in its measurement on the
colors ' differences, viscosities
The available Chromatography's are:
1- " Varian" for gases
For separation of Hydrogen from Hydrocarbons.
2- Perkin Eliner
For Liquid Hydrocarbons separation, by applying high
temperature, in the presence of Hydrogen and Helium
3- Varian Lowax

For separation of Methyl 1 Tertiary Butyl Ether (MTBE)

4- Gaw Mac
For separation of both MTBE and Hydrocarbons.
5- PIONA analyzer
For the separation of both iso &cyclo:
-Paraffin.
-Iso-paraffin.
-Olefins.
-Naphtense.
- Aromatics.

Chapter Five
WATER TREATMENT AND SUPPLY
Introduction:
Water is considered to be an essential part for refineries,
in which it is used in many purpose especially for cooling
processes besides heating processes.
Water is divided to:
-Soft water (boilers of low pressure)
-Hard water (for heat exchangers)
-Permanent hard water
Water is generally used for many purposes:

- Cooling (water coolers)

-Heating (re-boilers), steam generators
- Heat exchangers
-Process water
-Drinking water
For such uses in industry , water is naturally found in
supplies (rivers , wells , seas , lakes ) but containing some
metallic and non-metallic impurities , beside that , the
presence of undesirable dissolved salts which are both
harmful for pip lines and equipments , as it causes corrosion
and blockage in some equipments .
That's why water must undergo special techniques of
chemical physical treatments.
Treatment process:
The treatment process is divided into four steps:
a) Two pre-clarifiers (pretreatment in pre-clarifier basins)
b) Two clarifiers (clarifying in sedimentation zone)
c) Filtration (eight filters)
d) Softening (six softeners)
a) Pre-clarifiers
For "Cairo oil refining company ", the raw water supply is
"Ismailia canal", which is about 3 km from refineries
Raw water is pumped into pipelines by means of high
pressurizing pumps, to the water reservoirs of capacity
(3400m3/hr). The pressurized water enters the two preclarifiers (rectangular shaped basins of volume 450 m3)
Every pre-clarifier consists of two zones:
-Zig zig zone: in order to increase the flow time of water
in the basin (pre-clarifier)

- Reactions zone; where specific chemicals are added for

water treatment as follow:
1- Hypo chlorite (HOCI): For adjusting the PH value of
water , killing bacteria , fungi , and disinfectants also
precipitating metallic impurities to the bottom of the preclarifier , in which we get rid of this impurities after that .
2- Lime (Ca (OH) 2): it precipitates both of Calcium (Ca) and
magnesium (Mg) salts;
Ca (OH)2 +Ca (HCo3)
CaCo3 + CaO +
H2O
Ca (OH) 2 +Mg (HCO3)
Mg CO3 + Mg O
+H2O
3- Alum (AL2 (SO4)3 k2SO4. 24H2O) (Aluminum
potassium Sulphate):
Order to precipitate any dirt, mud, naturally found
impurities according to the supply
As natural water generally contain the following
compounds:
- Ca (HCO3), Calcium bicarbonate
-Mg (HCO3), Magnesium bicarbonate
-CaCl2, Calcium Chloride
-Mg Cl2, Magnesium Chloride
-Ca SO4, Calcium Sulphate
-MgSO4, Magnesium Sulphate
-Na Cl, Sodium Chloride, beside some ferrous
compounds
All Natural water also contains gases, of which Oxygen and
Carbon dioxide should be especially pointed out as they
cause corrosion for metallic structures
b) Clarifiers (Sedimentation Zone)

After the pre-clarification of water and the addition of

treating chemicals, water flows to the clarification zone
(clarifiers, sedimentation zone)
By clarification is meant the removal of coarse- dispersed
and colloidal impurities from water. Coarse dispersed solids
may be removed from water by sedimentation and filtration.
When clarified by sedimentation , solid particles settle by
gravity on the bottom of the clarifier in which the water under
going clarification is at rest or in low horizontal or upward
motion , Thus , it is only the particles which sink in water that
can be removed from it by sedimentation . Sedimentation
takes a long time requires large capacity settling clarifiers
(two circular basins of volume 600 m3) and cannot ensure
complete removal of coarse- dispersed impurities from water
. That is why sedimentation is never practiced as the only
means of clarification in precipitated makeup water at
electric power stations (as example). The precipitated sludge
at the bottom of the clarifier is separated periodically,
(stripped by means of a centered rotating stripper
c) Filtration process:
Clarified water is pumped with a specific pump (318
Kg/hr) into an intermediate tank, in which water is pumped to
filters for the beginning of filtration process.
Filtration is a process of clarification of water by passing
it through a porous material (ex: sand with different grain
sizes ), which retains coarse impurities on its surface and in
pores .An apparatus used for filtration is called a filter and
the porous material that fills the filter is known as the filtering
a medium or filtering material . Filters used for water
clarification are termed clarifying filters, sometimes referred
to as mechanical filters.
Filtration of water is due to the difference between
pressures at the top of the bed of filtering material and

underneath it. The filtrated water can be used for both

cooling and drinking water.
d) Softening process:
A branch of clarified water in sedimentation zone goes to
softeners after the filtration process, and that for special
uses: water boilers (steam generators), and process water
(heat exchangers).
The previous applications need water of a very high purity
:i.e. : completely free from any dissolved salts (T.D.S= zero )
and that for the prevention of any kind of salts precipitates
on inner walls and bodies of these expensive equipments ,
and which will affects the degree of heat transfer and leads
also for corrosion .
** An additional important stage , that comes after water
treatment , is the boilers , which is used for "Steam
generating ", as it is considered to be a main coefficient in
most refining process especially in distillation towers , for
keeping on its temperature column .

The following picture shows a steam generator station of

capacity (50 ton /hr) S.K.G

Chapter Six

TECHNOLOGY AND DEVELOPMENT

Introduction:
This sector is of a very important job, in which,
by modern and advanced technology, the design of refining
units, equipments undergoes. As these designs are capable
of affecting the products quality.
Purpose of the sector:
The purpose of this sector is designing the equipments
that are found in petroleum refineries by the use of advanced
computer software called: (PRO ), beside some special
and technical calculations.
These equipments are:
-Towers / trays.
-Heat exchangers.
-Heaters.
-H.P.S (High Pressure Separator).
-Drums.
-Reactors.
1. Towers:
Towers (columns) are used for many purposes such as:
-Distillation
- Stripping
-Splitting
-Stabilizing
Types of towers are:
- Atmospheric towers.
-Light ends towers (under pressure).
-Vacuum towers.

Factors affecting the type of tower chosen:

- Type of feed.
- Amount of feed.
- Type of trays.
- Number of trays.
-Type and shape of trays.
-Reflux.
-Boilers and condensers.
TRAYS:
They are a kind of cylindrical plates , of different designs ,
that are fixed one over the other vertically in the tower
(specific distance between each other ), in which they are
the main coefficient in evaporation and condensation
processes , that undergoes inside columns in order to
separate gases (vapors ) from liquid, and thus separation of
products
Types of trays:
-Molecular sieve tray.
-Valve tray.
-Bubble cap tray (better and efficient for separation).
-Ripple tray.
- Perforated tray.

2. Heat exchangers:
Heat exchanger is equipment that is used for exchanging

temperature; it depends in its operation on the process of

"Heat Transfer ", in which it mainly consists of a shell and
looping tubes inside it.
A heat exchanger can do both heating and cooling processes ,
in which the liquid to be heated enters the tube , while the
liquid to be cooled , enters the shell , and all depends on the
temperature of cold liquid used for cooling and hot liquid
used for heating .
And on heat exchanging a crude oil (heated ) with a product (as
example ), then we must put into consideration that more
dirty liquid in tubes , while clean liquid (less dirty ) is in shell ,
that 's because tubes are easily separated and cleaned while
a shell is not
On the following figures , types of heat exchanger are shown ,
and how to select the optimum shell-tube heat exchanger,
which are generally selected based on pressure
temperature requirements , corrosion resistance to the
operating fluid streams ; and economics , based on
anticipated service life versus initial cost
Careful consideration should be given to the selection of tube
material and tube wall- thickness, because heat is
transferred through the wall of a tube.
3. Heaters:
The heater is equipment used for heating by high temperatures
reaches (600 0C).
The heater id divided into two main sections, where feed
tubes path in both:
- Convection zone.

- Radiation zone.
Heaters are operated by "burners ", which are fired by:
- Fuel gas.
- Fuel oil.
- Atomized steam.
Types of burners are:
-Gas fired burners.
-Oil- fired burners.
-Combination oil and gas burners.
-Radiant wall burners.
-Rotor fan burners.
-High- intensity burners.
-Pilot burners.

Chapter Seven

PLANNING AND PRODUCTION

Introduction:
The aim of that sector id divided into two sections:
A) Unit of crude and products ' programs (depositories
/storage containers).
B) Operational economics and programs (quantities
calculations (crude & products).

A) Unit of crude and products ' programs

In this unit, it is responsible on the depositories
(Containers for storage area) for both crude oil and products
As we knew that crude oil, usually comes from the
following regions:
- Suez
- Qarun
- Gaysoum
The crude oil is stored in depositories after it comes from
the previous supplies, in which it is ready for undergoing
refining processes. It is controlled by a valve with a specific
counter to indicate the feed quantity that go out, and it is
pumped into lines going to distillation units, by means of
depository pumps.
The same for products, after their production, they are
pumped again into special depositories, in which each
product has its own serial numbered depository.

Depository average specifications:

- Height: 14-16 m (1cm height contains 9 tons liquid).
- Capacity; 12,000 -14,000 ton.
- Diameter: 10 ft.
There are two types of storage containers:
- Fixed containers; for highly volatile components (ex:
Gasoline Kerosene).
-Floating containers: for lower volatile components.
* The available containers in "Cairo oil refining
company" are:
-Gasoline (Benzene) containers.
-Kerosene containers.
-Turbine containers.
-Solar containers.
- Summer diesel containers.
-Mazot containers.
-Butane gas / L.P.G cuboidal containers.
- MTBE containers.
- Solvents container.
- Residue container (containing impurities & from API, oil
separation basin).
Another main purpose of this unit is adding special additives
for some products as follows:
1- Gasoline colors: in order to differentiate between the two

types
-Red (90 octane)
- Green (80 octane)
2- Ethyl Mercaptan; that is added to Butane gas (L.P.G), for
its strong, disagreeable odor. And as Butane gas is an
odorless product, then a percent of Ethyl 1 Mercaptan must
be added as an indicator for the presence of that suffocating
"L.P.G" gas.

3- Methyl Tertiary Butyl Ether "MTBE"

The Use of Methyl Tertiary butyl Ether

"MTBE ", oin highering the Octane
Number of Benzene (Gasoline)

Introduction:
In international trials in finding an alternative for Benzene
as careful , it was found that Methy1 (Methanol ) or Ethylene
(Ethano1) can be used for the capability f their preparation
from secondary product with how prices or primary materials
more available on the surface of earth and it is expected that
it is storage can be extended after the running out of the
international petroleum oil stand by .But it was found that
Methanol or Ethanol can't be used for mixing with Benzene
in a trial of raising the octane number , which indicates the
quality of the fuel performance in car engines , and that for

the following reasons :

1- These alcohols (Methanol and Ethanol) from mixtures
undergoes as one compound (Azeotropic), with Benzene
compounds...
2- Wight mixing points with water, so the increase of its
loss.
3- The need of entering some adjustments in the material
used in the manufacture of the many types of car engine
found nowadays, also the fuel cycle in it. And that beside to
he regional weathering conditions.
But with continuous re- search, it was attained to the ability
of using some types of organic compounds (under the name
of Ethers), which is Methyl Tertiary Butyl Ethers.
On the following , classification for the properties of
(MTBE) and ways of its preparation , in order to the used for
mixing with benzene by different proportions to raise the
Octane number and the decrease of adding organic lead
compounds or the prevention of using it at all . That for a trial
in decreasing the rates of atmospheric and Environmental
pollution from these leaded compounds, exhaust.
First: Preparation of methyl tertiary butyl ether:
The reaction of Methanol with isobutylene in the
presence of Sulphurated polystyrene catalyst at a pressure
range (14-28 atm) and that reaction give a product of purity
98 %
CH3OH + CH2 = C (CH 3)

CH3OC (CH3)3

Second: physical properties:

- Molecular weight: 88.14
- Specific weight: 0.7405
- Boiling point: 55 .2 C
- Vapor pressure at 50 0c:313 mmHg
- Evaporation point: 108.6 0C
- Specific heat at 25 0c: cal/g .0C
- Heat of at 25 0C: 81.7 Kcal/ Kg
- Heat of combustion: 8395 Kcal/ Kg
Third: Heat Value
-Solubility in water at 20 0c: 4.8 gm /100 gm from solution
(slightly soluble in water)
-Solubility of water at 20 0C: 1.5 gm /100 gm
-Chemical formula: C5h120
-Chemical structure.
CH3
CH3-O-C-CH3
CH3
-Research octane number: 115-125
-Motor octane number
: 98: 100
Fourth: performance indicator in combustion engine on
mixing with benzene:
It was proved by test & Experiments, that the addition of
(MTBE) to benzene does not change the research octane
number (RON) by big difference, while the motor octane
number (MON) does. Therefore the calculation average for
octane number pointed to is equivalent to that of alcohols.

It was found too, that the addition of (MTBE) to

benzene, leads to the raising of octane number (despite of
concentration or types of used lead compounds). And due to
the how boiling point of that compound (550C), addition to
benzene leads to the increase of octane number at low
speeds, while the effect on the total research octane
number. And that, in the addition of raising the vapor
pressure for benzene in which it fits the operation in cold
weathers. The same for light benzene compounds from
pentane and heptanes.
From the properties of (MTBE) is that it does not from
peroxides during negotiation or storage. The percent of
adding the compound to benzene ranges from 5-20 %
Experiments are done on several types and models of
cars of internal combustion engines in which unleaded
benzene (contains 10 % from that compound MTBE), where
no change happened in produced energy or consumption
(fuel).
And an applying the rotating speed test (number of turns
of motor), it raised it from 1200 to 3000 (RPM) , and that by
the using of 3 types of benzene :
1- Excellent benzene only.
2-Benzine, added to it (10 % MTBE)
3- Benzene, added to it (15 % by volume from the
compound)
It was found that record time for the three types is equivalent
beside;
Rate of consumption on long distances gave very little
difference from excellent benzene and the mixtures one with
MTBE compound.
Fifth: Type of exhaust from internal combustion
engines:

It was observed to decrease of CO percent, coming out

from combustion exhaust of the MTBE / benzene mixture by
the percent 10 % .in which the decrease of gas percent
ranges from 15-20 %
For the percent of un- combusted hydrocarbons in
exhaust, it was observed that it wasn't it affected. The same
for Nitrogenated compounds while the percent of perfumated
compounds of multi-chains was decreased. These
compounds are dangerous on human health. Also, lead
oxides in exhaust were decreased.
Sixth: poisonous effects:
The benzene / MTBE mixture is considered to be lens
harmful compared to that leaded benzene for its lead
poisonous component
Seventh: The availability range of MTBE in international
markets:
Italian companies produce about 100.000 ton /yr from
that compound. While German companies produce about
4400 ton /year. Saudian petro- chemicals Company
produces about 500.000 ton/year
Eighth: General conclusion from the use of benzene
/MTBE mixture:
1- Non- formation of mixture (Azertropic mixtures) that
undergo like the unity material from which:
- Boiling
- Distillation
And that on its addition to benzene, also the non-loss of a

big percent of it in any water percent found in benzene.

2- The quality of performance for the motor at the (cold)
starting. Also the better performance at high speeds and
rates of high rotating (RPM) for internal combustion engines.

B) Operational economics and programs:

Its purpose is the calculations of the crude and
products ' quantities (inlet and outlet ) and converting
depository sizes and dimensions into quantity in " Tons " ,
per hour , per day , per month , or per year and that in order
to make a periodical statistics and improvements for the
company rate of production .

Chapter eight

SAFETY
Introduction:
Safety, or accident prevention, is an essential part of the
efficient performance of every job. It is therefore an essential
ingredient of all job instruction and training. Responsibility for
the quality of job training and development of correct
attitudes rests with supervision.
Accident Prevention Gent:
1- The prevention of accidents and injuries is of utmost
importance to the Employee and the Company. The
Company will do all it can to provide a safe work
environment for every employee. In turn, no employee
should allow a condition, which he believes to be hazardous
to life or limb, to exist without remedying it if he can or
reporting it to his immediate supervisor
.
2- Safety meetings are held for the purpose of the prevention
of accidents. Every employee attending these meetings is
encouraged to present any ideas or suggestions he may
have to improve the safety of his work environment.
3- All Company sign are erected for a definite purpose and
should be observed whenever they are encountered. Signs
should be placed where they will render the greatest service,
should be maintained in good condition, and, when erected
for a temporary purpose, be removed when they are no
longer needed.
4- Safety tags are provided for employee protection and they

shall be used whenever warranted. All employees shall

observe tag warnings and tags shall be removed when no
longer needed.
5- Every immediate supervisor should make certain that his
employees clearly understand the circumstances of the job
to be performed and the safe practices necessary to perform
it without accident or injury.
6- Each employee should be sure that he understands the
hazards involved in any duty he is about to perform, and that
all necessary precautions. Will be taken.
7- Every job should be planned so that it will be completed or
brought to a "stropping place" by the end of the workday.
Reckless haste to complete a job often creates unnecessary
hazards.
8- On occasions when new or hazardous work is to be
performed, the supervisor shall call his men together for a
through discussion on the safety aspects of the job.
9- if additional material or equipment is needed to safely
continue a job, the job shall be shut down or postponed until
such material or equipment is obtained
10- Shift men or relief crews coming on duty shall be
informed, by the crew they are relieving, of any unusual
circumstances or of any changes that might present
hazardous conditions.
11-Every new employee shall be thoroughly indoctrinated in
safety on the job at the time he is hired. It is also the
responsibility of supervision to see that safety training
continues
12- Experienced employees should assume responsibility of
assisting in the teaching of safe working practices to the new

or inexperienced employee.
13- Scuffing, the playing of practical jokes or "horseplay" in
any from among employees while on the job will not be
permitted.
14- Employees, especially when working with or around
moving machinery shall not wear loose, baggy or ragged
clothing
15- Clothing to adequately cover the body shall be worn by
all employees.
16- Employees while performing general fieldwork should
not wear finger rings. They shall not be worn by employees
performing electrical work.
17- Many employees are susceptible to poison ivy, poison
oak and poison sumac. Learn to recognize these plants on
sight and avoid contact with them.
18-Regular walkways, passageways, runways, etc, are
provided wherever there is significant need. Use these
whenever possible and avoid the hazards of short cuts.
19- Keep all walking and working surfaces clean, clear and
free of obstructions .Tools and other materials should not be
left lying around.
20- Chloromethane, standard solvent, kerosene or some
other approved cleaning agent shall be used for cleaning
purposes, and adequate ventilation shall be provided.
Carbon tetrachloride or gasoline shall not be used for
cleaning purposes.
21- Only cotton, rayon, paper or other suitable material shall
be used for oil or clean up rags . Wool rags shall not be
used for this purpose.
22- Only flashlights and electric lanterns approved for use in
hazardous atmospheres shall be used in Company field and
plant operations.
23- All injuries, no matter how slight, that occur on the job,
shall be reported to your immediate supervisor. Failure ti
report an injury can subject the employee to disciplinary

action.
24- Think safety, talk Safety and practice Safety, both on
and off the job, and avoid the pain, suffering and
inconvenience of accidents and resulting injuries

References

- Ahmed sh.AL- Khatib,

A new dictionary of scientific and technical terms,
1984
- F.Blan,
Water treatment, 1981
- A.L.Waddams,
Chemicals for petroleum, 1962
- John O.Eclark and William Hemsley, Harrap's
Dictionary of science and technology, 1991
- Luudvick
- Techniques of petroleum refining.