EHV AC AND DC TRANSMISSION SYSTEM

Unit-I
Constitution of EHV a.c. and d.c. links, Kind of
d.c. links, Limitations and Advantages of a.c.
and d.c. transmission, Principal application of
a.c. and d.c. transmission, Trends in EHV a.c.
and d.c. transmission, Power handling
capacity. Converter analysis garetz circuit,
Firing angle control, Overlapping

ROLE OF EHV AC TRANSMISSION

Industry requires vast amount of energy such as hydro,
thermal, oil for transportation and industry, natural gas
for domestic of which electrical energy forms a major
fraction.
It is only 120 years since the installation of the first
central station by Edison using dc. But the world has
already consumed major portion of its natural resources
in this short period and is looking for sources of energy.
Hydro-electric and coal or oil-fired stations are located
very far from load centers for various reasons which
requires the transmission of the generated electric
power over very long distances. This requires very high
voltages for transmission. The very rapid development
of dc transmission since 1950 is playing a major role in
extra-long-distance transmission, complementing or
supplementing EHV ac transmission.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF ENERGY SOURCES AND THEIR DEVELOPMENT

Two broad categories: (1) Transportable (2) Locally

Usable.
1. Transportable type is obviously hydro-electric
and conventional thermal power. But locally
generated and usable power is by far more
numerous and exotic. These are also called
'Alternative Sources of Power'. Twelve such
sources of electric power are listed here.
2. Locally Usable Power
Conventional thermal power in urban load
centers
Micro- hydel power stations
Nuclear Thermal: Fission and Fusion

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF ENERGY SOURCES

AND THEIR DEVELOPMENT

Wind Energy
Ocean Energy: (a) Tidal Power, (b) Wave Power,
and (c) Ocean thermal gradient power
Solar thermal
Solar cells or photo-voltaic power
Geo-thermal
Magneto hydro-dynamic or fluid dynamic
Coal gasification and liquefaction
Hydrogen power
Biomass Energy: (a) Forests (b) Vegetation (c)
Animal refuse.

PROBLEMS/LIMITATIONS POSED IN USING

HIGH VOLTAGE
Increased Current Density because of increase in line
loading by using series capacitors.
Use of bundled conductors.
High surface voltage gradient on conductors.
Corona problems: Audible Noise, Radio Interference,
Corona Energy Loss, Carrier Interference, and TV
Interference.
High electrostatic field under the line.
Switching Surge Over voltages which cause more havoc
to air-gap insulation than lightning or power frequency
voltages.
Increased Short-Circuit currents and possibility of Ferro
resonance conditions.

PROBLEMS/LIMITATIONS POSED IN USING

HIGH VOLTAGE

Use of gapless metal-oxide arresters replacing the

conventional gap-type Silicon Carbide arresters,
for both lightning and switching-surge duty.
Shunt reactor compensation and use of series
capacitors, resulting in possible sub-synchronous
resonance conditions and high short circuit
currents.
Insulation coordination based upon switching
impulse levels.
Single-pole reclosing to improve stability, but
causing problems with arcing

1.2 ADVANTAGES OF HVDC

No reactive power loss
No Stability Problem
No Charging Current
No Skin & Ferranti Effect
Power control is possible
Requires less space compared to ac for same
voltage rating and size
Ground can be used as return conductor
Less corona loss and Radio interference

ADVANTAGES OF HVDC
Cheaper for long distance transmission
Asynchronous operation possible
No switching transient
No transmission of short circuit power
No compensation problem
Low short circuit current
Fast fault clearing time

1.3 DISADVANTAGES OF HVDC

Cost of terminal equipment is high
Introduction of harmonics
Blocking of reactive power
Point to point transmission
Limited overload capacity
Huge reactive power requirement at the
converter terminals
Cooling of HVDC sub-station
HVDC system control

1.4 COMPARISION OF AC & DC TRANSMISSION

The relative merits of the two modes of

transmission (AC and DC) which need to be
considered by a system planner are based on
the following factors:

Economics of Transmission
Technical performance
Reliability

1.4.1 Economics of power transmission

Cost of a transmission line includes
Investment includes:
Right of Way (ROW)
Transmission towers
Conductors
Insulators
Terminal equipment
Operational costs includes:
Cost of losses.
Cont..

 The characteristics of insulators vary with the

type of voltage applied. For simplicity, if its
assumed that the insulator characteristics are
similar for AC and DC and depend on the peak
level of voltage applied with respect to
ground, then it can be shown that for lines
designed with the same insulation level, a DC
line can carry as much power with two
conductors (with positive and negative
polarities with respect to ground) as an AC
line with 3 conductors of the same size.

The corona effects on DC conductors tend to be less

significant than for AC and this also leads to the
choice of economic size of conductors with DC
transmission. The other factors that influence the
line costs are the costs of compensation and terminal
equipment

Comparison of ROW
This Implies that for a given power level, DC
lines requires less ROW with Simpler, cheaper
towers reduced conductors and insulator
costs.
The power losses are also reduced with DC as
only two conductors are used.
No skin effect with DC is also beneficial in
reducing power loss marginally.
The dielectric losses in case of power cables is
also very less for DC transmission.

Comparison of ROW
The corona effects tends to less significant on
DC conductors than for AC and this leads to
choice of economic size of conductors with DC
transmission.
The other factors that influence the line cost
are the cost of compensation and terminal
equipment.
DC lines do not require compensation but the
terminal equipment costs are increased due to
the presence of converters and filters.

Variation of cost with line length

AC tends to be more economical than

DC for distances less than Break even

distance and costlier for longer distances.
The breakeven distances can vary from
500Km to 800Km in overhead lines.

1.4.2 Technical performance

The DC transmission has some positive features
which are lacking in AC transmission. These are
mainly due to the fast controllability of power in DC
lines through converter control. The advantages are:
1. Full control over power transmitted
2. The ability to enhance transient and small signal
stability in associated AC networks
3. Fast control to limit fault currents in DC lines. This
makes it feasible to avoid DC breakers in two
terminal DC links.

STABILITY LIMITS
The power transfer in AC lines is dependent on

the angle difference between voltage phasors at the two

ends. For a given power level, this angle increases
with distance. The maximum power transfer is
limited by the considerations of steady state and
transient stability. The power carrying capability of
an AC line is a function of distance but in DC lines it
is unaffected by the distance of transmission.

VOLTAGE CONTROL
The voltage control in AC lines is complicated by
line charging and inductive voltage drops. The
voltage profile in a AC line is relatively flat only
for fixed level of power transfer corresponding
to surge impedance loading (SIL) or normal
loading. The Voltage profile varies with the
line loading. For constant voltage at the line
terminal, the midpoint voltage is reduced for
line loading higher than SIL and increased for
loadings less than SIL.

LINE COMPENSATION
AC lines require shunt and series compensation
in long distance transmission, mainly to
overcome of the line charging and stability
limitations. Series capacitors and shunt
inductors are used for this purpose. The
increase in power transfer and voltage control
is possible through the Static Var Systems
(SVS). In AC cable transmission, it is necessary
to provide shunt compensation at regular
intervals.

PROBLEMS OF AC INTERCONNECTION
When two power systems are connected through AC
ties (Synchronous interconnection),the automatic
generation control of both systems have to be
coordinated using tie line power and frequency signals.
Even with coordinated control of interconnected
systems, the operation of AC ties can be problematic
due to
The presence of large power oscillations which can
lead to frequent tripping.
Increase in fault level
Transmission of disturbances from one system to the
other

GROUND IMPEDANCE
In AC transmission, the existence of ground (Zero
sequence) current cannot be permitted in steady-state
due to high magnitudes of ground impedance which
will not only affect efficient power transfer, but also
result in telephone interference.
But ground impedance negligible for DC currents and
a DC link can operate one conductor with ground
return (Mono polar operation). The ground return is
objectionable only when buried metallic structures
(such as pipes) are present and are subject to
corrosion with DC current flow.

1.4.3 RELIABILITY
The reliability of DC transmission is quite good
and comparable to that of AC systems.
An exhaustive record of existing HVDC links in
the world is available from which the
reliability statistics cab be computed.
It must be remembered that the performance
of Thyristor valves is much more reliable than
mercury arc valves and further developments
in devices, control, protection is likely to
improve the reliability level.

Cont..

There are two measures of overall system reliability

Energy availability
Transient reliability
Energy availability=100 (1{Equivalent outage time})%
Total Time
Transient reliability =
100*No. Of times HVDC systems performed as designed
No. Of recordable AC faults

Cont..

This is the factor specifying the performance of

HVDC systems during recordable faults on the
associated AC systems. Recordable AC system
faults are those faults which cause one or more
AC bus phase voltages to drop below 90% of the
voltage prior to the fault. It is assumed that the
short circuit level after the fault is not below the
minimum specified for satisfactory converter
operation. Both energy availability and transient
reliability of existing DC systems with thyristors
valves is 95% or more.

Kind of D.C. Links

The DC links are classified into three types:

Monopolar 2) Bipolar 3) Homopolar

Monopolar link:

Monopolar link cont..

Having one conductor (-ive Polarity preferred in
order to reduce the Corona effect) and ground
is used as return path. The major drawback in
this system is power flow is interrupted due to
either converter failure or DC link. The ground
return is objectionable only when buried
metallic structures (Such as pipes) are present
and are subject to corrosion with DC current
flow.

Bipolar link
There are two conductors, one is operated at
positive and other is negative. During fault in
one pole it will operate as Monopolar link.
This is very popular link in HVDC.

Homopolar link
In this link, two or more conductors have
same polarity. Normally negative polarity is
used (less corona loss and radio interference).
Ground is always used as return path. During
fault in one pole it works as Monopolar.

1.6 Application of EHV- AC transmission

Voltage can be stepped up or stepped down in
transformer
substation
to
have
economical
transmission voltage.
Line can be tapped easily, extended easily.
Parallel line can be added.
Control of power flow in the network is simple and
natural.
Power flow in a particular line cannot be controlled
easily and quickly.
System incorporation.
Back born transmission network.

1.7 Application of EHV- DC transmission

The main areas of application based on
the
economics
and
technical
performances, are
Long distance bulk power transmission.
The underground of submarine cables.
Asynchronous connection of AC system
with different frequencies.
Control and stabilize the power system
with power flow control.

1.8 Based on the interconnection, three types

of HVDC is possible.

Bulk Power transmission

Back to back connection
Modulation of AC system
1.8.1 Bulk power transmission: The transfer the
power from one end to another end without
tapping power in between. For this DC system
is the best option. (or) HVDC transmission
where bulk power is transmitted from one
point to another point over long distance.

1.8.2 Power flow control (Back to Back HVDC)

If two regions are very nearby, we can

monitor the power flow from one region
to another to control, emergency
support as per our requirement.(Or) Back
to Back link where rectification and
inversion is carried out in the same
converter station with very small or no
DC lines

1.8.3 Modulation of AC system

This is basically used to control the power
and stabilize the system. It is also used to
connect two different frequencies system.
(Modulation of AC) AC system is
connected
parallel
with
DC
system.(or)Parallel connection of AC and
DC links. Where both AC and DC run
parallel. It is mainly used to modulate the
power of AC lines.

1.9 Principle parts of HVDC Transmission

Schematic diagram of a typical HVDC converter station

2.0 Various Parts of HVDC transmission

Converters
Converter transformers
Smoothing reactors
Harmonic filters
Overhead lines
Reactive power source
Earth electrode

2.0.1 CONVERTERS
Converters are the main part of HVDC system.
Each HVDC lines have at least two converters, one at
each end.
Sending end converter works as Rectifier (It converts AC
power to DC power). However converter as receiving end
works as Inverter (It converts DC power to AC power).
In case for reversal of operation, Rectifier can be used as
inverter or vice versa. So generally it is call it as
CONVERTERS.
Several thyristors are connector in series and/or in parallel
to form a valve to achieve higher voltage / current ratings.

How to achieve required current & voltage rating

Required current rating

Valves in parallel
Thyristors in parallel
Bridges in parallel
Combination of above.
Required voltage rating
Valves in series
Bridges in series
Combination of above.

Main requirements of the Valves

Bridge converters are normally used in HVDC systems

To allow current flow with low voltage drop

across it during the conduction phase and to
offer high resistance for non conducting phase.
To withstand high peak inverse voltage during
non conducting phase.
To allow reasonably short commutation angle
during inverter operation.

Cont..
Smooth control of conducting and non
conducting phases.
Two versions of switching converters are
feasible depending on whether DC storage
device utilized is an inductor-Current source
converter or Capacitor-Voltage source
converter.
CSC is preferable for HVDC system
VSC is preferable for FACTS like STATCOM,
SVC, etc.

Comparison of CSC and VSC

Inductor is used in DC side

Capacitor is used in DC side

Constant current

Constant voltage

Higher losses

More efficient

Fast accurate control

Slow control

Larger and more expensive

Smaller and less expensive

More fault tolerant and more

reliable

Less fault tolerant and less

reliable

Simpler control

Complex control

Not easily expandable for in

series

Easily expanded in parallel for

increased rating

2.0.2 CONVERTER TRANSFORMERS

For six pulse converter, a conventional three
phase or three single phase transformer is
used.
However for 12 pulse configuration, following
transformer are used.
Six single -phase two windings
Three single- phase three windings
Two three- phase two windings

 In converter transformer it is not possible

to use winding close to yoke since
potential of its winding connection is
determined by conducting valves hence
entire winding are completely insulated.
As leakage flux of a converter
transformer contains very high harmonic
contents, it produces greater eddy current
loss and hot spot in the transformer tank.

 In case of 12-Pulse configuration, if two three

phase transformers are used, one will have starstar connection, and another will have star delta
connection to give phase shift of 30 .
Since fault current due to fault across valve is
predominantly
controlled
by
transformer
impedance, the leakage impedance of converter
transformer is higher than the conventional
transformer.
On-line tap changing is used to control the
voltage and reactive power demand.

2.0.3 SMOOTHING REACTORS

These reactors are used for smoothing the
direct current output in the DC line.
It also limits the rate of rise of the fault
current in the case of DC line short circuit.
Normally Partial or total air cored magnetically
shielded reactor are used.
Disc coil type windings are used and braced to
withstand the short circuit current.
The saturation inductance should not be too
low.

2.0.4 HARMONIC FILTERS:

Harmonics generated by converters are of the
order of np 1in AC side and np is the DC side.
Where p is number of pulses and n is integer.
Filters are used to provide low impedance path
to the ground for the harmonics current.
They are connected to the converter terminals
so that harmonics should not enter to AC
system.

Cont..
However, it is not possible to protect all
harmonics from entering into AC system.
Magnitudes of some harmonics are high
and filters are used for them only.
These filters are used to provide some
reactive power compensation at the
terminals.

2.0.5 OVERHEAD LINES

As Monopolar transmission scheme is most
economical and the first consideration is to
use ground as return path for DC current.
But use of ground as conductor is not
permitted for longer use and a bipolar
arrangement is used with equal and opposite
current in both poles.
In case of failure in any poles, ground is used
as a return path temporarily.

Cont..
The basic principle of design of DC overhead
lines is almost same as AC lines design such as
configurations, towers and insulators etc.
The number of insulators and clearances are
determined based on DC voltage.
The choice of conductors depends mainly on
corona and field effect considerations.

2.0.6 REACTIVE POWER SOURCE

Converter does not consume reactive power but due
to phase displacement of current drawn by converter
and the voltage in AC system, reactive power
requirement at the converter station is about 50-60%
of real power transfer, which is supplied by filters,
capacitors and synchronous condensers.
Synchronous condensers are not only supplying
reactive power but also provide AC voltages for
natural commutation of the inverter.
Due to harmonics transient special designed machines
are used.

2.0.7 EARTH ELECTRODES

The earth resistivity of at upper layer is higher
(~4000 ohm-m) and electrodes cannot be kept
directly on the earth surface.
The electrodes are buried into the earth
where the resistivity is around (3-10 ohm-m)
to reduce transient over voltages during line
faults and gives low DC electric potential and
potential gradient at the surface of the earth.

Cont.
The location of earth electrode is also
important due to
Possible interference of DC current ripple to
power lines, communication systems of
telephone and railway signals etc.
Metallic corrosion of pipes, cable sheaths etc.
Public safety.
The electrode must have low resistance (Less
than 0.1 ohm) and buried up to 500 meters
into the earth.

Power Handling Capacity and Line loss

The Power Handling Capacity of a single circuit
is P = E2 sin / LX (1)
At unity p.f., at the load P, the current flowing
is P = E sin / 3 LX .. (2)
The total power loss in the three phase will
amount to P= 3 I2 r (3)
Therefore the percentage power loss is
% P = 100 r sin / X .. (4)

Cont
The following important and useful conclusion
can be drawn for preliminary understanding of
trends relating to power handling capacity of
A.C. transmission lines and line losses.
1.One 750kv line can normally carry as much
power as four 400kv circuits for equal distance
of transmission.
2. The power handling capacity of line at a given
voltage level decreases with line length, being
inversely proportional to length L.

Firing Angle Control

Two basic requirements for the firing pulse
generation of HVDC valves
The firing instant for all the valves are
determined at ground potential and the firing
signals sent to individual thyristors by light
signals through fiber optics cables. The required
get power is made available at the potential
individual thyristor for electrically triggered
thyristor valves. Howe ever, for light triggered
thyristor valves, the light signal can be used to
directly fire for individual capacitor.

Cont..
While the signal pulse is adequate to turn on a
thyristor, the gate pulse generator must send a
pulse whenever required.
There are two basic firing schemes
Individual phase control (IPC).
Equidistant pulse control (EPC).

Garetz Circuit:

Assumptions made for analysis : Without overlap

With overlap

Analysis of Mode-1

Analysis of mode-2

RGPV QUESTIONS

RGPV QUESTIONS