91BA25

PRESPLITTING AND CONTROLLED BLASTING
TECHNIQUES, INCLUDING AIR DECKS

AND DIMENSION STONE CRITERIA
R. Frank Chiappetta
Blasting Analysis International, Inc.
Allentown, Pennsylvania, USA
Third Hiph-Tech Seminar
Blasting Technology, Instrumentation

and Explosives Applications
San Diego, California, USA
June 2 - 7, 1991
Copyright 2001 International Society of Explosives Engineers

1991 - Third Annual High-Tech Seminar - State-of-the-Art Blasting Technology Instrumentation and Explosives Applications
Presplitting and Controlled Blasting Techniques Including Air Decks and Dimension Stone Criteria - Section 25
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. .
Presphtbng and Controlled Bl=W TecU
by
FL Frank Chiappetta
The objective in control blasting is to reduce overbreak to control the

final pit wall slope, shaft, drift, ditch, bench, etc. to the final planned
excavation limit.
The six main types of control blasting utilized today are:
1 ) Line Drilling
2 ) Cushion Blasting
3 ) Smooth Wall Blasting
4 ) Buffer Blasting
5 ) Presplitting or Preshearing and
6 ) Air Deck Presplitting

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Line
Drilling
With the advent of high explosives, overbreak
became increasingly annoying and costly.
on
excavations
To alleviate and reduce
these problems, line drilling was introduced to provide some degree

of control on overbreak.
The method involves drilling a single row
of closely spaced unloaded holes along the final excavation line

which provides a plane of weakness in which the blast can break into.
Hole spacing utilized in line drilling is usually considerably less
than the spacing employed for holes in the main shot.
can be the same as production holes when less than 4".
Hole
diameters
When pro-
duction holes are greater than 4", it is best to keep line drilling
holes to < 4" diameter.
Although still used, line drilling can be expensive and results
are
sometimes
unpredictable
depending
on
ground
conditions.
Due to
high drilling costs, the technique is more conducive to small diameter

holes up to about 4" with spacings ranging from 1 to 4 hole diameters.
The closer spacings are generally required where a high frequency of
jointing and planes of weakness are prevalent.
In unconsolidated and
nonhomogeneous formations that exhibit bedding planes, jointing, seams,

and
irregular
discontinuities, line drilling is not very effective.
Hole spacing in line drilling can also be estimated from the

following table by multiplying the hole diameter (in feet) by the
appropriate factor corresponding to a given material.

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ROCK TYPE
FACTOR
Taconite (iron ore)
2.0
Copper ore
2.5
Asbestos
ore
4.0
overburden
5.0
Coal
For example, if 3 inch diameter holes were to be used in

taconite,
spacing of holes in line drilling would be (3/12)x2 = 0.5 ft.
In asbestos ore, spacing would be (3/12)x4 = 1.0 foot.

Best overall results are obtained when the line drilling array
of holes is placed a distance of l/2 to 314 of the regular burden
behind the last row in the production shot.
For example, if the
burden in the blast was 8 feet, the line drill array would be placed
4 to 6 feet behind the last row in the main shot.
Explosive
loads
in the last row of the production shot would typically contain

30 - lOO? of the regular hole load.

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l/2 to 314 of B
l
a
l +---- Line of Drill Holes
are not loaded
l
l
0
0
0
0
0
a
l
Typical Line Drilling Layout

~SplZ
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ADVANTAGES:
.
technique is simple
requires no explosives, thus creates no damage
produces no vibration or air blast problems
DISADVANTAGES:
.
expensive
ineffective in bad ground conditions
holes must be drilled to correspond with natural

dip of material (i.e. pit walls)
hole diameter may differ from hole diameter in main

shot thus necessitating small drills
results
close spacing of holes require excellent hole alignment
dependent, in part, to success of main blast

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Cushion
Blasting
Cushion blasting is essentially a means of trimming and/or

slashing to the final excavation limit.
As in line drilling, it
requires a single line of holes behind the main production shot,

but each hole is loaded lightly with explosives and stemmed throughout the entire column.
Loading of cushion,holes
is easily accomplished by string
loading or taping of cartridges to detonating cord as it is being

Slider primers such as deckmasters can also
lowered into the hole.

be used.
In larger diameter holes, decking throughout the entire
column would be in order.
In any case, it is essential to stem the
hole as each charge is placed in the hole to assure an even distriCushion blastholes are fired simul-
bution of energy and stemming.
taneously or with ms delays after the main excavation has been

removed.
Typical
explosive
loads
used in cushion blast holes are given
in the following tables.

METHOD I
Hole Dia
(in)
2 -
(Hemphill, G-B., 1981)
Spacing
(ft)
Burden
(ft)
Explosive Load*
(lb/ft)
23
0.08 - 0.25
3 - 33
0.13 - 0.50
4- 45,
0.25 - 0.75
5 - 5%
0.75 - 1.00
6 - 63
1.00 - 1.50
Explosive is generally decoupled by 50% from borehole

wall
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bIETHOD
(CANMET, 1977)
*Powder Factor
(lb/ton)
Rock Type
Taconite
Copper ore
Spacing
(ft)
0.30
1.25 x $
0.28 - 0.36
1.50 x $
ore
0.16
2.0
x 4
overburden
0.12
2.5
x$
Asbestos
Coal
II
Explosive load is decoupled by 40% from borehole wall.
Spacing between cushion holes is always less than regular

burden,
S = 0.6 to 0.8 of regular burden.
Burden from cushion line to production row is 0.6 to 0.8

of regular burden.
. @ = hole diameter

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Stemming
--I I
throughout
I
hole
Higher Energy
Bottom Load
cuHso:n
Production Holes
Cushion Blasting and String Loading

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ADVANTAGES:
.
can use larger spacings and reduce drilling costs
results are viewed and assessed immediately after

blasting buffer row
can make modifications in loading
larger diameter holes generally results in better

hole alignment and allows deeper holes
DISADVANTAGES:
.
requires careful loading and stemming
requires
additional
setup
. delays production
.
production shot can break back to cushion holes

creating redrill and loading problems
not practical for cutting 90' corners without

employing line drilling and/or presplitting

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Smooth
Wall
Blasting
Smooth wall blasting was developed in Sweden and obtained

considerable
success
in
controlling
such as headings, stopes, etc.
overbreak
in
underground
working
Although similar to cushion blasting,
it requires stemming only at the collarand
not necessarily through-
out the entire length of the hole.

Most experienced operators agree that a spacing equal to about
2/3 of the regular burden is adequate for most rock types.
all
As with
guidelines, some modifications may be required depending on
specific
blasting
environments.
Loading is similar to cushion
blasting, but somewhat more difficult because holes are drilled

horizontally
rather
than
vertically.
Smooth wall blast holes can be fired after the last delay
period in the round (usually after the lifters).
ADVANTAGES:
.
compared to regularly loaded rounds, the method will

most always reduce overbreak
reduces the need for roof and wall supports
DISADVANTAGES:
.
requires more perimeter holes than in a conventional round
. does not eliminate ground support systems in highly

fractured ground conditions
.
time consuming for incentive workers

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Buffer
Blasting
Buffer blasting is often used in conjunction with

blasting.
preSpli+.
Hole diameter and depth are generally identical to
holes in the main production shot.
Where buffer holes are posi-
tioned directly above or near the crest of an underlying berm,

they should not have any subgrade to reduce crest fracturing.
Spacing and burden should be l/2 to 314 of the spacing and
burden used in the main production shot.
A bufferhole should be
bottom loaded to conform to dc = 4.0 (W)% ,

where
dc
= depth of burial of the charge

measured from the surface to the
center of gravity of the first
6 hole diameters of explosive,
regardless of total explosive
column length (units = ft)
W = weight of explosive in pounds

This criterion, for most rocks, will assure minimal cratering at
the collar region of the hole.
In very competent materials, the load should be designed to
dC
= 4.5 (W)%
and in less competent material to d, = 3.5 (W)% .
For example, a 12" diameter buffer hole is bottom loaded with

10' of Apex 220.
Bench height is 50' and Apex 220 has a density of
1.25 g/cc.
Solution:
1)
From Atlas loading densities

Apex 220
= 61.29 lb/ft
10' of Apex 220 = 10 x 61.29 = 612.9 lbs.

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2) Calculate design d,
d,
4.0 (W)%
4.0 x (612.9)%
4.0 x 8.48
33.9 ft.
3) Calculate actual dc
10' of Apex 220 leaves 40' of stemming
6 hole diameters of Apex 220
= 6 x (12/12) = 6'
dc
40 + (l/2 x 6) = 43 ft.
As long as the design d, is less than or approximately equal

to the actual d,, cratering will be minimal or nonexistent.
In this
case we are quite safe although breakage to the surface will be

hindered.
It is advisable to get these two values to be equal.
Therefore,
lets increase the bottom load to say 15'.
NOW
1) 15' of Apex 220 =

2)
design
d, =
919.25 lbs.
4.0 (919.251%
= 4.0 x (9.7)
=
38.81 ft.
3) actual d,
15' of Apex 220 leaves 35' of stemming
dc
= 35 + (l/2 x 6) = 38 ft.
Since the design and actual d, are closer in this configuration,

a bottom load of 15' of Apex 220 would be sufficient without causing
excess cratering and damage at the control line.
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PRE -SPLIT
BUFFER
TOE LOAD
ACTS AS A
SPHERICAL
CRATER
CHARGE
dr(y/3 = 4
GAS DRIVEN RADIAL

CRACKS TERMINATE
AT PRE-SPLIT
FIGURE
- TYPICAL CONTROL BLAST LAYOUT AT SHERMAN MINE

,-_\ -' .1 i-2 c ;z /?f~. w I_
_uI
,1
- ,
dL.5, ..----;,

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PRESPLITTING
THEORY AND
APPLICATIONS

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PRESPLITTING
THEORY
AND
APPLICATIONS
BY FRAINK CHIAPPETTA (JAN. 1982)
IXTRODUCTION
The objective of presplitting iS
to
reduce backbreak and to
control the final pit wall slope, shaft, drift, ditch, bench, etc.
to the final planned excavation limit.
In order to understand presplitting, one must understand the
role of borehole
pressure generated by an explosive, and the
distribution of this pressure on all sides of the borehole and in

the enclosing rock mass.
BOREHOLE PRESSDRE
Borehole
describe
the
pressure is considered to be a good criterion to

"intensity" of an explosive and it is defined as
the peak pressure (i.e., Pi) developed in the borehole by

detonation of the explosive.
of borehole
Cook (l),
explains the importance
pressure as:
"The pressure-time curve of the explosive in

borehole blasting is characterized by (i) the
intensity property, borehole pressure, Pi and
(ii) the maximum available energy A. Together
these properties determine, along with loading
conditions, how rapidly the pressure drops from
the peak pressure, Pi, to the final effective
pressure, Pf, where it ceases to do useful work."
Explosive properties of importance to blasting are:
a) the detonation velocity, D,
b) maximum available energy, A,
cl borehole pressure, pi,
d) detonation pressure, Pa, and
e) the sensitivity of the explosive

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According to hydrodynamic theory (21, the detonation pressu

Pzr is defined as:
P2
where pr
D
W
P1
~1 D W + PI
eqn. (1)
= density of explosive
= detonation velocity of explosive
= particle velocity developed by
explosive reaction
= initial pressure
Since the initial pressure, P1,
is almost negligible,
equation (1) can be reduced to:
In condensed explosives, the particle velocity, W, is

approximately equal to D/4.
Hence, Pz, can be approximately
represented in terms of the detonation velocity by:

P*
PI D D
eqn. (3)
PI D2
T
eqn. (4)
or
P2
As a rough approximation, Cook (2) found that in most explosives,

22
0.5
p2
eqn. (5)
where, Pa, the explosion or "adiabatic" pressure is

defined as (11,
"the hypothetical pressure that would be developed
by the explosion at constant volume and without heat loss to the

surroundings."
Substituting equation (5) into equation (4), an estimate of
the explosion pressure, Ps, can be made as:
P,
i$ D2
eqn. (6)

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The borehole pressure Pb (or Pi as defined earlier) can

be approximated as:
Pi
'
Therefore the borehole

Pb
PJ
eqn.
(7)
pressure, Pb may be calculated as:

i!& D2
eqn.
The conversion factor for pressure, Pb,
(8)
in atmospheres and
detonation velocity, D, in meters per second is:
01
'b
= 0.00987 9 D2
eqn.
'b
= 0.00123
eqn. (10)
p1
Da
(9)
The conversion factor for pressure, Pb, in pounds per square

inch, detonation velocity, D, in feet per second and pr to p is:
'b
Thus, theborehole
borehole
= 1.6857 x 1O-3 p D2
pressure,
eqn. (11)
Pb, acting on the walls of a
containing an explosive which completely fills the borehole
is given by:
'b
where Pb
P
D
= 1.69 x 1O-3 p D2
eqn (12)
= borehole pressure in psi

= specific gravity of explosive
= detonation velocity of explosive
in feet/second.
When the explosive does not completely fill the borehole

the effect of decoupling will bring the borehole
pressure down.
The condition of gaseous expansion in a borehole
from a decoupled
charge can be assumed by the ideal gas law as adiabatic.

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The adiabatic state for an ideal gas is given as:

PVY
constant
eqn. (13)
where P = gas pressure

v = gas volume
Y = ratio of the specific heats
(i.e., CplCv)
In going from the explosive state to the borehole
PJVSY
where V, =
Vi =
constant
PiVi'
state:
eqn. (14)
volume of explosive
volume borehole
or from equation (14)

Pi
P,
2
( 1J
eqn.
(15)
The ratio of the volumes may be reduced by using the formula

of the volume of a cylinder where:
V
nr'h
and on taking unit height:
or
eqn. (16)
Substituting equation (16) into equation (15) results in:

Pi
P,
( >
fl
2Y
eqn. (17)
'i
Cole (3) and Crawford (4) determined values of y, by
calculation and experiments for explosive gaseous products, as
ranging from 1.25 to 1.40.
The power term n = 2y in equation (17)
would then range from 2.50 to 2.60.

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However,
in direct blasting experiments, Bauer (5) determined

Since this value was very close to the
n to be equal to 2.4.
values
of y as reported by Cole and Crawford, it is used in
equation (17) to form:

pi
Recalling
that Pi = Pb,
and replacing r-3 =
rc and
'b
where Pb
P
D
rc
rh
eqn: (18)
p3 ( 91 ) 2*4
Pb =
ri
1.69 x 1O-3 p D2,

rh,
equation (18)
= 1.69 x 1O-3 p
becomes:
eqn. (19)
= borehole pressure ii psi

= specific gravity of explosive
= detonation velocity of explosive in ft/sec.
= radius of explosive charge in inches
= radius of borehole in inches.
Equation (19) is used when the explosive does not completely

fill the borehole, i.e. decoupled.
If the explosive column is decoupled,and
in addition not
continuous as when spacers are used, the following formula applies (6):
P,, = 1.69 x lo-" p Da
where C is the percentage of the total column loaded, i.e.,
if 12 sticks 'and 12" spaces are used, C =
0.50.
GAS PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION IN THE ROCK MASS

The model used to determine the stress distribution around a
radially fractured borehole, in which expanding combustion products
exert on the borehole
walls, takes on the form of a thick-walled
cylinder with infinite thickness and no external pressure, Figure 1.

23 of 66

24 of 66
The stress distribution in a thick-walled cylinder for

cT (tangential stress) and cR (radial stress is given as (7),(8):
UR
ro2P, - ri*Pi
l-o2 - ri2
UT
Po2Po - ri2Pi
2 - ri2
r.
'i
po
eqn. (21)
(Pc-Pi)riar,'
+
Also, the shear stress

where ri
(pc-Pi)ri2ro
(ro2- ri2)r2
eqn. (22)
(r 0 2-ri2)r2
TRT = 0
= distance from center of cylinder

to inside wall of cylinder
= distance from center of cylinder
to outside wall of cylinder
= pressure acting on inside wall of cylinder
= pressure acting on outside wall
of cylinder = 0
A cylinder with an infinite external radius such that

r 0 +m
and external pressure such that PO=0 reduces equations
(21) and (22) to:

2
=
+p.
ri
'R.
1-p
UT
where
(Compressive
stress)
= -P.1 x (tensile stress>

r
satisfies
eqn. (23)
eqn. (24)
ri 5 r 5 r.

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Replacing Pi by Pb
=R
and
=
ri
by
rh
gives:
rh2
pbT
eqn.
=T = -Pb d
=Z
and
where aT
aR
'b
'f!
(25)
eqn. (26)
= tangential stress in psi

= radial stress in psi
= borehole pressure in psi
radius of borehole in inches
1 radius of the point being considered -inches
The three primary types of rock failure are:

1) compressive
2) shear
3) tensile
A presplit fracture is maximized
in a blast when the presplit
--.
fracture is of a nature in which the rock is least able to resist.
Genbrally,
rocks have high compressive strengths, moderate shear
strengths, but very low tensile strengths. Thus, the ideal fracture
occurs under conditions when the tensile forces are maximized
while the shear and compressive forces are minimized.
The distribution of tensile or tangential stress in a rock
mass enclosing a single borehole
following
(Figure 2) is developed with the
conditions:
a)
the tangential Stress, oT, iS maximized

as to cause tensile failure
b) the radial or compressive stress, uR is

minimized
c)
the shear force TRT is minimized
The total tangential stress, acting along a radial line from a

single borehole at' a distance S, is obtained by using equation 26
and integrating the tangential stress between rh and S,
(Figure 3).
26 of 66
BOREHOLE
0
FIGURE 2
: STRESS DISTRIBUTION FOR A SINGLE
SBB> rh
t
S
27 of 66
Therefore, the driving force along the crack per unit

length of hole is:
rsrh % dr = /'rh =
=
=
Pb 2" dr
I-
-Pb'h
2 rsrh
-Pbrhz
c I
-1
7
s
"h
3
-Pbrh2
= brh2
S
=
r-' dr
_ bh2
'h
eqn. (27)
'brh
In reference to Figure 3, this is the tangential stress ir.

the area away from each borehole,.
When two holes are fired
together, the driving force will be doubled and equal to:
2Pbrh (2 - 1)

eqn. (28)
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L!

29 of 66
. .
UT (Total) = 2Pb'h (2 - ')
eqn. (29)
Since rh/S accounts for less than 10X of uT (Total), this

term is dropped.
Therefore,
uT (Total)
2PbTh
eqn. (30)
This means that the total Stress, uT, or a driving force, FD,
will tend to cause a presplit line failure to occur between a set
of boreholes as:
FD
-2Pbrh
eqn. (31)
The negative sign is indicative of a tensile force.

But, the force resisting, Fg, in the formation of a presplit
fracture is the product of tensilestrength of the rock times the
surface area over which the force acts.
If the tensile strength of
the rock is denoted as, T, and the surface area as (S - 2rh), then:
FR = T(S- 2rh) per unit
length of borehole
At equilibrium, FD = FR
-2Pbrh
eqn. (32)
or:
= T (S - 2rh)
Solving for the maximum spacing between two holes at failure is:
-2Pbrh
= T S - 2rhT
TS =
S
2Pbrh + 2rhT
2Pbrh + 2rhT
T
2rh (Pb + T)
T

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Therefore,
the optimum spacing between 2 presplit borehol.es

s
5.
2rh (Pb + T)
is:
eqn. (33)
T
s = spacing between the boreholes in inches
rh = borehole radius in inches
2rh = borehole diameter in inches
'b = borehole pressure in psi
T = tensile strength of rock in psi
During early field trials and as evidenced in some of the
literature,
the
"dynamic" tensile strength of the rock was used
for the value of, T, in equation 33.
This belief was based on the
principle that the rock was being loaded dynamically rather than
statically.
Although
correct, it was difficult to determine an
exact value of the dynamic tensile strength of a material because

it is a function of:
a> the loading rate
b) the duration of the loading and
c) the pressure value of the load.
The present practice, and one reported to yield good results,
is to use avalue of, T, as determined by the standard Brazilian
tensile test.
Theoretically,
the best explosive to use in presplitting is
one in which will generate a borehole

and tensile strengths of the rock.
pressure between the compressive
In current practice, however,
it was reported that the borehole pressure could be as high as 3

times the uniaxial compressive strength of the rock, and excellent
results were obtained.
The only adverse effect was a greater
pulverized area of just a few inches around the borehole
walls -
hardly enough to warrant concern.

31 of 66
It was also deduced that where the frequency of joints (or

joint planes) between the presplit holes was greater than about
3-4, results were not as good.
This was predominantely evident
when using large diameter holes (i.e. ,z 10") rather than smaller
diameter holes.
SUMMARY:
METHOD I (PRESPLITTING)
In conclusion, the only rock properties required are:

1) compressive strength of rock, and
2) tensile strength of rock (i.e.,Brazilian
test)
The formulas required to calculate the spacing of holes in a

presplit line are:
I.1
2rh t.Pb + T)
--T--
2)
For a solid completely filled (i.e. 100X coupled)

borehole:
Pb = 1.69 x lo-' p Da
3) For a solid decoupled column load:

'b
= 1.69 x lo-' p D*
4) For a decoupled and decked column load:

Pb
1.69 x lo-' P DZ

32 of 66
where S
'b
T
rh
2rh
rc
P
D
C
maximum spacing between presplit holes - in.

borehole pressure - psi
tensile strength of rock - psi
borehole radius - in.
borehole diameter - in.
radius of explosive charge - in.
specific gravity of explosive
velocity of detonation of explosive - ft/sec.
percentage of the total column load - expressed
as a decimal.

33 of 66
REFERENCES
(1) COOK, M.A., Trends in Slurry Explosives, A.C.S. Monograph 139,

Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New York, 1968.
(2) COOK, M.A., The Science of High Explosives, Reinhold
Publishing Corporation, 3rd Printing, Chapman and Hall Ltd.,
London, 1963.
(3) COLE, R.H., Underwater
New York, 1965.
(4)
Explosions,
Dover
Publications,
CRAWFORD, F.H., Heat, Thermodynamics and Statistical

Harcourt,Braceand World Inc., New York, 1963.
Physics,
(5) BAUER, A., The Status of Rock Mechanics in Blasting, 9th

Symposium on Rock Mechanics, Colorado School of Mines,
Golden, Colorado, April, 1967.
(6) SA&XDEN, B.H., Pre-Split Blasting, ,\laster's Thesis, Mining
Engineering Dept., Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario,
1974.
(7) COATES, D-F., Rock Mechanics Principles, Mining Research
Centre, Mines Branch, Dept. of Energy, Mines and Resources,
Mines Branch Monograph 874, 1972.
(8) RINEHART, J.S., Dynamic Fracture Strength of Rocks, Proceedings,
AIblE, VII Symposium on Rock Mechanics, Pennsylvania State
University, University Park, Pennsylvania, 1965.
Based in parts on Reference 6.

34 of 66
FV.WlM
Dh = Hole diameter
De = Explosive diameter
Percent of explosive in borehole

( Expressed as a decimal )
q
V = Velocity of detonation ( ftlsec )
d = Explosive density ( g/cc )
Pb = Borehole pressure ( psi )
Pbzl.69 x 1O-3x d x V2x fi E
[ 1
2.6
35 of 66
S=Spacing ( in. )
Dh=Borehole Dia. ( in. )
Pb=BorehoIe Pressure ( in. )
T=Tensile Strength of Rock
( Psi )
s=
Dh ( Pb + T )
T

36 of 66
EXAMPLES - Designed primarily to emphasize

calculations and not necessarily
field practice.
EXAUPLE 1:
Mine management has decided to try presplitting on final
wall blasts in an attempt to make them safer and more competent.
At this stage, mine management does not wish to acquire new
equipment for a small diameter airtrack drill. Hence, they
would prefer to use a regular production hole of 6" diameter
for the presplit line.
The current explosive used at the mine has a velocity of
detonation of 13,000 ftlsec and p = 1.03.
The rock properties are estimated to have a compressive
strength of 50,000 psi and a tensile strength of 5,000 psi,
and the material is very competent.
What spacing should the mine use between presplit holes?
SOLUTION:
Calculate borehole pressure, Pb, from
Pb
=
=
=
1.69 x lo-" x p x Da (fu lly coupled,)

1.69 x 1O-3 x 1.03 x (13,000)z
294,178 psi
Since the borehole pressure generated is well in excess

of the compressive strength of the rock, crushing around the
borehole would result.
Therefore, it is advisable to lower the borehole pressure
through decoupling of the explosive in a cardboard or plastic
tube.
First we try a 4" diameter tube.
1.69
x lo-
x p x
1.69 x lo-' x 1.03 x (13,000)2 x
111,171 psi
D2

(decoupled)
37 of 66
This borehole pressure is still too large, since it will

also cause crushing around the borehole.
Next try a 3" diameter tube and calculate as before to get
Pb
55,736 psi
slightly high for very competent rock where no joint planes

exist, but it can be used.
A 2a" diameter tube will yield
Pb
35,984 psi
which is well below the compressive strength of the rock.

Therefore, a 23" diameter tube should be used in the
6" diameter borehole. If 2%" diameter tubes are not available,
3" tubes will suffice.
To calculate the spacing of holes in the presplit line:
S
2rh (Pb + T)
T
< 2 x 3 (35,984 + 5,000)
5,000
2 49 inches
. . . The spacing of holes in the presplit line should be less

than or equal to 49 inches, i.e., 4' spacing.
If, for example, the 3" tubes were used, the spacing
would be:
s I 2rh (Pb +*T)
T
6 (55,736 + 5,000)
5
5,000
c 73 inches, with some crushing around the borehole
If the rock were highly jointed, the compressive strength
would be lower, hence, calling for a lower borehole pressure to
avoid backbreak and also a closer spacing.
For easier calculation of the coupling ratio
Figure 5, presented at end of the example section, can be utiliz

38 of 66
EXAMPLE 2:
A rock with a tensile strength of 2,500 psi and a
compressive strength of 40,000 psi is to be presplit using a
continuous column of explosive A, la" diameter, in a 3"
diameter borehole. The velocity of detonation of explosive A
is 16,000 ftlsec., and p = 1.3.
What hole spacing should be used?
SOLUTION:
Borehole
pressure, Pb is calculated as:

2.4
Pb
1.69 x 10-j x p x Da x
1.69 x lo-' x 1.3 x (16,000)*
68,796 psi
This is acceptable providing that some crushing around the

borehole is not a crucial concern. However, it is better to
try to get this borehole pressure down.
If a spacer is used between each cartridge (let's say a
spacer the same length as a cartridge of explosive) and also
decoupled then,
r fi 2e4
Pb = 1.69 x 10-a x p x D2 x 2
t rh
1.69 x 10-a x 1.3 x (16,000)' x
29,945 psi
1.2512
3/2
The borehole pressure is well below the compressive

strength of the rock so that no crushing around the borehole
should occur.

39 of 66
To
calculate spacing of holes:

(Pb + T)
T
6 (29,945 + 2,500)
2,500
2rh
<
<
-
78 inches
Therefore, the spacing of holes for the presplit line

should be less than or equal to 78" (take 6') when the hole
is decoupled and decked.

40 of 66
EXAMPLE 3:
A rock having a compressive strength of 50,000 psi is
to be presplit in a 3" diameter hole. What size cartridge
of Explosive B will do the job without crushing the back of
the borehole.
(Let p = 1.25, D = 17,000 ftlsec)
SOLUTION:
First set the borehole
strength of the rock.
Pb
50,000 psi
pressure equal to the compressive

(assumed
decoupled)
Then calculate Pb of Explosive B

Pb
or
1.69 x 1O-3 x 1.25 x (17,000)
610,513 psi
(C.R.) 2'4
and
C.R.
so that
(coupled)
= 0.062
=
0.35
= C.R. x rh
C
c
= 0.35 x 1.5
1
=
0.53 inches
This means that the charge diameter must be no more

than 1.0 inches when using Explosive B.

41 of 66
EXAMPLE 4:
A construction crew is nearing the final road cut limit
and is planning to use our presplitting explosive, KLEEN CUT.
He wants you to recommend an explosive and spacing for 2" diameter
holes.
Material blasted is granite with a compressive strength of
27,000 psi and a tensile strength of 2,200 psi.
EXplosive
D(ft/sec)
JY(BlCC)
Dia.(in)
Kleen Cut C
14,000
0.92
1.13
Kleen Cut E
9,200
0.58
1.13
Kleen Cut U
9,200
0.76
1.13
SOLUTION:
For Kleen Cut C
'b = 1.69 x 1O-3 x p x D2 x rcj2'4 (decoupled)
i /
= 1.69 x 1O-3 x p x D2 x Yh5651112.4
= 77,418 psi
S < 2 x 1 x (77,418 + 2,200)
2,200
2 72" or 6'
For Kleen Cut E
'b = 21,077 psi
S 2 21" or 1.8'
For Kleen Cut U
'b = 27,618 psi
S 5 27" or 3.0'
For all practical purposes, all three explosives can be used
but with different spacings. Kleen Cut C yields a slightly higher
borehole pressure than needed and will probably cause some crushing
around the borehole wall.

42 of 66
Kleen Cut E
strength of
numerically
matches the
is:
yields a borehole pressure just below the compressive

the rock and is quite acceptable. However, the best
is Kleen Cut U in which the borehole pressure just
compressive strength of the rock. The order of preference
1) Kleen Cut U
s 5 3.0'
2) Kleen Cut C
S 2 6.0'
3) Kleen Cut E
S < 1.8'

43 of 66
l.O0.8.
0 . 6
.c
0.05
Coupling
0.1
0.5
1.0
rolio2.4
Fig 5- Graph of coupling ratlo vs (coupling ratio)Z-4.
(CAN&El - Perimeter Blasting, 1977)

44 of 66
THOD 7B GFNEEWLl7FD APPROACH

( PRESPLllTiNG )
This method is based on many years of Presolitting in various

rock types around the country, The test of time has Proven this
technique to be reliable, simple, and suitable for hole diameters
UP to 6-3/4,
To determine the amount and
distribution of energy in each

hoIe of the oresolit line, a design criterion of O,l oounds oer square
foot in the Presolit plane must be maintained, The method assumes
that a spacing characteristic to oresplitting is used,
For example, suooose a 4 diameter hole on a 4 foot spacing
is to be used in the oresolit line for a 50 foot bench. For easy
calculation, a unit length of one foot of borehole is used.
The
explosive weight per foot of explosive column, then,
would be:
Length
=
=
=
x Width x 0.1 Ibs/ft

Length x Spacing x 0,l lbs/ft*
1 ft x 4 ft x 081 lbs/ft
0,4 pounds
(See figure on next Page)

45 of 66
,..
. ..,
i :
i *
i :.i
P
H=50'
L = 1'
&z
T
1\
Ho e diameter = 4"
s = 4
To calculate the explosive

explosive column,
weight Per foot of
multiply the spacing by 0,l

EXAMPLE: To create a oresolit line between 5 holes spaced 4
apart, the explosive weight per foot of explosive
column would be:

(4 x 0.1) =
0.40 lbs/ft,

46 of 66
HOD 3 m BAWD ON ACTUAL FJF' 0 TF='lNG

( PRESPLITTING
BOREHOLE
DIA, (IN)
EXPLOSIVES
LB/FT.
SPACING
(IN)
1.5
008
12 - 18
1.75
811
12 - 18
2.0
,17
18 - 24
205
,23
24 - 33
3,o
,34
24 - 36
3*5
850
24 - 3 6
4.0
660
36 - 48
5.0
,90
36 - 6 0
6,O
1430
4 8 - 72
8.0
2.00
60 - 84

47 of 66

48 of 66
AIR DECK
DESIGN
CRITERIA

49 of 66

50 of 66
AIRDECK PKBSPLIT CALCULATIONS

I have included an example airdeck presplit calculation
based on a 50 foot hole with hole diameters ranging from
2 l/4 to 15 inches.
For example, if your hole diameter used for the presplit
line is 4 inches in diameter, then the:
Presplit line for hole spacing
Stemming above the airdeck
Burden or distance between the
presplit line and last production
row of holes
Explosive weight per presplit hole
Length of explosive column
=
=
8 feet
5 feet
=
=
=
4 feet
40 pounds
9 feet
Please keep in mind that this is a good starting point

and that depending on the particular site conditions, fine
tuning may be required.
Be aware that if the environment is not conducive to any
other form of presplitting, airdeck presplitting may also not
work.
The calculations on the accompanying table were based on
field tests and later simplified according to the following
criteria:
Hole spacing in presplit line equals 1.7 to 2.0 times
hole diameter in inches to get spacing in feet.
Stemming in presplit hole equals 1.0 to 1.2 times the
hole diameter in inches to get stemming in feet.
Explosive load per presplit hole equals 0.08 to 0.12
pounds times the presplit surface area.
Distance from presplit line of holes to last production
row of holes equals 1.0 times hole diameter in inches
to get the burden in feet.
Example:
9" diameter hole, 50 feet deep
1)
Hole Spacing = 1.7 to 2.0 x 9 = 15.3 ft to 18.0 ft
2)
Stemming = 1.0 to 1.2 x 9 = 9 ft to 10.8 ft

51 of 66
3) Explosive load per hole:

Hole depth = 50 ft
Take average spacing from 1) (15.3 + 18.0)/2 = 17 ft
Presplit surface area = 50 x 17 = 850 sq. ft.
Explosive load per hole =
0.08 to 0.12 x 850 = 68 to 102 lbs
4)
Distance to nearest production hole = 1.0 x 9 = 9 ft
file:airdeck

52 of 66

53 of 66
40
9
2
25
18
Burden ( ft )*
Expl. Weight I Hole ( lb )**
65
6.5
13
6112
,4
90
11
18
B/as
ting Analysis International, inc.
International Symposium on Rock Fragmentation By Blasting - R. Frank Chiappatta et. al.

Keystone, Colorado, August 23-26, 1987
* Exlplosive weight per hole = Approx. 0.10 lb / ft *of presplit surface area
2.4
150
128
3
15
18
30
15
12
15
25.5
12114
Burden =Distance from presplit line to last production row of holes
Presented at Second
Expl. Lenght ( ft )
Stemming ( ft )
4
2114
Spacing ( ft )
HOLE DIAMETER
EXAMPLE: HOLE DEPTH = 50 FEET
TING GUQ
Perimeter Control
for
Tunnelling and
Underground
Applications

54 of 66

55 of 66
GENERAL TUNNEL SPCIFICATIONS
RECOMMENDED
POWDER FACTOR
( LB PER CU. YD )
3.7
3.5
MAXIMUM
ADVANCE
PERMITTED
IN HEADING
ROUNDS
(-1
MAXIMUM
ADVANCE
PERMITTED
IN BENCH
BLASTS
( FT )
12
7-9
6-7
1.7
4-5
1.3
Blasting Analysis Intemafional,hc

56 of 66
III.3
Formation of a free face at a B, distance from
perimeter shots resulting from the production
shots.

57 of 66
/I
L = hole length

58 of 66
TOP HEADING ROUND

EE2ric3iz4
Y
c&&GUI
NO.OF HOI FS IN
Emi
::
V-CUT ( 1 314 )
V-CUT HELPER ( 1 3/4 )
BURN XT( 1314 )
DIAMOND ( 1 3/4 )
RELIEF ( 3 )
PRODUCTION ( 13/4 )
33
29
31
23
14
IO
BUFFER ( 13/4 )
17
15
15
13
10
LIFTER ( 134)
15
15
15
13
11
35
106
39
--xi-
45
90
45
81
V-CUT
80
64
44
37
V-CUT HELPERS
32
21
21
25
PERtMETER
( 13I4)
TOTALS
- 27
105
35 107
TOTAl FXPl WFGHT (I R) I N
BURN CU-IDIAMOND
PRODUCTION
BUFFER
UFIER
PERIMETER (USING TOVEX
MINERITE 2 )
TOTALS
99
81
65
46
469
336
360
184
87
53
182
134
134
69
45
32
213
174
174
104
68
48
63
843
51
493
41
310
80
64
48
37
73
1101
63
834
41
236
UM AMOUNT OF FXPI
PFR Dt=l AY IN :
V-CUT & V-CUT HELPERS
BURN CUT
28
28
PRODUCTION
85
35
70
32
48
25
BUFFER
75
62
58
27
18
14
PERlMEfER
16
16
14

59 of 66

60 of 66
RCI
RC2
RC3
RC4
RC5
ROCK
CLASS
17.0
16
3.5
4.0
Blasting4 Analysis lnlemalional , Inc.
RECCOMMENDED PERIMETER HOLE SPACING- (15 - 24 )
NOTE : ONE CART OF TRIMTEX WEIGHS APPROX. 0.5 lb.
16t MUST SPECIFY MAXIMUM ADVANCE
17.0
3.0
2.5
13.0
15.0
2.0
1.5
WEIGHT OF
EXPLOSIVE
PER HOLE
( LB 1
( TRIMTEX )
ACTUAL NO
OF CART PER
HOLE
11.0
9.0
4.5
ACTUAL
DRILL
DEPTH
(-1
16
r 10
[ 6
DESIGN I
HOLE
DEPTH
(W
BENCH BLAST DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS

( PERIMETER HOLES )
i::::
:
.
i
_____.
i
___.
.
i
m
..
.i
wi
jr; /..,
*; . . . . . j . _. f.-.f..
J../ . . . . . . . . . ;.-.; j +.. . +. :
ul.j
j ; j 4 I ...~.~i~~~t.~~~-~
z i^-..ri-7TIf::i__~::::~~~_:::~~~:,~;
i ..-a
k.../: . . . . . . :. . . c-1
..-. ;..; ..-. tz-t c
..j i . . . . . ./ . j ..-.j: ;....~...~.-+: . . :+. . . _ : j--.? :-j
. i . . . . . . . . . L.....i\
. . .! .-.. i i . . t...z __._ +..
..& ._.. z.i . . . . . 1
. . . . . .__.. ; ;-..i . ;-..; . . . + . . &....& . . .._. .___ I...+ . . . . . & ._.. qr . ;.

61 of 66
!....l....\.illI~.1..... l-... l..... l..-l--1.4 .. . . 14..4-
-- .^_ ..- -- -. - -. I y
! Lk
-.I-l-/...J -... J-J _.. J..&$..J~.
--....--- --.. _-- . -..

.--.-. - -- -- ---..-.-.
-Ilk--. i
62 of 66
i
if
_._.: .._. ._.. +
:
:j
i../.-.
-j.....;
a
;
~:'
-$ . i
...
. i..%
i
ii
___. (._.. .-.+
i
i
//
i . . . . . . . . . . . .j
:
i
__..,_..__
i . i
it

63 of 66

64 of 66

65 of 66

66 of 66

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PRESPLITTING AND CONTROLLED BLASTING

TECHNIQUES, INCLUDING AIR DECKS

Third Hiph-Tech Seminar

Blasting Technology, Instrumentation

Copyright 2001 International Society of Explosives Engineers

Copyright 2001 International Society of Explosives Engineers

The objective in control blasting is to reduce overbreak to control the

Copyright 2001 International Society of Explosives Engineers

Copyright 2001 International Society of Explosives Engineers

became increasingly annoying and costly.

To alleviate and reduce

these problems, line drilling was introduced to provide some degree

The method involves drilling a single row

of closely spaced unloaded holes along the final excavation line

high drilling costs, the technique is more conducive to small diameter

nonhomogeneous formations that exhibit bedding planes, jointing, seams,

discontinuities, line drilling is not very effective.

Hole spacing in line drilling can also be estimated from the

Copyright 2001 International Society of Explosives Engineers

Taconite (iron ore)

For example, if 3 inch diameter holes were to be used in

spacing of holes in line drilling would be (3/12)x2 = 0.5 ft.

In asbestos ore, spacing would be (3/12)x4 = 1.0 foot.

For example, if the

in the last row of the production shot would typically contain

Copyright 2001 International Society of Explosives Engineers

Typical Line Drilling Layout

Blasting Analysis International, Inc.

Copyright 2001 International Society of Explosives Engineers

requires no explosives, thus creates no damage

produces no vibration or air blast problems

ineffective in bad ground conditions

holes must be drilled to correspond with natural

hole diameter may differ from hole diameter in main

close spacing of holes require excellent hole alignment

dependent, in part, to success of main blast

Copyright 2001 International Society of Explosives Engineers

Cushion blasting is essentially a means of trimming and/or

requires a single line of holes behind the main production shot,

is easily accomplished by string

loading or taping of cartridges to detonating cord as it is being

lowered into the hole.

In larger diameter holes, decking throughout the entire

column would be in order.

In any case, it is essential to stem the

bution of energy and stemming.

taneously or with ms delays after the main excavation has been

used in cushion blast holes are given

in the following tables.

(Hemphill, G-B., 1981)

Explosive is generally decoupled by 50% from borehole

Copyright 2001 International Society of Explosives Engineers

Explosive load is decoupled by 40% from borehole wall.

Spacing between cushion holes is always less than regular

Burden from cushion line to production row is 0.6 to 0.8

Copyright 2001 International Society of Explosives Engineers

Cushion Blasting and String Loading

Blasting Analysis International, Inc.

can use larger spacings and reduce drilling costs

results are viewed and assessed immediately after

can make modifications in loading

larger diameter holes generally results in better

requires careful loading and stemming

production shot can break back to cushion holes