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Nepal
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the country. For other uses, see Nepal (disambiguation).
Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal
?????? ???????????? ???????? ?????
Sanghiya Loktantrik Ganatantra Nepal
Flag
Emblem
Motto: ???? ??????????? ?????????? ?????? (Sanskrit)
Mother and Motherland are Greater than Heaven (English)
Anthem: ???? ????? ????? (Nepali)
Made of Hundreds of Flowers (English)
MENU0:00
Capital
and largest city
Kathmandu
2742'N 8519'E
Official languages
Nepali language
National languages [1] Awadhi
Bhojpuri
Gurung
Kiranti
Limbu
Magar
Maithili
Nepali (official)
Newar
Rai
Sherpa
Tamang
Tharu
Religion
81.3% Hinduism
9% Buddhism
4.4% Islam
3% Kirant
1.4% Christianity
0.4% Animism
0.5% Irreligion.[2][3]
Demonym Nepali
Nepalese
Government
Federal parliamentary republic
President
Bidhya Devi Bhandari
Vice President Nanda Kishor Pun
Prime Minister Pushpa Kamal Dahal
Speaker of House
Onsari Gharti Magar
Chief Justice Sushila Karki
Legislature
Parliament
Unification
Kingdom declared
25 September 1768[4]
State declared 15 January 2007
Republic declared
28 May 2008
Area
Total 147,181 km2 (95th)
56,827 sq mi
Water (%)
2.8

Population
2011 census
26,494,504[5]
Density 180/km2 (62nd)
518/sq mi
GDP (PPP)
2016 estimate
Total $74.020 billion[6]
Per capita
$2,573[6]
GDP (nominal) 2016 estimate
Total $24.067 billion[6]
Per capita
$837[6]
Gini (2010)
32.8[7]
medium
HDI (2014)
Increase 0.548[8]
low 145th
Currency
Nepalese rupee (NPR)
Time zone
Nepal Standard Time (UTC+05:45)
DST not observed
Drives on the left
Calling code
+977
ISO 3166 code NP
Internet TLD
.np
.?????
Nepal (Listeni/n?'p??l/;[9] Nepali: ????? About this sound Nepal [ne'pal]), offi
cially the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal (Nepali: ?????? ???????????? ???
????? ????? Sanghiya Loktantrik Ganatantra Nepal),[10] is a landlocked country i
n South Asia with a population of 26.4 million.[5] It is a multiethnic nation wi
th Nepali as the official language. Kathmandu is the nation's capital and larges
t city. Modern Nepal is a secular parliamentary republic.
Nepal is bordered by China to the north and India to the south, east, and west.
It is separated from Bangladesh by a narrow Indian corridor and from Bhutan by t
he Indian state of Sikkim. Nepal is located in the Himalayas and is home to eigh
t of the world's ten tallest mountains, including Mount Everest, the highest poi
nt on Earth. Its southern Madhesh region is fertile and humid.[11] The country h
as an area of 147,181 square kilometres (56,827 sq mi), making it the world's 93
rd largest country by area.[12] It is also the 41st most populous country.
Nepal has a diverse ancient cultural heritage. The name Nepal is first recorded
in texts from the Vedic Age, the era that founded Hinduism, the country's predom
inant religion. Nepal was the world's last Hindu monarchy.[13] Siddharta Gautama
, the founder of Buddhism, was born in Lumbini in southern Nepal. The main minor
ities are Tibetan Buddhists, Muslims, Kiratans, and Christians. The Nepalese are
also known as Gurkhas. They have been reputed for their valour in World War I a
nd World War II.
Established in the 18th century, the early modern Kingdom of Nepal was led by th
e Shah dynasty, after Prithvi Narayan Shah unified many principalities in the re
gion. Nepal is one of the few Asian countries which was never colonized.[14][15]
Following the Anglo-Nepalese War and the Treaty of Sugauli in 1816, Nepal becam
e an ally of the British Empire. A multiparty democracy evolved from 1951 to 196
0, when King Mahendra enacted the panchayat system. In 1990, parliamentary gover
nment was restored by King Birendra. Nepal faced a decade-long Communist Maoist
insurgency and mass protests against the authoritarian King Gyanendra in 2005, w
hich led to the abolition of the monarchy in 2008. Its 2nd constituent assembly
promulgated a new constitution in 2015. Today, the main political blocs in Nepal
are communists, social democrats and Hindu nationalists.
The Nepali government works in the framework of a representative democracy with
seven federal provinces. Nepal is a developing nation, ranking 145th on the Huma
n Development Index (HDI) in 2014. The country struggles with the transition fro

m a monarchy to a republic. It also suffers from high levels of hunger and pover
ty. Despite these challenges, Nepal is making steady progress, with the governme
nt declaring its commitment to elevate the nation from least developed country s
tatus in 2022.[16][17]
Nepal has friendship treaties with India and the United Kingdom.[18] It is a fou
nding member and hosts the permanent secretariat of SAARC. It is also a member o
f the United Nations and BIMSTEC. Nepal is strategically important due to its lo
cation between Asia's great powers, China and India. It is also important for it
s hydropower potential.[19]
Contents [hide]
1
Etymology
2
History
2.1
Ancient
2.2
Medieval
2.3
Kingdom of Nepal (1768 2008)
2.4
Republic (2008)
3
Geography
3.1
Climate
3.2
Geology
3.3
Environment
4
Politics
4.1
Constitution
4.2
Government
4.2.1 Executive
4.2.1.1 Federal executive
4.2.1.2 Provincial executive
4.2.2 Legislative
4.2.2.1 Federal legislature
4.2.2.1.1
The House of Representatives
4.2.2.1.2
The National Assembly
4.2.2.2 Provincial legislature
4.2.3 Judiciary
4.3
Foreign relations
4.4
Military
4.5
Subdivisions
5
Economy
6
Infrastructure
6.1
Energy
6.2
Transport
6.3
Telecommunications and mass media
6.4
Education
6.5
Health
6.6
Community forestry
7
Science and technology
8
Crime and law enforcement
9
Demographics
9.1
Languages
9.2
Religion
9.3
Largest cities
10
Culture
10.1
Holidays and festivals
10.2
Cuisine
10.3
Sports
11
Books set in Nepal
12
Gallery
13
See also
14
References
15
Further reading

16
External links
Etymology
Local legends have that a Hindu sage named "Ne" established himself in the valle
y of Kathmandu in prehistoric times and that the word "Nepal" came into existenc
e as the place was protected ("pala" in Pali) by the sage "Nemi". It is mentione
d in Vedic texts that this region was called Nepal centuries ago. According to t
he Skanda Purana, a rishi called "Nemi" used to live in the Himalayas.[20] In th
e Pashupati Purana, he is mentioned as a saint and a protector.[21] He is said t
o have practised meditation at the Bagmati and Kesavati rivers[22] and to have t
aught there.[23]
The name of the country is also identical in origin to the name of the Newar peo
ple. The terms "Nepal", "Newar", "Newal" and "Nepar" are phonetically different
forms of the same word, and instances of the various forms appear in texts in di
fferent times in history. Nepal is the learned Sanskrit form and Newar is the co
lloquial Prakrit form.[24] A Sanskrit inscription dated 512 CE found in Tistung,
a valley to the west of Kathmandu, contains the phrase "greetings to the Nepals
" indicating that the term "Nepal" was used to refer to both the country and the
people.[25][26]
It has been suggested that "Nepal" may be a Sanskritization of "Newar", or "Newa
r" may be a later form of "Nepal".[27] According to another explanation, the wor
ds "Newar" and "Newari" are vulgarisms arising from the mutation of P to V, and
L to R.[28]
Nepal is likely singular for Nephilim (n'p'l ???) which is ancient Semitic for p
rotector. Sanskrit is formed from the Ph nician Alphabet i.e.: Canaanite Aleph-Bet
.
History
Main article: History of Nepal
Lumbini, listed as the birthplace of Gautama Buddha by the UNESCO World Heritage
Convention
Ancient
Neolithic tools found in the Kathmandu Valley indicate that people have been liv
ing in the Himalayan region for at least eleven thousand years.[29] The oldest p
opulation layer is believed to be represented by the Kusunda people.[30]
Nepal is first mentioned in the late Vedic Atharvaveda Parisi??a as a place expo
rting blankets and in the post-Vedic Atharvashirsha Upanishad.[31] In Samudragup
ta's Allahabad Pillar it is mentioned as a bordering country. The Skanda Purana
has a separate chapter known as "Nepal Mahatmya" that explains in more details a
bout the beauty and power of Nepal.[32] Nepal is also mentioned in Hindu texts s
uch as the Narayana Puja.[31]
Tibeto-Burman-speaking people probably lived in Nepal 2500 years ago.[33] Howeve
r, there is no archaeologic evidence of the Gopal Bansa or Kirati rulers, only m
ention by the later Licchavi and Malla eras.[34]
Around 500 BCE, small kingdoms and confederations of clans arose in the southern
regions of Nepal. From one of these, the Shakya polity, arose a prince who late
r renounced his status to lead an ascetic life, founded Buddhism, and came to be
known as Gautama Buddha (traditionally dated 563 483 BCE).
By 250 BCE, the southern regions came under the influence of the Maurya Empire o
f North India and parts of Nepal later on became a nominal vassal state under th
e Gupta Empire in the fourth century CE. Beginning in the third century CE, the
Licchavi Kingdom governed the Kathmandu Valley and the region surrounding centra
l Nepal.

There is a quite detailed description of the kingdom of Nepal in the account of

the renowned Chinese Buddhist pilgrim monk Xuanzang, dating from c. 645 CE.[35][
36] Stone inscriptions in the Kathmandu Valley are important sources for the his
tory of Nepal.
The Licchavi dynasty went into decline in the late eighth century, probably due
to the Tibetan Empire, and was followed by a Newar or Thakuri era, from 879 CE (
Nepal Sambat 1), although the extent of their control over the present-day count
ry is uncertain.[37] In the eleventh century it seems to have included the Pokha
ra area. By the late eleventh century, southern Nepal came under the influence o
f the Chalukya dynasty of South India. Under the Chalukyas, Nepal's religious es
tablishment changed as the kings patronised Hinduism instead of the Buddhism pre
vailing at that time.
Medieval
Main article: Malla (Nepal)
Former royal palace at Basantapur, Kathmandu
In the early 12th century, leaders emerged in far western Nepal whose names ende
d with the Sanskrit suffix malla ("wrestler"). These kings consolidated their po
wer and ruled over the next 200 years, until the kingdom splintered into two doz
en petty states. Another Malla dynasty beginning with Jayasthiti emerged in the
Kathmandu valley in the late 14th century, and much of central Nepal again came
under a unified rule. In 1482 the realm was divided into three kingdoms: Kathman
du, Patan, and Bhaktapur.
Kingdom of Nepal (1768 2008)
Main article: Kingdom of Nepal
Sino-Nepalese War
The Nepali queen and her ladies in the 1920s
The Old Parliament Building in Kathmandu
Elvis Presley with King Mahendra and Queen Ratna of Nepal in 1960
Edmund Hillary and Tenzing Norgay became the first persons to summit Mt Everest
in Nepal in 1953
Israeli leader David Ben Gurion and Prime Minister B. P. Koirala (right), leader
of the Nepali Congress
In the mid-18th century, Prithvi Narayan Shah, a Gorkha king, set out to put tog
ether what would become present-day Nepal. He embarked on his mission by securin
g the neutrality of the bordering mountain kingdoms. After several bloody battle
s and sieges, notably the Battle of Kirtipur, he managed to conquer the Kathmand
u Valley in 1769. A detailed account of Prithvi Narayan Shah's victory was writt
en by Father Giuseppe, an eyewitness to the war.[38]
The Gorkha dominion reached its height when the North Indian territories of the
Kumaon and Garhwal Kingdoms in the west to Sikkim in the east came under Nepal r
ule. At its maximum extent, Greater Nepal extended from the Teesta River in the
east, to Kangra, Himachal Pradesh, across the Sutlej in the west as well as furt
her south into the Terai plains and north of the Himalayas than at present. A di
spute with Tibet over the control of mountain passes and inner Tingri valleys of
Tibet forced the Qing Emperor of China to start the Sino-Nepali War compelling
the Nepali to retreat and pay heavy reparations to Peking.
Rivalry between Kingdom of Nepal and the East India Company over the annexation

of minor states bordering Nepal eventually led to the Anglo-Nepali War (1815 16).
At first the British underestimated the Nepali and were soundly defeated until c
ommitting more military resources than they had anticipated needing. They were g
reatly impressed by the valour and competence of their adversaries. Thus began t
he reputation of Gurkhas as fierce and ruthless soldiers. The war ended in the S
ugauli Treaty, under which Nepal ceded recently captured portions of Sikkim and
lands in Terai as well as the right to recruit soldiers. Madhesis, having suppor
ted the East India Company during the war, had their lands gifted to Nepali.[39]
Factionalism inside the royal family led to a period of instability. In 1846 a p
lot was discovered revealing that the reigning queen had planned to overthrow Ju
ng Bahadur Kunwar, a fast-rising military leader. This led to the Kot massacre;
armed clashes between military personnel and administrators loyal to the queen l
ed to the execution of several hundred princes and chieftains around the country
. Jung Bahadur Kunwar emerged victorious and founded the Rana dynasty, later kno
wn as Jung Bahadur Rana. The king was made a titular figure, and the post of Pri
me Minister was made powerful and hereditary. The Ranas were staunchly pro-Briti
sh and assisted them during the Indian Rebellion of 1857 (and later in both Worl
d Wars). Some parts of the Terai region populated with non-Nepali peoples were g
ifted to Nepal by the British as a friendly gesture because of her military help
to sustain British control in India during the rebellion. In 1923, the United K
ingdom and Nepal formally signed an agreement of friendship that superseded the
Sugauli Treaty of 1816.[39]
Slavery was abolished in Nepal in 1924.[40] Nevertheless, debt bondage even invo
lving debtors' children has been a persistent social problem in the Terai. Rana
rule was marked by tyranny, debauchery, economic exploitation and religious pers
ecution.[41][42]
In the late 1940s, newly emerging pro-democracy movements and political parties
in Nepal were critical of the Rana autocracy. Meanwhile, with the invasion of Ti
bet by China in the 1950s, India sought to counterbalance the perceived military
threat from its northern neighbour by taking pre-emptive steps to assert more i
nfluence in Nepal. India sponsored both King Tribhuvan (ruled 1911 55) as Nepal's
new ruler in 1951 and a new government, mostly comprising the Nepali Congress, t
hus terminating Rana hegemony in the kingdom.[39]
After years of power wrangling between the king and the government, King Mahendr
a (ruled 1955 72) scrapped the democratic experiment in 1959, and a "partyless" Pa
nchayat system was made to govern Nepal until 1989, when the "Jan Andolan" (Peop
le's Movement) forced King Birendra (ruled 1972 2001) to accept constitutional ref
orms and to establish a multiparty parliament that took seat in May 1991.[43] In
1991 92, Bhutan expelled roughly 100,000 Bhutanese citizens of Nepali descent, mo
st of whom have been living in seven refugee camps in eastern Nepal ever since.[
44]
In 1996, the Communist Party of Nepal started a bid to replace the royal parliam
entary system with a people's republic by violent means. This led to the long Ne
pali Civil War and more than 12,000 deaths.
On 1 June 2001, there was a massacre in the royal palace. King Birendra, Queen A
ishwarya and seven other members of the royal family were killed. The perpetrato
r was Crown Prince Dipendra, who committed suicide (he died three days later) sh
ortly thereafter. This outburst was alleged to have been Dipendra's response to
his parents' refusal to accept his choice of wife. Nevertheless, there is specul
ation and doubts among Nepali citizens about who was responsible.
Following the carnage, King Birendra's brother Gyanendra inherited the throne. O
n 1 February 2005, King Gyanendra dismissed the entire government and assumed fu
ll executive powers to quash the violent Maoist movement,[43] but this initiativ

e was unsuccessful because a stalemate had developed in which the Maoists were f
irmly entrenched in large expanses of countryside but could not yet dislodge the
military from numerous towns and the largest cities. In September 2005, the Mao
ists declared a three-month unilateral ceasefire to negotiate.
In response to the 2006 democracy movement, King Gyanendra agreed to relinquish
sovereign power to the people. On 24 April 2006 the dissolved House of Represent
atives was reinstated. Using its newly acquired sovereign authority, on 18 May 2
006 the House of Representatives unanimously voted to curtail the power of the k
ing and declared Nepal a secular state, ending its time-honoured official status
as a Hindu Kingdom. On 28 December 2007, a bill was passed in parliament to ame
nd Article 159 of the constitution
replacing "Provisions regarding the King" by
"Provisions of the Head of the State"
declaring Nepal a federal republic, and th
ereby abolishing the monarchy.[45] The bill came into force on 28 May 2008.[46]
Republic (2008)
The Unified Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist) won the largest number of seats in
the Constituent Assembly election held on 10 April 2008, and formed a coalition
government which included most of the parties in the CA. Although acts of viole
nce occurred during the pre-electoral period, election observers noted that the
elections themselves were markedly peaceful and "well-carried out".[47]
Dr. Ram Baran Yadav, the first President of Nepal
The newly elected Assembly met in Kathmandu on 28 May 2008, and, after a polling
of 564 constituent Assembly members, 560 voted to form a new government,[46] wi
th the monarchist Rastriya Prajatantra Party, which had four members in the asse
mbly, registering a dissenting note. At that point, it was declared that Nepal h
ad become a secular and inclusive democratic republic,[48][49] with the governme
nt announcing a three-day public holiday from 28 30 May. The king was thereafter g
iven 15 days to vacate Narayanhity Palace so it could reopen as a public museum.
[50]
Nonetheless, political tensions and consequent power-sharing battles have contin
ued in Nepal. In May 2009, the Maoist-led government was toppled and another coa
lition government with all major political parties barring the Maoists was forme
d.[51] Madhav Kumar Nepal of the Communist Party of Nepal (Unified Marxist Leninis
t) was made the Prime Minister of the coalition government.[52] In February 2011
the Madhav Kumar Nepal Government was toppled and Jhala Nath Khanal of the Comm
unist Party of Nepal (Unified Marxist Leninist) was made the Prime Minister.[53] I
n August 2011 the Jhala Nath Khanal Government was toppled and Baburam Bhattarai
of the Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist) was made the Prime Minister.[54]
The political parties were unable to draft a constitution in the stipulated time
.[55] This led to dissolution of the Constituent Assembly to pave way for new el
ections to strive for a new political mandate. In opposition to the theory of se
paration of powers, then Chief Justice Khil Raj Regmi was made the chairman of t
he caretaker government. Under Regmi, the nation saw peaceful elections for the
constituent assembly. The major forces in the earlier constituent assembly (name
ly CPN Maoists and Madhesi parties) dropped to distant 3rd and even below.[56][5
7]
In February 2014, after consensus was reached between the two major parties in t
he constituent assembly, Sushil Koirala was sworn in as the new prime minister o
f Nepal.[58][59]
In 20 September 2015, a new constitution, the "Constitution of Nepal 2015" (Nepa
li: ??????? ??????? ????) was announced by President Ram Baran Yadav in the cons
tituent assembly. The constituent assembly was transformed into a legislative pa
rliament by the then-chairman of that assembly. The new constitution of Nepal ha

s changed Nepal practically into a federal democratic republic by making 7 unnam

ed states.
On 25 April 2015, a magnitude 7.8 earthquake struck Nepal.[60] Two weeks later,
on 12 May, another earthquake with a magnitude of 7.3 hit Nepal, which left more
than 8,500 people dead and about 21,000, injured.[61]
In October 2015, Bidhya Devi Bhandari was nominated as the first female presiden
t.[62]
Geography
Main article: Geography of Nepal
A map of Nepal.
A topographic map of Nepal.
Nepal map of Kppen climate classification.
Nepal is of roughly trapezoidal shape, 800 kilometres (497 mi) long and 200 kilo
metres (124 mi) wide, with an area of 147,181 km2 (56,827 sq mi). See List of te
rritories by size for the comparative size of Nepal. It lies between latitudes 2
6 and 31N, and longitudes 80 and 89E.
Nepal is commonly divided into three physiographic areas: Mountain, Hill and Ter
ai. These ecological belts run east-west and are vertically intersected by Nepal
's major, north to south flowing river systems.
The southern lowland plains or Terai bordering India are part of the northern ri
m of the Indo-Gangetic Plain. They were formed and are fed by three major Himala
yan rivers: the Kosi, the Narayani, and the Karnali as well as smaller rivers ri
sing below the permanent snowline. This region has a subtropical to tropical cli
mate. The outermost range of foothills called Sivalik Hills or Churia Range cres
ting at 700 to 1,000 metres (2,297 to 3,281 ft) marks the limit of the Gangetic
Plain, however broad, low valleys called Inner Tarai Valleys (Bhitri Tarai Uptya
ka) lie north of these foothills in several places.
The Hill Region (Pahad) abuts the mountains and varies from 800 to 4,000 metres
(2,625 to 13,123 ft) in altitude with progression from subtropical climates belo
w 1,200 metres (3,937 ft) to alpine climates above 3,600 metres (11,811 ft). The
Lower Himalayan Range reaching 1,500 to 3,000 metres (4,921 to 9,843 ft) is the
southern limit of this region, with subtropical river valleys and "hills" alter
nating to the north of this range. Population density is high in valleys but not
ably less above 2,000 metres (6,562 ft) and very low above 2,500 metres (8,202 f
t) where snow occasionally falls in winter.
The Mountain Region (Himal), situated in the Great Himalayan Range, makes up the
northern part of Nepal. It contains the highest elevations in the world includi
ng 8,848 metres (29,029 ft) height Mount Everest (Sagarmatha in Nepali) on the b
order with China. Seven other of the world's "eight-thousanders" are in Nepal or
on its border with China: Lhotse, Makalu, Cho Oyu, Kangchenjunga, Dhaulagiri, A
nnapurna and Manaslu.
Climate
Nepal has five climatic zones, broadly corresponding to the altitudes. The tropi
cal and subtropical zones lie below 1,200 metres (3,937 ft), the temperate zone
1,200 to 2,400 metres (3,937 to 7,874 ft), the cold zone 2,400 to 3,600 metres (
7,874 to 11,811 ft), the subarctic zone 3,600 to 4,400 metres (11,811 to 14,436
ft), and the Arctic zone above 4,400 metres (14,436 ft).
Nepal experiences five seasons: summer, monsoon, autumn, winter and spring. The

Himalaya blocks cold winds from Central Asia in the winter and forms the norther
n limit of the monsoon wind patterns. In a land once thickly forested, deforesta
tion is a major problem in all regions, with resulting erosion and degradation o
f ecosystems.
Nepal is popular for mountaineering, having some of the highest and most challen
ging mountains in the world, including Mount Everest. Technically, the south-eas
t ridge on the Nepali side of the mountain is easier to climb; so, most climbers
prefer to trek to Everest through Nepal.
The highest mountains in Nepal are given here:[63]
Mountain
Height Section Location
Mount Everest (Highest) 8,848 m 29,029 ft
Khumbu Mahalangur
Khum
jung VDC, Solukhumbu District, Sagarmatha Zone ( Nepal China Border)
Kangchenjunga (3rd highest)
8,586 m 28,169 ft
Northern Kanchenjunga
Lelep VDC / Yamphudin VDC, Taplejung District, Mechi Zone ( Nepal Sikkim Bor
der)
Lhotse (4th highest)
8,516 m 27,940 ft
Everest Group
Khumjung VDC
, Solukhumbu District, Sagarmatha Zone ( Nepal China Border)
Makalu (5th highest)
8,462 m 27,762 ft
Makalu Mahalangur
Maka
lu VDC, Sankhuwasabha District, Kosi Zone ( Nepal China Border)
Cho Oyu (6th highest) 8,201 m 26,906 ft
Khumbu Mahalangur
Khum
jung VDC, Solukhumbu District, Sagarmatha Zone ( Nepal China Border)
Dhaulagiri (7th highest)
8,167 m 26,795 ft
Dhaulagiri
Mudi
VDC / Kuinemangale VDC, Myagdi District, Dhawalagiri Zone
Manaslu (8th highest) 8,156 m 26,759 ft
Mansiri
Samagaun VDC, Gorkha
District / Dharapani VDC, Manang District, Gandaki Zone
Annapurna (10th highest)
8,091 m 26,545 ft
Annapurna
Ghan
druk VDC, Kaski District, Gandaki Zone / Narchyang VDC, Myagdi District, Dhawala
giri Zone
Geology
Main article: Geology of Nepal
The collision between the Indian subcontinent and Eurasia, which started in Pale
ogene time and continues today, produced the Himalaya and the Tibetan Plateau. N
epal lies completely within this collision zone, occupying the central sector of
the Himalayan arc, nearly one third of the 2,400 km (1,500 mi)-long Himalayas.[
64][65][66][67][68][69]
The Indian plate continues to move north relative to Asia at the rate of approxi
mately 50 mm (2.0 in) per year.[70] This is approximately twice the speed at whi
ch human fingernails grow, which is very fast given the size of the blocks of Ea
rth's crust involved.[original research?] As the strong Indian continental crust
subducts beneath the relatively weak Tibetan crust, it pushes up the Himalayan
Mountains. This collision zone has accommodated huge amounts of crustal shorteni
ng as the rock sequences slide one over another.
Based on a study published in 2014, of the Main Frontal Thrust, on average a gre
at earthquake occurs every 750??140 and 870??350?years in the east Nepal region.[7
1] A study from 2015 found a 700-year delay between earthquakes in the region. T
he study also suggests, that because of tectonic stress transfer, the earthquake
from 1934 in Nepal and the 2015 earthquake are connected - following a historic
earthquake pattern.[72]
Erosion of the Himalayas is a very important source of sediment, which flows via
several great rivers: the Indus, Ganges, and Brahmaputra River systems to the I
ndian Ocean.[73]
Environment
The dramatic differences in elevation found in Nepal result in a variety of biom

es, from tropical savannas along the Indian border, to subtropical broadleaf and
coniferous forests in the Hill Region, to temperate broadleaf and coniferous fo
rests on the slopes of the Himalaya, to montane grasslands and shrublands and ro
ck and ice at the highest elevations.
At the lowest elevations is the Terai-Duar savanna and grasslands ecoregion. The
se form a mosaic with the Himalayan subtropical broadleaf forests, which occur f
rom 500 to 1,000 metres (1,600 to 3,300 ft) and include the Inner Terai Valleys.
Himalayan subtropical pine forests occur between 1,000 and 2,000 metres (3,300
and 6,600 ft).
Above these elevations, the biogeography of Nepal is generally divided from east
to west by the Gandaki River. Ecoregions to the east tend to receive more preci
pitation and to be more species-rich. Those to the west are drier with fewer spe
cies.
From 1,500 to 3,000 metres (4,900 to 9,800 ft), are temperate broadleaf forests:
the eastern and western Himalayan broadleaf forests. From 3,000 to 4,000 metres
(9,800 to 13,100 ft) are the eastern and western Himalayan subalpine conifer fo
rests. To 5,500 metres (18,000 ft) are the eastern and western Himalayan alpine
shrub and meadows.
Landscapes and Climates of Nepal
View of Khartuwa village from Thakuri village of Sitalpati, Shankhuwasabha, east
ern Nepal.
NASA Landsat-7 Image of Nepal. Nepal shares its boundaries with India and China
The Annapurna range of the Himalayas.
Phoksundo Lake
Kali Gandaki Gorge is one of the deepest gorges on earth.
Marshyangdi Valley
r flows.

There are many such valleys in the Himalaya created by glacie

Mount Everest, the highest peak on earth, lies on the Nepal-China border
Wind erosion in Kalopani
A field in Terai
Phulchowki Hill
Hills view of Ghorahi, Dang
View of mountains

Politics
Main article: Politics of Nepal
Bidya bhandaRi.jpg
Prachanda 2009.jpg
Bidhya Devi Bhandari
President since 2015
Pushpa Kamal Dahal
Prime Minister since 3 August 2016
Nepal has seen rapid political changes during the last two decades. Up until 199
0, Nepal was a monarchy under executive control of the King. Faced with a commun
ist movement against absolute monarchy, King Birendra, in 1990, agreed to a larg
e-scale political reform by creating a parliamentary monarchy with the king as t
he head of state and a prime minister as the head of the government.
Nepal's legislature was bicameral, consisting of a House of Representatives call
ed the Pratinidhi Sabha and a National Council called the Rastriya Sabha. The Ho
use of Representatives consisted of 205 members directly elected by the people.
The National Council had 60 members: ten nominated by the king, 35 elected by th
e House of Representatives, and the remaining 15 elected by an electoral college
made up of chairs of villages and towns. The legislature had a five-year term b
ut was dissolvable by the king before its term could end. All Nepali citizens 18
years and older became eligible to vote.
The executive comprised the King and the Council of Ministers (the cabinet). The
leader of the coalition or party securing the maximum seats in an election was
appointed as the Prime Minister. The Cabinet was appointed by the king on the re
commendation of the Prime Minister. Governments in Nepal tended to be highly uns
table, falling either through internal collapse or parliamentary dissolution by
the monarch, on the recommendation of the prime minister, according to the const
itution; no government has survived for more than two years since 1991.
The movement in April 2006 brought about a change in the nation's governance: an
interim constitution was promulgated, with the King giving up power, and an int
erim House of Representatives was formed with Maoist members after the new gover
nment held peace talks with the Maoist rebels. The number of parliamentary seats
was also increased to 330. In April 2007, the Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist)
joined the interim government of Nepal.
In December 2007, the interim parliament passed a bill making Nepal a federal re
public, with a president as head of state. Elections for the constitutional asse
mbly were held on 10 April 2008; the Maoist party led the results but did not ac
hieve a simple majority of seats.[74] The new parliament adopted the 2007 bill a
t its first meeting by an overwhelming majority, and King Gyanendra was given 15
days to leave the Royal Palace in central Kathmandu. He left on 11 June.[75]
On 26 June 2008, the prime minister Girija Prasad Koirala, who had served as Act
ing Head of State since January 2007, announced that he would resign on the elec
tion of the country's first president by the Constituent Assembly. The first rou
nd of voting, on 19 July 2008, saw Parmanand Jha win election as Nepali vice-pre
sident, but neither of the contenders for president received the required 298 vo
tes and a second round was held two days later. Ram Baran Yadav of the Nepali Co
ngress party defeated Maoist-backed Ram Raja Prasad Singh with 308 of the 590 vo
tes cast.[76] Koirala submitted his resignation to the new president after Yadav
's swearing-in ceremony on 23 July 2008.
On 15 August 2008, Maoist leader Prachanda (Pushpa Kamal Dahal) was elected Prim
e Minister of Nepal, the first since the country's transition from a monarchy to
a republic. On 4 May 2009, Dahal resigned over on-going conflicts with regard t
o the sacking of the Army chief. Since Dahal's resignation, the country has been
in a serious political deadlock with one of the big issues being the proposed i
ntegration of the former Maoist combatants, also known as the People's Liberatio
n Army, into the national security forces.[77] After Dahal, Jhala Nath Khanal of

CPN (UML) was elected the Prime Minister. Khanal was forced to step down as he
could not succeed in carrying forward the Peace Process and the constitution wri
ting. On August 2011, Maoist Babu Ram Bhattarai became third Prime Minister afte
r the election of constituent assembly.[78] On 24 May 2012, Nepals's Deputy PM K
rishna Sitaula resigned. [79] On 27 May 2012, the country's Constituent Assembly
failed to meet the deadline for writing a new constitution for the country. Pri
me Minister Baburam Bhattarai announced that new elections will be held on 22 No
vember 2012. "We have no other option but to go back to the people and elect a n
ew assembly to write the constitution," he said in a nationally televised speech
. One of the main obstacles has been disagreement over whether the states which
will be created will be based on ethnicity.[80]
Nepal is one of the few countries in Asia to abolish the death penalty.[81] Nepa
l is the only Asian country where the possibility of same-sex marriage has been
proposed in the high court and in the legislature although same-sex marriage cur
rently does not exist in Nepal (see also LGBT rights in Nepal and Same-sex marri
age in Nepal). The decision was based on a seven-person government committee stu
dy, and enacted through Supreme Court's ruling November 2008. The ruling granted
full rights for LGBT individuals, including the right to marry[82] and now can
get citizenship as a third gender rather than male or female as authorized by Ne
pal's Supreme Court in 2007.[83]
Constitution
Nepal is governed according to the Constitution of Nepal, which came into effect
on 20 September 2015, replacing the Interim Constitution of 2007. The Constitut
ion was drafted by the Second Constituent Assembly following the failure of the
First Constituent Assembly to produce a constitution in its mandated period. The
constitution is the fundamental law of Nepal. It defines Nepal as having multiethnic, multi-lingual, multi-religious, multi-cultural characteristics with comm
on aspirations of people living in diverse geographical regions, and being commi
tted to and united by a bond of allegiance to national independence, territorial
integrity, national interest and prosperity of Nepal. All the Nepali people col
lectively constitute the nation.
Government
Entrance to Singha Durbar, the seat of the Nepali government in Kathmandu
The Constitution of Nepal has defined three organs of the government.[84]
Executive
The form of governance of Nepal shall be a multi-party, competitive, federal dem
ocratic republican parliamentary system based on plurality.
Federal executive
The executive power of Nepal shall rest with the Council of Ministers in accorda
nce with the Constitution and law.The President shall appoint the parliamentary
party leader of the political party with the majority in the House of Representa
tives as a Prime Minister, and a Council of Ministers shall be formed in his/her
chairmanship
Provincial executive
The executive power of the Province shall, pursuant to the Constitution and laws
, be vested in the Council of Ministers of the Province. Provided that the execu
tive power of the Province shall be exercised by the Provincial Head in case of
absence of the Provincial Executive in a State of Emergency or enforcement of Fe
deral rule. Every province shall have a Provincial Head as the representative of
the Federal government. The President shall appoint a Provincial Head for every
province. The Provincial Head shall exercise the rights and duties as specified
in the constitution or laws. The Provincial Head shall appoint the leader of th
e parliamentary party with majority in the Provincial Assembly as the Chief Mini

ster and the Provincial Council of Ministers shall be formed under the chairpers
onship of the Chief Minister.
Legislative
Federal legislature
There shall be a Legislature, called Federal Parliament, consisting of two House
s, namely the House of Representatives and the National Assembly.
The House of Representatives
Except when dissolved earlier, the term of House of Representatives shall be fiv
e years. The House of Representatives shall consist of 275 members as follows:
165 members elected through the first-past-the-post electoral system consisting
of one member from each of the one hundred and sixty five electoral constituenci
es formed by dividing Nepal into 165 constituencies based on geography, and popu
lation.
110 elected from proportional representation electoral system where voters vote
for parties, while treating the whole country as a single electoral constituency
.
The National Assembly
National Assembly shall be a permanent house. The tenure of members of National
Assembly shall be six years. The National Assembly shall consist of two 59 membe
rs as follows:
56 members elected from an Electoral College comprising members of Provincial As
sembly and chairpersons and vice-chairpersons of Village councils and Mayors and
Deputy Mayors of Municipal councils, with different weights of votes for each,
with eight members from each province, including at least three women, one Dalit
, one person with disability or minority;
3 members, including at least one woman, to be nominated by the President on the
recommendation of Government of Nepal.
Provincial legislature
There shall be a unicameral legislature in a province which shall be called the
Provincial Assembly. Every Provincial Assembly shall consist of the following nu
mber of members:
Members equal to double the number of members to be elected through the first-pa
st-the-post (FPTP) election system to the House of Representatives from the conc
erned province,
The number of members to be elected through the Proportional Representation (PR)
election system equal to the number equivalent to the remaining forty per cent
when the number of members from FPTP is regarded as sixty per cent.
Judiciary
Powers relating to justice in Nepal shall be exercised by courts and other judic
ial institutions in accordance with the provisions of this Constitution, other l
aws and recognized principles of justice. There shall be the following courts in
Nepal:
Supreme Court
High Courts
District Courts
Foreign relations
Main article: Foreign relations of Nepal
Embassy of Nepal in Washington, D.C.
Nepal has close ties with both of its neighbors, India and China. In accordance
with a long-standing treaty, Indian and Nepali citizens may travel to each other
's countries without a passport or visa. Nepali citizens may work in India witho
ut legal restriction. The Indian Army maintains seven Gorkha regiments consistin
g of Gorkha troops recruited mostly from Nepal.

However, in the years since the Government of Nepal has been dominated by social
ists, and India's government has been controlled by more right-wing parties, Ind
ia has been remilitarizing the "porous" Indo-Nepali border to stifle the flow of
Islamist groups.[85]
Nepal established relations with the People's Republic of China on 1 August 1955
, and relations since have been based on the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexist
ence. Nepal has aided China in the aftermath of the 2008 Sichuan earthquake, and
China has provided economic assistance for Nepali infrastructure. Both countrie
s have cooperated to host the 2008 Summer Olympics summit of Mt. Everest.[86] Ne
pal has assisted in curbing anti-China protests from the Tibetan diaspora.[87]
Military
Main article: Nepalese Armed Forces
Gurkha Memorial, London
Nepal's military consists of the Nepali Army, which includes the Nepali Army Air
Service. The Nepali Police Force is the civilian police and the Armed Police Fo
rce Nepal[88] is the paramilitary force. Service is voluntary and the minimum ag
e for enlistment is 18 years. Nepal spends $99.2 million (2004) on its military 1.
5% of its GDP. Much of the equipment and arms are imported from India. Consequen
tly, the US provided M16s, M4s and other Colt weapons to combat communist (Maois
t) insurgents. The standard-issue battle rifle of the Nepali army is the Colt M1
6.[89]
In the new regulations by Nepali Army, female soldiers have been barred from par
ticipating in combat situations and fighting in the frontlines of war. However,
they are allowed to be a part of the army in sections like intelligence, headqua
rters, signals and operations.[90]
Subdivisions
Main article: List of provinces of Nepal
The administrative subdivisions of Nepal (provinces and districts).
As of 20 September 2015, Nepal is divided into 7 provinces and 75 districts.
Province No. 1
1. Taplejung District
2. Panchthar District
3. Ilam District
4. Sankhuwasabha District
5. Terhathum District
6. Dhankuta District
7. Bhojpur District
8. Khotang District
9. Solukhumbu District
10. Okhaldhunga District
11. Udayapur District
12. Jhapa District
13. Morang District
14. Sunsari District
Province No. 2
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Saptari District
Siraha District
Dhanusha District
Mahottari District
Sarlahi District

6. Rautahat District
7. Bara District
8. Parsa District
Province No. 3
1. Dolakha District
2. Ramechhap District
3. Sindhuli District
4. Kavrepalanchowk District
5. Sindhupalchowk District
6. Rasuwa District
7. Nuwakot District
8. Dhading District
9. Chitwan District
10. Makwanpur District
11. Bhaktapur District
12. Lalitpur District
13. Kathmandu District
Province No. 4
1. Gorkha District
2. Lamjung District
3. Tanahu District
4. Kaski District
5. Manang District
6. Mustang District
7. Parbat District
8. Syangja District
9. Myagdi District
10. Baglung District
11. Nawalparasi District (east of Bardaghat Susta)
Province No. 5
1. Nawalparasi District (west of Bardaghat Susta)
2. Rupandehi District
3. Kapilbastu District
4. Palpa District
5. Arghakhanchi District
6. Gulmi District
7. Rukum District (eastern part)
8. Rolpa District
9. Pyuthan District
10. Dang District
11. Banke District
12. Bardiya District
Province No. 6
1. Rukum (Western part)
2. Salyan District
3. Dolpa District
4. Jumla District
5. Mugu District
6. Humla District
7. Kalikot District
8. Jajarkot District
9. Dailekh District
10. Surkhet District
Province No. 7
1. Bajura District

2. Bajhang District
3. Doti District
4. Achham District
5. Darchula District
6. Baitadi District
7. Dadeldhura District
8. Kanchanpur District
9. Kailali District
Economy
Main article: Economy of Nepal
A proportional representation of Nepal's exports.
Visitors at the Kathmandu Durbar
Terraced rice farming in Nepal
Tribhuvan International Airport. Tourism is a key part of the national economy,
with Nepal receiving approx. 800,000 foreign visitors each year.[91]
Nepal's gross domestic product (GDP) for 2012 was estimated at over $17.921 bill
ion (adjusted to nominal GDP).[6] In 2010, agriculture accounted for 36.1%, serv
ices comprised 48.5%, and industry 15.4% of Nepal's GDP.[92] While agriculture a
nd industry are contracting, the contribution by the service sector is increasin
g.[92][93]
Agriculture employs 76% of the workforce, services 18% and manufacturing and cra
ft-based industry 6%. Agricultural produce
mostly grown in the Terai region bord
ering India
includes tea, rice, corn, wheat, sugarcane, root crops, milk, and wa
ter buffalo meat. Industry mainly involves the processing of agricultural produc
e, including jute, sugarcane, tobacco, and grain. Its workforce of about 10 mill
ion suffers from a severe shortage of skilled labor.
Nepal's economic growth continues to be adversely affected by the political unce
rtainty. Nevertheless, real GDP growth was estimated to increase to almost 5 per
cent for 2011 2012. This is an improvement from the 3.5 percent GDP growth in 2010 2
011 and would be the second-highest growth rate in the post-conflict era.[94] So
urces of growth include agriculture, construction, financial and other services.
The contribution of growth by consumption fueled by remittances has declined si
nce 2010/2011. While remittance growth slowed to 11 percent (in Nepali Rupee ter
ms) in 2010/2011, it has since increased to 37 percent. Remittances are estimate
d to be equivalent to 25 30 percent of GDP. Inflation has been reduced to a threeyear low of 7 percent.[94]
The proportion of poor people has declined substantially since 2003. The percent
age of people living below the international poverty line (people earning less t
han US$1.25 per day) has halved in seven years.[94] At this measure of poverty t
he percentage of poor people declined from 53.1% in 2003/2004 to 24.8% in 2010/2
011.[94] With a higher poverty line of US$2 per-capita per day, poverty declined
by one-quarter to 57.3%.[94] However, the income distribution remains grossly u
neven.[95]
In a recent survey, Nepal has performed extremely well in reducing poverty along
with Rwanda and Bangladesh as the percentage of poor dropped to 44.2 percent of
the population in 2011 from 64.7 percent in 2006 4.1 percentage points per year,
which means that Nepal has made improvement in sectors like nutrition, child mor
tality, electricity, improved flooring and assets. If the progress of reducing p
overty continues at this rate, then it is predicted that Nepal will halve the cu
rrent poverty rate and eradicate it within the next 20 years.[96][97][98]
The spectacular landscape and diverse, exotic cultures of Nepal represent consid

erable potential for tourism, but growth in the industry has been stifled by pol
itical instability and poor infrastructure. Despite these problems, in 2012 the
number of international tourists visiting Nepal was 598,204, a 10% increase on t
he previous year.[99] The tourism sector contributed nearly 3% of national GDP i
n 2012 and is the second-biggest foreign income earner after remittances.[100]
The rate of unemployment and underemployment approaches half of the working-age
population. Thus many Nepali citizens move to other countries in search of work.
Destinations include India, Qatar, the United States, Thailand, the United King
dom, Saudi Arabia, Japan, Brunei Darussalam, Australia, and Canada.[101][102] Ne
pal receives $50 million a year through the Gurkha soldiers who serve in the Ind
ian and British armies and are highly esteemed for their skill and bravery. As o
f 2010, the total remittance value is around $3.5 billion.[102] In 2009 alone, t
he remittance contributed to 22.9% of the nation's GDP.[102]
A long-standing economic agreement underpins a close relationship with India. Th
e country receives foreign aid from the UK,[103][104] India, Japan, the US, the
EU, China, Switzerland, and Scandinavian countries. Poverty is acute; per-capita
income is around $1,000.[105] The distribution of wealth among the Nepali is co
nsistent with that in many developed and developing countries: the highest 10% o
f households control 39.1% of the national wealth and the lowest 10% control onl
y 2.6%.
The government's budget is about $1.153 billion, with an expenditure of $1.789 b
illion (FY 20005/06). The Nepali rupee has been tied to the Indian rupee at an e
xchange rate of 1.6 for many years. Since the loosening of exchange rate control
s in the early 1990s, the black market for foreign exchange has all but disappea
red. The inflation rate has dropped to 2.9% after a period of higher inflation d
uring the 1990s.
Nepal's exports of mainly carpets, clothing, hemp, leather goods, jute goods and
grain total $822 million. Import commodities of mainly gold, machinery and equi
pment, petroleum products and fertilizer total US$2 billion. European Union (EU)
(46.13%), the US (17.4%), and Germany (7.1%) are its main export partners. The
European Union has emerged the largest buyer of Nepali ready-made garments (RMG)
. Exports to the EU accounted for "46.13 percent of the country's total garment
exports".[106] Nepal's import partners include India (47.5%), the United Arab Em
irates (11.2%), China (10.7%), Saudi Arabia (4.9%), and Singapore (4%).
Besides having landlocked, rugged geography, few tangible natural resources and
poor infrastructure, the ineffective post-1950 government and the long-running c
ivil war are also factors in stunting the nation's economic growth and developme
nt.[107][108][109]
Infrastructure
Energy
Main article: Energy in Nepal
Middle Marshyandi Hydroelectricity Dam. Nepal has significant potential to gener
ate hydropower, which it plans to export across South Asia
The bulk of the energy in Nepal comes from fuel wood (68%), agricultural waste (
15%), animal dung (8%), and imported fossil fuels (8%).[110][111] Except for som
e lignite deposits, Nepal has no known oil, gas or coal deposits. All commercial
fossil fuels (mainly oil and coal) are either imported from India or from inter
national markets routed through India and China. Fuel imports absorb over one-fo
urth of Nepal's foreign exchange earnings.[111]
Only about 1% energy need is fulfilled by electricity. The perennial nature of N
epali rivers and the steep gradient of the country's topography provide ideal co
nditions for the development of some of the world's largest hydroelectric projec

ts. Current estimates put Nepal's economically feasible hydropower potential to

be approximately 83,000 MW from 66 hydropower project sites.[111][112] However,
currently Nepal has been able to exploit only about 600 MW from 20 medium to lar
ge hydropower plants and a number of small and micro hydropower plants.[110] The
re are 9 major hydropower plants under construction, and additional 27 sites con
sidered for potential development.[110] Only about 40% of Nepal's population has
access to electricity.[110] There is a great disparity between urban and rural
areas. The electrification rate in urban areas is 90%, whereas the rate for rura
l areas is only 5%.[111] Power cuts of up to 22 hours a day take place in peak d
emand periods of winter and the peak electricity demand is almost the double the
capability or dependable capacity.[113] The position of the power sector remain
s unsatisfactory because of high tariffs, high system losses, high generation co
sts, high overheads, over staffing, and lower domestic demand.[111]
Transport
Main article: Transport in Nepal
Nepal remains isolated from the world's major land, air and sea transport routes
although, within the country, aviation is in a better state, with 47 airports,
11 of them with paved runways;[114] flights are frequent and support a sizable t
raffic. The hilly and mountainous terrain in the northern two-thirds of the coun
try has made the building of roads and other infrastructure difficult and expens
ive. In 2007 there were just over 10,142 km (6,302 mi) of paved roads, and 7,140
km (4,437 mi) of unpaved road, and one 59 km (37 mi) railway line in the south.
[114]
There is a single reliable road route from India to the Kathmandu Valley. More t
han one-third of its people live at least a two hours walk from the nearest allseason road; 15 out of 75 district headquarters are not connected by road. In ad
dition, around 60% of road network and most rural roads are not operable during
the rainy season.[115] The only practical seaport of entry for goods bound for K
athmandu is Kolkata in West Bengal state of India. Internally, the poor state of
development of the road system makes access to markets, schools, and health cli
nics a challenge.[107]
Telecommunications and mass media
According to the Nepal Telecommunication Authority MIS May 2012 report,[116] the
re are seven operators and the total voice telephony subscribers including fixed
and mobile are 16,350,946 which gives a penetration rate of 61.42%. The fixed t
elephone service account for 9.37%, mobile for 64.63%, and other services (LM, G
MPCS) for 3.76% of the total penetration rate. Similarly, the numbers of subscri
bers to data/internet services are 4,667,536 which represents 17.53% penetration
rate. Most of the data service is accounted by GPRS users. Twelve months earlie
r the data/internet penetration was 10.05%, thus this represents a growth rate o
f 74.77%.[116]
Not only has there been strong subscriber growth, especially in the mobile secto
r, but there was evidence of a clear vision in the sector, including putting a r
eform process in place and planning for the building of necessary telecommunicat
ions infrastructure. Most importantly, the Ministry of Information and Communica
tions (MoIC) and the telecom regulator, the National Telecommunications Authorit
y (NTA), have both been very active in the performance of their respective roles
.[117]
Despite all the effort, there remained a significant disparity between the high
coverage levels in the cities and the coverage available in the underdeveloped r
ural regions. Progress on providing some minimum access had been good. Of a tota
l of 3,914 village development committees across the country, 306 were unserved
by December 2009.[117] In order to meet future demand, it was estimated that Nep
al needed to invest around US$135 million annually in its telecom sector.[117] I
n 2009, the telecommunication sector alone contributed to 1% of the nation's GDP

.[118] As of 30 September 2012, Nepal has 1,828,700 Facebook users.[119]

As of 2007, the state operates two television stations as well as national and r
egional radio stations. There are roughly 30 independent TV channels registered,
with only about half in regular operation. Nearly 400 FM radio stations are lic
ensed with roughly 300 operational.[114] According to the 2011 census, the perce
ntage of households possessing radio was 50.82%, television 36.45%, cable TV 19.
33%, computer 7.23%.[5] According to the Press Council Nepal, as of 2012 there a
re 2,038 registered newspapers in Nepal, among which 514 are in publication.[120
] In 2013, Reporters Without Borders ranked Nepal at 118th place in the world in
terms of press freedom.[121][122]
Education
Main article: Education in Nepal
The overall literacy rate (for population age 5 years and above) increased from
54.1% in 2001 to 65.9% in 2011. The male literacy rate was 75.1% compared to the
female literacy rate of 57.4%. The highest literacy rate was reported in Kathma
ndu district (86.3%) and lowest in Rautahat (41.7%).[5] While the net primary en
rollment rate was 74% in 2005;[123] in 2009, that enrollment rate was 90%.[124]
However, increasing access to secondary education (grade 9 12) remains a major cha
llenge, as evidenced by the low net enrollment rate of 24% at this level. More t
han half of primary students do not enter secondary schools, and only one-half o
f them complete secondary schooling. In addition, fewer girls than boys join sec
ondary schools and, among those who do, fewer complete the 10th grade.[125]
Nepal has seven universities: Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu University, Pokhar
a University, Purbanchal University, Mahendra Sanskrit University, Far-western U
niversity, and Agriculture and Forestry University.[126] Some newly proposed uni
versities are Lumbini Bouddha University, and Mid-Western University. Some fine
scholarship has emerged in the post-1990 era.[127]
Health
Main article: Health in Nepal
Kunde Hospital in remote Himalayan region
Public health and health care services in Nepal are provided by both the public
and private sectors and fare poorly by international standards.[citation needed]
According to 2011 census, more than one-third (38.17%) of the total households
do not have a toilet.[5] Tap water is the main source of drinking water for 47.7
8% of households, tube well/hand pump is the main source of drinking water for a
bout 35% of households, while spout, uncovered well/kuwa, and covered well/kuwa
are the main source for 5.74%, 4.71%, and 2.45% respectively.[5] Based on 2010 W
orld Health Organization (WHO) data, Nepal ranked 139th in life expectancy in 20
10 with the average Nepali living to 65.8 years.[128][129]
Diseases are more prevalent in Nepal than in other South Asian countries, especi
ally in rural areas. Leading diseases and illnesses include diarrhea, gastrointe
stinal disorders, goitres, intestinal parasites, leprosy, visceral leishmaniasis
and tuberculosis.[130] About 4 out of 1,000 adults aged 15 to 49 had human immu
nodeficiency virus (HIV), and the HIV prevalence rate was 0.5%.[131][132] Malnut
rition also remains very high: about 47% of children under five are stunted, 15
percent wasted, and 36 percent underweight, although there has been a declining
trend for these rates over the past five years, they remain alarmingly high.[133
] In spite of these figures, improvements in health care have been made, most no
tably in maternal-child health. In 2012, the under-five infant mortality was est
imated to be 41 out of every 1000 children.[134][135] Overall Nepal's Human Deve
lopment Index (HDI) for health was 0.77 in 2011, ranking Nepal 126 out of 194 co
untries, up from 0.444 in 1980.[136][137]

Community forestry
The Community Forestry Program in Nepal is a participatory environmental governa
nce that encompasses well-defined policies, institutions, and practices. The pro
gram addresses the twin goals of forest conservation and poverty reduction. As m
ore than 70 percent of Nepal's population depends on agriculture for their livel
ihood, community management of forests has been a critically important intervent
ion. Through legislative developments and operational innovations over three dec
ades, the program has evolved from a protection-oriented, conservation-focused a
genda to a much more broad-based strategy for forest use, enterprise development
, and livelihood improvement. By April 2009, one-third of Nepal's population was
participating in the program, directly managing more than one-fourth of Nepal's
forest area.[138][139]
The immediate livelihood benefits derived by rural households bolster strong col
lective action wherein local communities actively and sustainably manage forest
resources. Community forests also became the source of diversified investment ca
pital and raw material for new market-oriented livelihoods. Community forestry s
hows traits of political, financial, and ecological sustainability, including an
emergence of a strong legal and regulatory framework, and robust civil society
institutions and networks. However, a continuing challenge is to ensure equitabl
e distribution of benefits to women and marginalized groups. Lessons for replica
tion emphasize experiential learning, establishment of a strong civil society ne
twork, flexible regulation to encourage diverse institutional modalities, and re
sponsiveness of government and policymakers to a multistakeholder collaborative
learning process.[140][141]
Science and technology
Main article: Science and technology in Nepal
Erected by King Bhupatindra Malla in 1702, Nyatapola is an important tourist att
raction in the historical city of Bhaktapur.
Historical kingdoms that existed in the Kathmandu valley are found to have made
use of some clever technologies in numerous areas such as architecture, agricult
ure, civil engineering, water management, etc. The Gopals and Abhirs, who ruled
the valley up until c. 1000 BC, used temporary materials for construction such a
110 AD) employed the techno
s bamboo, hay, timber, etc. The Kirat period (700 BC
logy of brick firing as well as produced quality woolen shawls. Similarly, stupa
s, idols, canals, self-recharging ponds, reservoirs, etc. constructed during the
Lichhavi era (110 AD
879 AD) are intact to this day, which manifests the ingenu
ity of traditional architecture. Moreover, the Malla period (1200 AD 1768 AD) sa
w an impressive growth in architecture, on par with its advanced contemporaries.
An archetypal example of Malla architecture is Nyatapola, a five-storied, 30-me
ter tall temple in Bhaktapur that has strangely survived at least four major ear
thquakes, including the April 2015 Nepal earthquake.[142]
Nepal was a late entrant into the modern world of science and technology. Nepal s
first institution of higher education, Tri-Chandra College, was established by C
handra Shumsher in 1918. The college introduced science at the Intermediate leve
l a year later, marking the genesis of formal science education in the country.[
142] However, the college was not accessible to the general public, but only to
a handful of members of the Rana regime. Throughout the Rana regime that lasted
for well over a century, Nepal was effectively isolated from the rest of the wor
ld. Owing to this isolation, Nepal was relatively untouched by and unfamiliar of
social transformations brought about by the British invasion in India and the I
ndustrial Revolution in the West.[143] However, after the advent of democracy an
d abolition of Rana regime in 1951, Nepal broke free from the shackles of self-i
mposed isolation and opened up to the outside world. This opening marked the ini
tiation of S&T activities in the country.[144]
An underdeveloped country, Nepal is plagued with problems like poverty, illitera

cy, unemployment, etc. Consequently, science and technology have invariably lagg
ed behind in the priority list of the government. On the other hand, citing poor
university education at home, tens of thousands of Nepali students leave the co
untry every year, with half of them never returning.[145][146] These factors hav
e been huge deterrents to the development of science and technology in Nepal.
Crime and law enforcement
Main article: Law enforcement in Nepal
See also: Directorate of Military Intelligence, Nepal; National Investigation De
partment of Nepal; and Human trafficking in Nepal
Law enforcement in Nepal is primarily the responsibility of the Nepali Police Fo
rce which is the national police of Nepal.[147] It is independent of the Nepali
Army. In the days of its establishment, Nepal Police personnel were mainly drawn
from the armed forces of the Nepali Congress Party which fought against the feu
dal Rana autocracy in Nepal. The Central Investigation Bureau (CIB) and National
Investigation Department of Nepal (NID) are the investigation agencies of Nepal
. They have offices in all 75 administrative districts including regional office
s in five regions and zonal offices in 14 zones. Numbers vary from three to five
members at each district level in rural districts, and numbers can be higher in
urban districts. They have both Domestic and International surveillance unit wh
ich mainly deals with cross border terrorists, drug trafficking and money launde
ring.[148][149][150][151]
A 2010 survey estimated about 46,000 hard drug users in the country, with 70% of
the users to be within the age group of 15 to 29.[152] The same survey also rep
orted that 19% of the users had been introduced to hard drugs when they were les
s than 15 years old; and 14.4% of drug users were attending school or college.[1
52] Only 12 of the 17 municipalities studied had any type of rehabilitation cent
er.[152][153] There has been a sharp increase in the seizure of drugs such as ha
shish, heroin and opium in the past few years; and there are indications that dr
ug traffickers are trying to establish Nepal as a transit point.[154]
Human trafficking is a major problem in Nepal.[155][156][157] Nepali victims are
trafficked within Nepal, to India, the Middle East, and other areas such as Mal
aysia and forced to become prostitutes, domestic servants, beggars, factory work
ers, mine workers, circus performers, child soldiers, and others. Sex traffickin
g is particularly rampant within Nepal and to India, with as many as 5,000 to 10
,000 women and girls trafficked to India alone each year.[158][159][160]
With wider availability of information technology, cyber crime is a growing tren
d. The police handled 16 cases of cyber crime in fiscal year 2010/2011, 47 cases
in 2011/2012 and 78 in the current fiscal year.[161][clarification needed]
Capital punishment was abolished in Nepal in 1997.[162] In 2008, the Nepali gove
rnment abolished the Haliya system of forced labour, freeing about 20,000 people
.[163] However, the effectiveness of this has been questioned by the Asian Legal
Resource Centre.[164]
Demographics
Main article: Demographics of Nepal
Nepalese gentlemen in 1940
Nepalese women dancing for Teej
Population density map of Nepal
Comparison Of Nepal Population
According to the 2011 census, Nepal's population grew from 9 million people in 1
950 to 26.5 million. From 2001 to 2011, the average family size declined from 5.

44 to 4.9. The census also noted some 1.9 million absentee people, over a millio
n more than in 2001; most are male laborers employed overseas, predominantly in
South Asia and the Middle East. This correlated with the drop in sex ratio from
94.41 as compared to 99.80 for 2001. The annual population growth rate is 1.35%.
[5]
The citizens of Nepal are known as Nepali or Nepalese. The country is home to pe
ople of many different national origins. As a result, Nepalese do not equate the
ir nationality with ethnicity, but with citizenship and allegiance. Although cit
izens make up the majority of Nepalese, non-citizen residents, dual citizens, an
d expatriates may also claim a Nepalese identity. Nepal is multicultural and mul
tiethnic country because it became a country by occupying several small kingdoms
such as Mustang, Videha (Mithila), Madhesh, and Limbuwan in the 18th century. T
he oldest settlements in Mithila and Tharuhat are indigenous Maithil and aborigi
nal Tharu people. Northern Nepal is historically inhabited by Kirants Mongoloid,
Rai and Limbu people. The mountainous region is sparsely populated above 3,000
m (9,800 ft), but in central and western Nepal ethnic Sherpa and Lamapeople inha
bit even higher semi-arid valleys north of the Himalaya. Kathmandu Valley, in th
e middle hill region, constitutes a small fraction of the nation's area but is t
he most densely populated, with almost 5 percent of the nation's population. The
Nepali are descendants of three major migrations from India, Tibet, and North B
urma and the Chinese province of Yunnan via Assam. Among the earliest inhabitant
s were the Kirat of east mid-region, Newars of the Kathmandu Valley, aboriginal
Tharus of Tharuhat, Madhesis of Madhesh and Maithils of Mithila region. Ancient
and Indigenous Madhesis are descendents of Nepalese origin tribes while Indian o
rigin Madhesis are the descendents of Nepalese migrants to Madhesh from Indian s
tate of Bihar and Uttar pradesh; the Brahmin (Bahun) and Kshatriya (Chettri) cas
te groups are descendents of migrants from India's present Banaras, Kumaon, Garh
wal and Kashmir regions, while other ethnic groups trace their origins to North
Burma and Yunnan and Tibet, e.g., the Gurung and Magar in the west, Rai, Sunuwar
and Limbu in the east (from Yunnan and north Burma via Assam), and Sherpa and B
hutia in the north (from Tibet).
Despite the migration of a significant section of the population to the Madhesh
(southern plains) in recent years, the majority of Nepalese still live in the ce
ntral highlands; the northern mountains are sparsely populated. Kathmandu, with
a population of over 2.6 million (metropolitan area: 5 million),[dubious
discuss
] is the largest city in the country and the cultural and economic heart.
According to the World Refugee Survey 2008, published by the US Committee for Re
fugees and Immigrants, Nepal hosted a population of refugees and asylum seekers
in 2007 numbering approximately 130,000. Of this population, approximately 109,2
00 persons were from Bhutan and 20,500 from People's Republic of China.[165][166
] The government of Nepal restricted Bhutanese refugees to seven camps in the Jh
apa and Morang districts, and refugees were not permitted to work in most profes
sions.[165] At present, the United States is working towards resettling more tha
n 60,000 of these refugees in the US.[44]
Population Structure
Data
Size
Population
26,494,504 (2011)
Growth Rate
1.35%
Population below 14 Years old 34.19%
Population of age 15 to 59
54.15%
Population above 60
8.13%
Median age (Average)
20.07
Median age (Male)
19.91
Median age (Females)
20.24
Ratio (Male:Female)
100:94.16
Life expectancy (Average) (Reference:[167])

66.16 Years

Life expectancy (Male) 64.94

Life expectancy (Female)
Literacy Rate (Average) 65.9%
Literacy Rate (Male)
75.1%
Literacy Rate (Female) 57.4%

67.44

A Nepalese Tibetan monk

Languages
Main article: Languages of Nepal
Nepal's diverse linguistic heritage stems from three major language groups: Indo
-Aryan, Tibeto-Burman, and various indigenous language isolates. The major langu
ages of Nepal (percent spoken as native language) according to the 2011 census a
re Nepali (44.6%), Maithili (11.7%), Bhojpuri (Awadhi Language) (6.0%), Tharu (5
.8%), Tamang (5.1%), Nepal Bhasa (3.2%), Bajjika (3%) and Magar (3.0%), Doteli (
3.0%), Urdu (2.6%) and Sunwar. Nepal is home to at least four indigenous sign la
nguages.
Derived from Sanskrit, Nepali is written in Devanagari script. Nepali is the off
icial language and serves as lingua franca among Nepali of different ethnolingui
stic groups. The regional languages Maithili, Awadhi, Bhojpuri and rarely Urdu o
f Nepali Muslims are spoken in the southern Madhesh region. Many Nepali in gover
nment and business speak Maithili as the main language and Nepali as their de fa
cto lingua franca. Varieties of Tibetan are spoken in and north of the higher Hi
malaya where standard literary Tibetan is widely understood by those with religi
ous education. Local dialects in the Terai and hills are mostly unwritten with e
fforts underway to develop systems for writing many in Devanagari or the Roman a
lphabet.
Religion
Main article: Religion in Nepal
Religion in Nepal (2011)[2]
religion
percent
Hindu
?
81.3%
Buddhist
?
9.0%
Muslim
?
4.4%
Folk
?
3.0%
Christian
?
1.42%
Other
?
0.9%
The overwhelming majority of the Nepalese population follows Hinduism. Shiva is
regarded as the guardian deity of the country.[168] Nepal is home to the famous
Lord Shiva temple, the Pashupatinath Temple, where Hindus from all over the worl
d come for pilgrimage. According to Hindu mythology, the goddess Sita of the epi
c Ramayana, was born in the Mithila Kingdom of King Janaka Raja.
Lumbini is a Buddhist pilgrimage site and UNESCO World Heritage Site in the Kapi
lavastu district. Traditionally it is held to be the birthplace in about 563 B.C
. of Siddhartha Gautama, a Kshatriya caste prince of the Sakya clan, who as the
Buddha Gautama, founded Buddhism.

The holy site of Lumbini is bordered by a large monastic zone, in which only mon
asteries can be built. All three main branches of Buddhism exist in Nepal and th
e Newa people have their own branch of the faith.[169] Buddhism is also the domi
nant religion of the thinly populated northern areas, which are mostly inhabited
by Tibetan-related peoples, such as the Sherpa.
The Buddha, born as a Hindu, is also said to be a descendant of Vedic Sage Angir
asa in many Buddhist texts.[170] The Buddha's family surname is associated with
Gautama Maharishi.[171] Differences between Hindus and Buddhists have been minim
al in Nepal due to the cultural and historical intermingling of Hindu and Buddhi
st beliefs. Moreover, traditionally Buddhism and Hinduism were never two distinc
t religions in the western sense of the word. In Nepal, the faiths share common
temples and worship common deities. Among other natives of Nepal, those more inf
luenced by Hinduism were the Magar, Sunwar, Limbu and Rai and the Gurkhas.[33] H
indu influence is less prominent among the Gurung, Bhutia, and Thakali groups wh
o employ Buddhist monks for their religious ceremonies.[33] Most of the festival
s in Nepal are Hindu.[172] The Machendrajatra festival, dedicated to Hindu Shaiv
a Siddha, is celebrated by many Buddhists in Nepal as a main festival.[173] As i
t is believed that Ne Muni established Nepal,[174] some important priests in Nep
al are called "Tirthaguru Nemuni". Islam is a minority religion in Nepal, with 4
.2% of the population being Muslim according to a 2006 Nepali census.[175] Mundh
um, Christianity and Jainism are other minority faiths.[176]
Largest cities
Pokhara
Lalitpur
The 14 largest cities by population as per the 2011 census[5]
Main article: List of cities in Nepal
Kathmandu (Pop.: 975,453)
Pokhara (Pop.: 255,465)
Lalitpur (Pop.: 220,802)
Biratnagar (Pop.: 201,125)
Bharatpur (Pop.: 143,836)
Birganj (Pop.: 135,904)
Butwal (Pop.: 118,462)
Dharan (Pop.: 116,181)
Bhim Datta (Pop.: 104,599)
Dhangadhi (Pop.: 101,970)
Janakpur (Pop.: 97,776)
Hetauda (Pop.:84,671)
Madhyapur Thimi (Pop.: 83,036)
Bhaktapur (Pop.: 81,748)
Nepalgunj (Pop.:73,779)
Culture
Main articles: Culture of Nepal and Music of Nepal
The Nepalese actress and UN Goodwill Ambassador Manisha Koirala
Folklore is an integral part of Nepali society. Traditional stories are rooted i
n the reality of day-to-day life, tales of love, affection and battles as well a
s demons and ghosts and thus reflect local lifestyles, culture, and beliefs. Man
y Nepali folktales are enacted through the medium of dance and music.
Most houses in the rural lowlands of Nepal are made up of a tight bamboo framewo
rk and walls of a mud and cow-dung mix. These dwellings remain cool in summer an
d retain warmth in winter. Houses in the hills are usually made of unbaked brick
s with thatch or tile roofing. At high elevations construction changes to stone
masonry and slate may be used on roofs.

Nepal's flag is the only national flag in the world that is not rectangular in s
hape.[177] The constitution of Nepal contains instructions for a geometric const
ruction of the flag.[178] According to its official description, the red in the
flag stands for victory in war or courage, and is also the colour of the rhodode
ndron, the national flower of Nepal. Red also stands for aggression. The flag's
blue border signifies peace. The curved moon on the flag is a symbol of the peac
eful and calm nature of Nepali, while the sun represents the aggressiveness of N
epali warriors.
Holidays and festivals
Main article: List of festivals in Nepal
With 36 days a year, Nepal is the country with most public holidays.[179] The Ne
pali year begins in 1st of Baisakh in official Hindu Calendar of the country, th
e Bikram Sambat which falls in mid-April and is divided into 12 months. Saturday
is the official weekly holiday. Main annual holidays include the National Day,
celebrated on the birthday of the king (28 December), Prithvi Jayanti (11 Januar
y), Martyr's Day (18 February), and a mix of Hindu and Buddhist festivals such a
s Dashain in autumn, tihar in mid-autumn and Chhath in late autumn. During Swant
i, the Newars perform the Mha Puja ceremony to celebrate New Year's Day of the l
unar calendar Nepal Sambat. Most of the festivals in Nepal are Hindu.[172]
Cuisine
Main article: Nepalese cuisine
The staple Nepali meal is dal bhat. Dal is a lentil soup, and is served over bha
t (boiled rice), with tarkari (curried vegetables) together with achar (pickles)
or chutni (spicy condiment made from fresh ingredients). It consists of non-veg
etarian as well as vegetarian items. Mustard oil is a common cooking medium and
a host of spices, including cumin, coriander, black pepper, sesame seeds, turmer
ic, garlic, ginger, methi (fenugreek), bay leaves, cloves, cinnamon, chilies and
mustard seeds are used in cooking. Momo is a type of steamed dumpling with meat
or vegetable fillings, and is a popular fast food in many regions of Nepal.
Sports
Main article: Sports in Nepal
Association football is the most popular sport in Nepal[180] and was first playe
d during the Rana dynasty in 1921.[181] The one and only international stadium i
n the country is the Dasarath Rangasala Stadium where the national team plays it
s home matches.[182]
Cricket has been gaining popularity since the last decade. Since the establishme
nt of the national team, Nepal has played its home matches on the Tribhuvan Univ
ersity International Cricket Ground.[183] The national team has since won the 20
12 ICC World Cricket League Division Four and the 2013 ICC World Cricket League
Division Three[184] simultaneously hence qualifying for 2014 Cricket World Cup Q
ualifier. They also qualified for the 2014 ICC World Twenty20 in Bangladesh.[185
] On 28 June 2014, the ICC awarded T20I status to Nepal, who took part and perfo
rmed exceptionally well in the 2014 ICC World Twenty20.[186][187] Nepal had alre
ady played three T20I matches before gaining the status, as ICC had earlier anno
unced that all matches at the 2014 ICC World Twenty20 would have T20I status.[18
8] Nepal won the 2014 ICC World Cricket League Division Three held in Malaysia a
nd qualified for the 2015 ICC World Cricket League Division Two.[189]
Nepal finished fourth in the 2015 ICC World Cricket League Division Two in Namib
ia[190] and qualified for the 2015 17 ICC World Cricket League Championship.[191]
But Nepal failed to secure promotion to Division One and qualification to 2015 17
ICC Intercontinental Cup after finishing third in the round-robin stage.[192][19
3] Basanta Regmi became the first bowler to take 100 wickets in the World Cricke
t League. He achieved this feat after taking 2 wickets against Netherlands in th
e tournament.[194]

Books set in Nepal

The Snow Leopard Peter Matthiessen
The Tutor of History Manjushree Thapa
A Glimpse of Eternal Snows Jane Wilson-Howarth
The Mountain is Young Han Suyin
Gallery
Holi festival celebrations in Nepal
Pashupatinath Temple
Nepal cricket team
Musicians playing devotional songs
One of the Rana palaces of Nepal
Urban Newari cuisine
Tibetan momos in Nepal
See also
Outline of Nepal
Human rights in Nepal
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Further reading
Shaha, Rishikesh (1992). Ancient and Medieval Nepal. New Delhi: Manohar Publicat
ions. ISBN 81-85425-69-8.
Tiwari, Sudarshan Raj (2002). The Brick and the Bull: An account of Handigaun, t
he Ancient Capital of Nepal. Himal Books. ISBN 99933-43-52-8.
"India Nepal Open Border". Nepal Democracy. Retrieved 23 September 2005.
"Football at the heart of the Himalaya". FIFA. Archived from the original on 9 S
eptember 2005. Retrieved 23 September 2005.
"Nepal: Information Portal". Explore Nepal. Retrieved 1 September 2007.
Haven, Cynthia (24 August 2010). "The Best Memoir You Never Heard Of: "Shadow Ov
er Shangri-La"". San Francisco Chronicle.
"Nepal: A state under siege". The South Asian: Featured Articles. Archived from
the original on 31 December 2004. Retrieved 23 September 2005.
"Nepal: Basic Fact Sheet". Nepal homepage. Archived from the original on 24 May
2005. Retrieved 23 September 2005.
Sharma, Sushil (29 August 2005). "Jailed ex-PM in Nepal court plea". BBC News. R
etrieved 29 September 2005.
"Nepal's new emblem". Citizen Journalism Nepal. Archived from the original on 9
February 2007. Retrieved 7 February 2007.
Hagmuller, Gotz (2003). Patan Museum: The Transformation of a Royal Palace in Ne
pal. London: Serindia. ISBN 978-0-906026-58-8.
Dixit, Kunda (2006). A people war: Images of the Nepal conflict 1996 2006. Kathman
du: nepa-laya.
Crossette, Barbara (1995). So Close to Heaven: The Vanishing Buddhist Kingdoms o
f the Himalayas. New York: Vintage. ISBN 0-679-74363-4.
Bista, Dor Bahadur (1967). People of Nepal. Department of Publicity, Ministry of

Information and Broadcasting, Government of Nepal. ISBN 99933-0-418-2.

Whelpton, John (2005). A History of Nepal. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521804707.
Michael Hutt, ed., Himalayan 'people's war' : Nepal's Maoist rebellion, London:
C. Hurst, 2004
Matthiessen, Peter (1993). The Snow Leopard. Penguin. ISBN 0-00-272025-6.
Simpson, Joe (1997). Storms of Silence. Mountaineers Books. ISBN 0-89886-512-3.
Upadhyay, Samrat (2001). Arresting God in Kathmandu. Mariner Books. ISBN 0-618-0
4371-3.
Joseph R. Pietri (2001). The King of Nepal. Indianapolis, IN: Indiana Creative A
rts. ISBN 0-615-11928-X.
Herzog, Maurice (1951). Annapurna. The Lyons Press. ISBN 1-55821-549-2.
Murphy, Dervla (1968). The Waiting Land: A Spell in Nepal. Transatlantic Arts. I
SBN 0-7195-1745-1.
Rishikesh Shaha (2001). Modern Nepal: A Political History. Manohar Publishers an
d Distributors. ISBN 81-7304-403-1.
Jane Wilson-Howarth (2012). A Glimpse of Eternal Snows: a family s journey of love
and loss in Nepal. Bradt Travel Guides, UK. p. 390. ASIN B009S7FHU4. ISBN 978-1
-84162-435-8.
Glacial Lakes and Glacial Lake Outburst Floods in Nepal. International Centre fo
r Integrated Mountain Development, Kathmandu, March 2011
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