Mining Technology

Transactions of the Institutions of Mining and Metallurgy: Section A

ISSN: 1474-9009 (Print) 1743-2863 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/ymnt20

Modelling fracturing, disturbed and interaction

zones around fully confined detonating charges
I Onederra, A Catalan & G Chitombo
To cite this article: I Onederra, A Catalan & G Chitombo (2013) Modelling fracturing, disturbed
and interaction zones around fully confined detonating charges, Mining Technology, 122:1,
20-32, DOI: 10.1179/1743286312Y.0000000021
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1179/1743286312Y.0000000021

Published online: 12 Nov 2013.

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Modelling fracturing, disturbed and

interaction zones around fully confined
detonating charges
I. Onederra*1, A. Catalan2 and G. Chitombo3

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In order to gain better insights into the complex mechanisms at play under fully confined blasting
conditions in mining applications, several models were constructed and analysed using the
hybrid stress blasting model (HSBM). A disturbed zone or microdamage criterion was proposed
and used in the modelling analysis. It combined a lattice bond contact tensile failure criteria and a
simple peak particle velocity based approach. Estimates were made of the extent of fracturing,
disturbed and interaction zones from fully confined blastholes spaced at distances of up to 18 m,
simultaneously initiated with primers positioned every 8 m. Continuous interaction was evident
along the explosive column at spacings of ,15 m. When blastholes were spaced at 18 m, the
attenuation of the stress wave showed only partial or limited interaction along the column. With
regards to the influence of in situ stress magnitudes in the range of 5001500 m, modelling results
appeared to capture the impact of stress intensity on the final extension of the macrofracturing
zone. At depths of 1200 m and above, the degree of continuous interaction was diminished at the
level of the initiating primers. For the simulated geotechnical conditions, the orientation of radial
fractures with respect to the principal stress direction is more evident at anisotropy ratios greater
than two. However, the extent and shape of the disturbed zone does not appear to be influenced
by anisotropy, which showed a deficiency in the implementation of in situ stresses in the current
modelling framework and further work is being conducted to address this limitation.
Keywords: Confined blasting, Blast damage modelling, Blast preconditioning, Explosive rock interaction

Introduction
The physical processes or associated mechanisms of near
field rock disturbance from fully confined detonating
cylindrical charges, equivalent to the detonation of fully
coupled and fully confined blastholes in mining applications, are complex and have been studied using either
analytical or numerical methods. The desired outcome is
being able to predict and delineate the extent and/or
severity of the resulting fracturing, disturbed and interaction zones (e.g. overall macro- and microdamage) from
either single or several nearby blastholes detonated either
simultaneously or sequentially. Rossmanith et al. (1997),
Rossmanith (2003) and Rossmanith and Kouzniak (2004)
described the theoretical background and provided
insight into the way in which stress waves from
detonating charges can propagate, interact and finally
contribute to the final extent of rock mass damage, which
1

CRC Mining, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Qld, Australia

Newcrest Mining Limited, Australia. PhD Research Scholar, The
University of Queensland, Brisbane, Qld, Australia
3
W H Bryan Mining and Geology Research Centre, Sustainable Minerals
Institute, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Qld, Australia
2

*Corresponding author, email i.onederra@uq.edu.au

20

2013 Institute of Materials, Minerals and Mining and The AusIMM

Published by Maney on behalf of the Institute and The AusIMM
Received 19 July 2012; accepted 23 September 2012
DOI 10.1179/1743286312Y.0000000021

in this context is defined as the change of the inherent or

in situ characteristics of the intact rock or rock mass
which changes its engineering behaviour or response. In
underground mining applications, this problem is made
more complex by the presence of stresses (magnitude and
orientation) as well as the anisotropic nature of properties
of the confining rock mass.
The work presented in this paper focuses on quantifying the impact of both the intensity and interaction of
stress waves induced by the explosive detonation process,
as well as the orientation and magnitude of in situ stresses.
An approach is proposed to define the radius of influence
within the rock mass which can be identified as disturbed.
This disturbed zone does not solely refer to a zone of
intense macro fracturing near the blasthole (i.e. radial and
circumferential fractures) but to a combination of both
macro- and microfracturing of intact rock which can be
associated with the passage and superposition of stresses
from simultaneously detonated explosive charges. Several
models were constructed and analysed by the authors of
this paper using a numerical blasting model designated as
the hybrid stress blasting model (HSBM) which is briefly
described in this paper. This work formed part of an
continuing blasting research theme within The University
of Queensland, concerned with quantifying the impact of

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confined blasting on rock mass damage specifically in

caving mining applications.

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Hybrid stress blasting model

The HSBM can be described as a sophisticated blast
modelling research tool. The code has been under development through an international collaborative research
project funded by a consortium of companies comprising
explosive and equipment suppliers and major mining
houses. The model takes into account the mechanical
properties of the intact rock, rock mass structures and in situ
stresses (Furtney et al., 2009; Furtney et al., 2011). In
addition the HSBM uses an in-built non-ideal detonation
code to calculate the combined forces (stresses and gasses)
from explosive products (Braithwaite et al., 2009).
Over the course of its development several improvements and modifications have been made to both the
detonation and geomechanical modelling components in
order to improve the calculation speed and the size of
the problems that could be modelled.
A description of the original HSBM framework has
been given by Ruest et al. (2006) and has been updated
by Furtney et al. (2009). The main components and
software links which have not changed since the
inception of the project include:
(i) detonation modelling: this is via ideal and nonideal detonation models to determine explosive
detonation characteristics and outputs from fully
coupled and decoupled conditions. The current
detonation module in HSBM is designated as
Vixen. It is envisaged that this semianalytical
approach may later be replaced by a direct
numerical solution (DNS) approach to more
accurately cater for blast confinement effects
(ii) blast layout and discrete fracture network
(DFN): these include blast layout and discontinuity software tools. These enable the design of
larger and more complex models and blasting
layouts. However the rock breakage engine has
the facilities to build relatively simple blast
geometries based on built-in design templates
(iii) the rock breakage engine: the rock breakage
engine in the HSBM is designated Blo-Up. It uses
a combination of continuous and discontinuous
numerical techniques to model detonation,
dynamic wave propagation, rock fragmentation
and muckpile formation.
The Blo-Up interface provides the platform for model input
parameters as well as the graphical display of specific
outputs. These include items such as three-dimensional
graphical representations of dynamic fracturing, fragment
size distributions, internal fragment damage, pressure
histories and velocity histories. The mechanical aspects of
the Blo-Up computational engine have been discussed in
detail by Furtney et al. (2011). One of the most fundamental
aspects of the code is the numerical representation of the
borehole, explosive charge and rock mass.
As described by Furtney et al. (2011), the borehole
explosive and near field rock are represented as an axissymmetric continuum using the FLAC code. The
explosive is represented as a special constitutive behaviour in the central zones of the FLAC region. The
Vixen detonation models, described separately by
Cunningham et al. (2006) and Braithwaite et al.
(2009), give as input to the FLAC model the velocity

Modelling fracturing, disturbed and interaction zones

of detonation (VoD), the parameters for the Williamsburg equation of state, the final reaction extent, the
initial density and a reference state. Energy release in the
FLAC zones representing the explosive is controlled by
a programmed burn (PB) algorithm. The rock in the
near field area is represented as a MohrCoulomb
material, which is coupled to the explosive reaction
products represented by the Williamsburg model.
Energy released by the reaction increases the isotropic
stress in the zones representing the explosive. The
confining material expands in response to the increasing
gas pressure, and the new confining volume is transmitted to the Williamsburg equation of state, which
returns a new isotropic stress. In this way, rock and
explosive are fully coupled at all times. The stemming
material is modelled directly as a MohrCoulomb
material. The mechanical calculation is fully coupled
to a simplified gas flow logic representing the high
pressure reaction product gas. This logic uses an
equilibrium pressure parameter to simulate energy losses
due to crushing of the borehole wall.
The rock mass is represented with a lattice type discrete
element method, which is a simplification of the full DEM
calculation cycle previously performed by the PFC3D
code. The main features of the lattice approach have been
described by Cundall (2011), in general terms the lattice
method applies forces to point masses, which have only
translational degrees of freedom, and the connecting
springs have a tensile breaking strength. This simplification
has resulted in an increase in calculation speed and a
significant decrease in memory storage requirements. The
model geometry is built up of point masses distributed in a
non-repeating pattern with a user specified average
separation between nodes (i.e. model resolution). On the
lattice, four boundary conditions are permitted: free, quiet,
semi-quiet and flex. Free nodes represent a free surface,
which may reflect stress waves. Quiet boundaries are used
to model intact rock of the same type in the far field. Quiet
boundaries ensure that wave energy is absorbed at the
interior (artificial) model boundaries. This is the boundary
condition mainly used in fully confined blasting models
such as those discussed in this paper.

Disturbed or damage zone criterion

A disturbed or damage zone criterion is proposed and
described as a region which combines both the final state
of the impacted intact rock (e.g. lattice node contact
failure) and the irreversible deformation or microfracturing caused by a stress transient. This stress transient is
assumed to be directly related to the radial peak particle
velocity component. In this case, particle velocity is used
as an index to define the potential areas of the rock mass
which are likely to be disturbed by the propagation and
interaction of stress waves from detonating charges which
are represented in the model by field velocity contours.
The application of peak particle velocity as an index to
estimate damage has been previously demonstrated by
researchers and practitioners (Holmberg and Persson,
1980; Onederra and Esen, 2003; Lu and Hustrulid, 2003).

Confined blasting model interpretation

To help explain the proposed disturbed zone criterion,
Fig. 1 shows a long section of a two blasthole
configuration and describes the different stages and
therefore the mechanisms which are assumed in order to

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1 Two blasthole conguration describing main numerical modelling stages in conned blasting conditions

model disturbed zones in confined blasting conditions.

In this example, primers or initiation points are located
every 8 m along the length of each blasthole. During
stages 1 and 2, in the figure, the detonation process
begins and the stress waves interact along the length of
each blasthole after the consumption or detonation of
y4 m of the explosive charge. Immediately after the
interaction of the detonation fronts described in stage 2
and immediately after the explosive column has been
consumed, the gas logic in HSBM is activated (stage 3).
It should be noted that in the numerical approach
implemented in HSBM, the combined effect of the shock
and gas, produces the stress wave imparted into the
virtual rock mass which is depicted in an isometric view
in stage 4. This stage shows, in red, the radial velocity
field with amplitudes exceeding 1100 mm s21 after
y1?8 ms. These particle velocities attenuate with distance and may interact with other incoming waves of
adjacent charges as described in the long section
depicted in stage 5. This shows that for any given
spacing between charges, the positive superimposition
and therefore positive reinforcement of stress or blast
waves can still contribute to disturbances in the rock.
The extent of this interaction will depend on the level of
stress attenuation and the distance between charges, and
the detonation times of these charges. As shown in stage
5, the probability of positive interaction is high for the
chosen distance as the degree of disturbance is continuous along the charge and covers the volume of interest.

Fracturing, disturbed and interaction zones

criterion
Figures 2 and 3 illustrate the proposed criterion which is
also used to interpret the output generated by subsequent

22

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HSBM models. Currently the HSBM is only able to display

the final state of a point in the rock mass represented by
lattice node contacts (i.e. either failed or intact). This is not
necessarily valid when identifying regions that may have
experienced transient stress loads that could cause microfracturing or irreversible damage to intact rock. Because of
the ability of HSBM to dynamically display velocity fields in
three dimensions, this particular output was used to identify
at different stages of the stress propagation and attenuation
process, the potential extent of disturbed zones at given
distances; and also define whether interaction or stress
superposition is achieved between blastholes. An index of
incipient damage of 1100 mm s21 was estimated from
average intact properties and used to display the extent of
potential disturbed zones as well as interaction caused by
the simultaneous initiation of confined charges. As shown in
Figs. 2 and 3, this envelope is expected to have different
degrees of damage, ranging from a fractured zone near the
blasthole (consisting of mainly macrofracturing) to disturbed zones further away from the blasthole (consisting
mainly of microfracturing of intact rock) and after the
further propagation and interaction of stresses, an interaction zone is identified between blastholes.

Hybrid stress blasting model calibration

The implementation of fully instrumented single hole
tests at a large underground operation enabled the
calibration, final configuration and optimisation of
HSBM models discussed in this paper, further details
are given by Catalan et al. (2012). The calibration
process allowed the optimisation of model geometries,
boundary conditions and definition of key model
solution parameters. These parameters are associated

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2 Isometric and plan section views describing criteria

used to dene macrofracturing and disturbed zones in
proposed models

with strength and strain rate dependency, lattice

resolution requirements, velocity attenuation and activation conditions for the implemented gas flow logic.

Intact rock and stress field input parameters

The mechanical properties which have been used as
input into the HSBM numerical analyses are summarised in Table 1. These values are based on the work
discussed by Catalan et al. (2012).
A damping coefficient also needs to be specified. This
coefficient takes into account the attenuation characteristics of the intact rock or material such as rock fabric,
mineralisation, porosity, texture or other characteristics
which define its heterogeneity. Furtney et al. (2009)
indicated that a damping coefficient that may be set
from zero to unity. A value of zero corresponds to nodamping and a value of unity corresponds to critical
damping. A value of 0?1 was assumed and was primarily
based on previous research that focussed on the
evaluation of this coefficient (Onederra et al., 2009).
The in situ stress field which has been used as input
into HSBM models is summarised in Table 2 below.
This is also based on direct measurements reported by
Catalan et al. (2012).

Model boundary conditions and solution

parameters
In fully confined conditions, quiet boundaries are used
in the model configuration to ensure that wave energy is
absorbed at the interior (artificial) model boundaries
(Furtney et al., 2009). The lattice scheme implemented in
the HSBM model consists of an assembly of point
masses (or nodes), each of which is connected by springs
to its neighbours. In this approach each spring operates
in both the shear and normal directions. The lattice
method applies forces to point masses, which have only

3 Isometric and plan section views describing criteria

used to dene disturbed zones from stress interaction/
superposition

translational degrees of freedom, and the connecting

springs have a tensile breaking strength. The known
dependency of tensile strength on strain rate has been
implemented in the HSBM with a simple model where
the tensile strength is scaled by a power law function of
distance away from the nearest borehole:
T~

M{1 b
r z1
r0 {b

where T is the tensile strength multiplier, r0 is the radius

of the borehole, r is the length from the nearest hole, M
and b are parameters which allow to scale by a power
law function of dynamic tensile strength. In all model
configurations associated with this study, the parameters
M and b have been set as 10 and 23 respectively. The
adopted model resolution was borehole diameter or in
this case 165 mm. This is consistent with the findings
reported by Onederra et al. (2009) which dictate that the
model resolution (i.e. minimum particle size in a model)
should be kept at values of equal or less than one

Table 1 Intact rock mechanical properties

Material properties

Mean values Stand. Dev.

Density/kg m23
Tensile strength/MPa
Uniaxial compressive strength/MPa
Elastic modulus/GPa
Poisson ratio
Velocity of longitudinal wave/m s21
Velocity of shear wave/m s21

2790
14.9
133
67.5
0.32
5904
3151

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7.5
70.5
19.1
0.14
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4 Results of calibration tests where radial peak particle velocity is y1900 mm s21 7?5 m away from the closest explosive
charge

borehole diameter for effective coupling between the

FLAC continuum and the lattice nodes.

Model calibration and geometric configuration

From a modelling perspective the calibration process
involved an iterative process that within the context of
this work had the aim of matching, as close as it is
reasonably possible, radial velocity measurements at
defined distances (e.g. 7?5 and 9 m away). Near field
peak velocity measurements were calculated from
complete acceleration records obtained during the
implemented single hole trials (Catalan et al., 2012).

Table 2 In situ stress eld

24

Orientation (plunge/trend)

Magnitudes/MPa

s156u/083u
s255u/174u
s3583u/302u

s1532.2
s2523.8
s3513.6

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Once a close match was obtained and the model was

numerically stable, the calibrated model was configured
and used to investigate the extent of disturbed zones
given by different blasthole pattern layouts and in situ
stress regimes.
Figure 4 shows an example of the results of a
calibration test where the radial peak particle velocity is
approximately 1900 mm s21 7?5 m away from the closest
explosive charge. This peak value closely matches the
range of recorded values (e.g. 10002500 mm s21) and
was considered appropriate for modelling purposes. As
shown in Fig. 4, the model peak radial velocity is due to
the combined transfer of explosive energy from the
FLAC explosive zone into the lattice zone (virtual rock
mass). The model is stable within the test simulation
timeframe of 10 ms when all wave transients have
dissipated. From a practical point of view, the measured
and modelled peak radial velocities are consistent with
the range of peak particle velocities that can be estimated
by more simplistic empirical models (Holmberg and
Persson, 1980). This provided a justifiable basis for

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5 Geometry and explosive charging conguration showing borehole pressure history and with corresponding VoD input

adopting the disturbed zone and interaction criterion that

combines both the HSBM bond contact tensile failure
criteria and a practical peak particle velocity based
approach.
The computational intensive nature of the HSBM
requires a degree of optimisation prior to the definition
of final modelling parameters. Preliminary work demonstrated the repeating pattern of the damage and
disturbed zones given by the dynamic decking of the
explosive column from the simultaneous initiation of
primers located every 8 m. From these earlier tests, the
optimum model size for the current configuration was
defined and consisted of a column charge with three
initiation points as shown in Fig. 5. This simple
configuration was able to capture key mechanisms of
macro fracturing and disturbed zones due to the
interaction and potential superposition of stress waves
in the near field.
Figure 5 also describes the output from a borehole
pressure history point located inside the charge to check
that the explosives VoD is properly modelled.

Hybrid stress blasting modelling

scenarios and results
For consistency, the three dimensional modelling outputs from each scenario are displayed in plan sections
and long sections, where appropriate, to easily identify
the radial extent of fracturing, disturbed zones and the
likelihood of interaction. The analysis focuses on wave
stress transients occurring within a few milliseconds
after the explosive detonation process (i.e. 1?53?0 ms).
Sections are taken at the level of an initiating primer as
well as between primer positions, as will be apparent
these two levels can better describe the overall extent of
macrofracturing, disturbed zones and interaction. It
should also be noted that all sections displayed on a
0?560?5 m grid with red showing peak velocities
exceeding 1100 mm s21 at a specific simulation time
stage.

Scenario 1: linear and vertical blasthole

interactions
As described in Fig. 6, an evaluation of the disturbed
zone envelope is performed for two 165 mm diameter
vertical blastholes fired simultaneously and spaced at
distances of 12, 15 and 18 m respectively. The three
cases considered the in situ stress field described in
Table 2 which is characteristic of a depth of y750 m.
Results: 12 m spacing

Results from the 12 m spacing configuration are shown in

Fig. 7. In this case results indicate that within y1?6 ms,
peak radial velocities exceeding 1100 mm s21 from individual blastholes can occur at radii of y5?0 m at the level of
the initiating primer or 6?0 m midway between primer
positions. This can be defined as the extent of the disturbed
zone. The fractured zone is characterised by a number of
radial fractures contained in a radius of y2?5 m.
Modelling results also show that the likelihood of positive
interaction is high at the 12 m spacing configuration. As
shown by the sections taken at the potential interaction
timeframe (i.e. y1?8 ms), continuous superposition is
expected along the explosive charge, i.e. at the primer and
between primers), meaning that disturbed zones between
these charges is expected.
Results: 15 m spacing

Results from the 15 m spacing configuration are shown

in Fig. 8. As in the 12 m spacing case, results indicate
that within y1?6 ms, peak radial velocities exceeding
1100 mm s21 from individual blastholes can occur at
radii of y5?0 m at the level of the initiating primer or
6?0 m midway between primer positions. The disturbed
zones from individual blastholes is consistent to the
previous case; however, velocities and hence stresses
attenuate further before interaction occurs. As shown in
Fig. 8 at the interaction timeframe (i.e. y2?1 ms),
continuous superposition/interaction of stresses may still
be achieved along the explosive charge between initiating
primers; however, a small reduction is observed at the

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6 Parameters and blasthole distances of scenario 1 models

level of the primer. In general, disturbed zones defined by

the combined fractured and disturbed zone criteria may
still be expected at this spacing. However, it is not as
continuous between charges as in the 12 m spacing case.

limited superposition/interaction along the explosive column. At the primer position there is no evidence of
interaction and hence the disturbed zones extent would not
be continuous at this larger spacing configuration.

Results: 18 m spacing

Scenario 2: influence of in situ stress

magnitudes

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Results from the 18 m spacing configuration are shown in

Fig. 9. At the interaction timeframe (i.e. y2?3 ms) further
attenuation of the stress wave however shows only partial or

The 15 m spacing configuration from the previous

analysis was used to evaluate the impact of in situ stress

7 Snapshots of fractured and disturbed zones at 12 m spacing conguration

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8 Snapshots of fractured and disturbed zones at 15 m spacing conguration

magnitudes at depths of 500, 750, 1000, 1200 and

1500 m. Model configurations and corresponding stress
magnitudes are summarised in Fig. 10.
Results: influence of in situ stress magnitudes

Figure 11 summarises the results at depths of 500

1000 m and Fig. 12 at depths of 1200 and 1500 m
respectively. The analysis clearly shows the impact of
depth (in situ stresses) on the intensity and extension of
the macrofracturing zone. The radial extent varies from
an average radius of 3?54?0 m at 500 m to y1?5 m at
depths of 1500 m. The disturbed zone is also affected in
terms of intensity and extent of interaction between
blastholes. As shown, at depths of 1200 m and above,
the degree of continuous interaction and hence disturbance potential is diminished at the level of the
primer initiation point. This condition is exacerbated at
1500 m. The analysis shows that blasthole spacing may
need to be altered (closer together) at greater depths (e.g.
above 1200 m) to maximise the potential for interaction
and thus the extent of disturbance.

Scenario 3: influence of in situ stress anisotropy

The aim of scenario 3 was to evaluate the impact of
stress anisotropy for the range of the ratio of stresses k
given in Fig. 13. In this case, the 15 m spacing
configuration was adopted at a depth of 1000 m.
Results: influence of ratio of stresses

As discussed, the impact of in situ stress anisotropy was

evaluated for k ratios ranging from 0?5 to 2?5 at a
constant depth of 1000 m. The analysis also focused on

the extent of disturbed zones at the interaction stage.

Figures 1416 summarise the results of this analysis. For
the simulated geotechnical conditions, the orientation of
radial fractures with respect to the principal stress
direction is more evident at anisotropy ratios greater
than two. However, the extent and shape of the disturbed
zone does not appear to be influenced by anisotropy,
which showed a deficiency in the implementation of in situ
stresses in the current modelling framework and further
work is being conducted to address this limitation.

Conclusions
To understand the complex mechanisms at play under
confined blasting conditions, several models were constructed using the HSBM. A disturbed zones criterion
was established and adopted in the numerical modelling
analysis. This criterion combined both a lattice bond
contact tensile failure criteria and a practical peak particle
velocity based approach. Because of the ability of HSBM
to dynamically display velocity fields, this particular
output was used to identify at different stages of the stress
propagation and attenuation process, the potential extent
of disturbance at given distances; and also define whether
interaction is achieved between blastholes. An index of
incipient damage of 1100 mm s21 was used to display the
extent of potential disturbance as well as interaction
caused by the simultaneous initiation of confined charges.
Three zones are described which are expected to have
different degrees of damage, ranging from a fractured
zone near the blasthole to disturbed zones further away

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9 Snapshots of fractured and disturbed zones at 18 m spacing conguration

from the blasthole consisting mainly of microfracturing

of intact rock.
A number of modelling scenarios were evaluated with
the HSBM, the main conclusions from the results of the
studied configurations can be summarised as follows.
1. The likelihood of positive interaction is high
at a 12 m in-line blasthole spacing configuration.
Continuous interaction/superposition was evident along
the explosive charge (i.e. at the primer and between

primers), meaning that disturbed zones between these

charges can be expected.
2. When vertical blastholes are spaced apart at 15 m
centres, continuous superposition/interaction of stresses
may still be achieved along the explosive charge between
initiating primers; however, a small reduction is
observed at the level of the primer. In general, disturbed
zones defined by the combined fractured and disturbed
zone criteria may still be expected at this spacing.

10 Blasthole geometry and in situ stress regime of scenario 2 models: note all stress values in MPa and orientations as
per Table 2

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11 Inuence of stress magnitudes on degree of interaction/superposition for in situ stress regimes of 500 to 1000 m

3. When vertical blastholes are spaced at 18 m,

attenuation of the stress wave shows only partial or
limited superposition/interaction along the explosive
column. At the primer position there is no evidence of
interaction and is not continuous at this larger spacing
configuration.
4. With regards to the influence of in situ stress
magnitude. At 15 m spacing configuration, modelling results appear to capture the impact of depth (in
situ stresses) on the intensity and extension of the

macrofracturing zone. The radial extent varies from an

average radius of 3?54?0 m at 500 m to y1?5 m at
depths of 1500 m. The disturbed zone is also affected in
terms of intensity and extent of interaction between
blastholes. At depths of 1200 m and above, the degree of
continuous interaction and hence disturbed zones
potential is diminished at the level of the primer
initiation point. This condition is exacerbated at
1500 m. The analysis indicates that blasthole spacing
may need to be altered (be closer together) at greater

12 Inuence of stress magnitudes on degree of interaction/superposition for in situ stress regimes of 12001500 m

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13 Blasthole geometry and anisotropy ratios of scenario 3 models

depths (e.g. above 1200 m) to maximise the potential for

interaction and thus the extent of disturbance.
5. For the simulated geotechnical conditions, the
orientation of radial fractures with respect to the

principal stress direction is more evident at anisotropy

ratios greater than two. However, the extent and shape
of the disturbed zone does not appear to be influenced by anisotropy, this showed a deficiency in the

14 Extent of disturbed zones at interaction stage for stress anisotropy ratios of 0?51?0

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15 Extent of disturbed zones at interaction stage for stress anisotropy ratios of 1?251?75

16 Extent of disturbed zones at interaction stage for stress anisotropy ratios of 2?03?0

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implementation of in situ stresses in the current

modelling framework and further work is being conducted to address this limitation.

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