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Krishna (/krn/; Sanskrit: , Ka in IAST, pronounced [kr]) is a major Hindu deity worshiped in a
variety of dierent perspectives. Krishna is recognised
as the Svayam Bhagavan in his own right or as the complete/absolute incarnation of Lord Vishnu. Krishna is
one of the most widely revered and popular of all Hindu
deities.[2] Krishnas birthday is celebrated every year by
Hindus on the eighth day (Ashtami) of the Krishna Paksha (dark fortnight) of the month of Shraavana in the
Hindu calendar.[3]
Krishna is also known as Govinda, Mukunda, Madhusudhana, and Vasudeva. Krishna is often described and portrayed as an infant eating butter; a young boy playing a
ute, as in the Bhagavata Purana;[4] a young man along
with Radha; a young man surrounded by women; or as an
elder giving direction and guidance, as in the Bhagavad
Gita.[5] The stories of Krishna appear across a broad spectrum of Hindu philosophical and theological traditions.[6]
They portray him in various perspectives: a god-child, a
prankster, a model lover, a divine hero, and the Supreme
Being.[7] The principal scriptures discussing Krishnas
story are the Srimad Bhagavatam, the Mahabharata, the
Harivamsa, the Bhagavata Purana, and the Vishnu Purana. The anecdotes and narratives of Krishna, in topic,
are generally titled as Krishna Leela.
Worship of the deity Krishna, either in the form of deity Krishna or in the form of Vasudeva, Bala Krishna
or Gopala can be traced to as early as the 4th Century
BC.[8][9] Worship of Krishna as Svayam Bhagavan, or the
Supreme Being known as Krishnaism, arose in the Middle Ages in the context of the Bhakti movement. From
the 10th Century AD, Krishna became a favorite subject in performing arts and regional traditions of devotion developed for forms of Krishna, such as Jagannatha
in Odisha, Vithoba in Maharashtra and Shrinathji in
Rajasthan. Since the 1960s the worship of Krishna has
also spread to the Western world and to Africa largely
due to the International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON).[10] Gaudia Math is also a leading proponent of Krishna worship.
2 ICONOGRAPHY
Among the most common names are Mohnish Attractive God, Mohan enchanter, Govinda, Finder of 'Go'
- Veda or the cows or Gopala, Protector of the 'Go' Soul or the cows as 'Govinda' (like cowherds who protect cows, the Lord protect the souls of the living beings)
which refer to Krishnas childhood in Braj (in present-day
Uttar Pradesh).[13][14] Some of the distinct names may be
regionally importantfor instance, Jagannatha, a popular incarnation of Puri, Odisha in eastern India.[15]
Iconography
Krishna with cows, herdsmen and Gopis, Pahari painting [Himalayan] from Smithsonian Institution
The scene on the battleeld of the epic Mahabharata, notably where he addresses Pandava prince Arjuna in the
Bhagavad Gita, is another common subject for representation. In these popular depictions, he is shown as the
charioteer in the battle-eld of Kurukshetra. In Vish-
3
varoopa Darshana (Universal form) to Arjuna, Lord Krishna resumes the role of the often with supreme Gods
characteristics of Hindu religious art, such as multiple
arms or heads, denoting power, and with attributes of
Vishnu, such as the chakra or in his two-armed form
as a charioteer. Cave paintings dated to 800 BCE in
Mirzapur, Mirzapur district, Uttar Pradesh, show raiding
horse-charioteers, one of whom is about to hurl a wheel,
and who could potentially be identied as Krishna.[20]
Representations in temples often show him standing in
a bent posture, holding a ute in his hand accompanied with his consort Radha and gopis.[21] Seldomly he
is shown with his brother Balarama and sister Subhadra,
or his queens Rukmini and Satyabhama
Krishna is also depicted and worshipped as a small child
(Bala Krishna, Bla Ka the child Krishna), crawling
on his hands and knees, or dancing, often with butter or
Laddu in his hand being Laddu Gopal.[22][23] Regional
variations in the iconography of Krishna are seen in his
dierent forms, such as Jaganatha of Odisha, Vithoba
of Maharashtra,[24] Venkateswara (also Srinivasa or Balaji) in Andhra Pradesh, and Shrinathji in Rajasthan and
also as a new born cosmic infant sucking his toe while
oating on a banyan leef during the Pralaya (the cosmic dissolution) at the end of universe observed by sage
Markandeya.[25]
Literary sources
The Rig Veda 1.22.164 sukta 31 mentions a herdsman liarities and is either an independent version or a misrepwho never stumbles.[27] Some Vaishnavite scholars, resentation of a popular story that had wandered far from
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its home.
Jain tradition also shows that these tales were popular and
were worked up into dierent forms, for the Jains have an
elaborate system of ancient patriarchs which includes Vsudevas and Baladevas. Krishna is the ninth of the Black
Vsudevas and is connected with Dvravat or Dvrak.
He will become the twelfth trthankara of the next worldperiod and a similar position will be attained by Devak,
Rohin, Baladeva and Javakumra, all members of his
family. This is a striking proof of the popularity of the
Krishna legend outside the Brahmanic religion.[40]
According to Arthasastra of Kautilya (4th century BCE)
Vsudeva was worshiped as supreme Deity in a strongly
monotheistic format.[36]
Around 150 BC, Patanjali in his Mahabhashya quotes
a verse: May the might of Krishna accompanied by
Samkarshana increase!" Other verses are mentioned.
One verse speaks of Janardhana with himself as fourth
(Krishna with three companions, the three possibly being Samkarshana, Pradyumna, and Aniruddha). Another verse mentions musical instruments being played
at meetings in the temples of Rama (Balarama) and Kesava (Krishna). Patanjali also describes dramatic and
mimetic performances (Krishna-Kamsopacharam) representing the killing of Kansa by Vasudeva.[41][42]
In the 1st century BC, there seems to be evidence for Vasudeva carrying the newborn Krishna to Nands house in
a worship of ve Vrishni heroes (Balarama, Krishna, Gokul via river Yamuna.
Pradyumna, Aniruddha and Samba) for an inscription
has been found at Mora near Mathura, which apparently
mentions a son of the great satrap Rajuvula, probably the
satrap Sodasa, and an image of Vrishni, probably Vasudeva, and of the Five Warriors.[43] Brahmi inscription on the Mora stone slab, now in the Mathura Museum.[44][45]
Many Puranas tell Krishnas life-story or some highlights
from it. Two Puranas, the Bhagavata Purana and the
Vishnu Purana, that contain the most elaborate telling
of Krishnas story and teachings are the most theologically venerated by the Vaishnava schools.[46] Roughly one
quarter of the Bhagavata Purana is spent extolling his life
and philosophy.
Krishnas foster mother Yashoda with the infant Krishna. Chola
period, Early 12th century, Tamil Nadu, India.
4.1 Birth
Life
This summary is a historical account, based on literary details from the Mahbhrata, the Harivamsa, the
Bhagavata Purana and the Vishnu Purana. The scenes
from the narrative are set in ancient India mostly in the
present states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Haryana, Delhi Out of aection for Devaki, Kansa did not kill her outand Gujarat.
right. He did, however, send his sister and her husband
4.2
stories of Krishnas childhood and youth tell how he became a cow herder,[58] his mischievous pranks as Makhan
Chor (butter thief), his foiling of attempts to take his life,
and his role as a protector who stole the hearts of the people in both Gokul and Vrindavana.
LIFE
sities, instead of worshipping Indra annually by spending their resources.[59][60] In the view of some, the spiritual movement started by Krishna had something in it
which went against the orthodox forms of worship of the
Vedas.[61] In Bhagavat Purana, Krishna says that the rain
came from the nearby hill Govardhana, and advised that
the people worship the hill instead of Indra. This made
Indra furious, so he punished them by sending out a great
storm and rain which lasted for seven days and seven
nights. Krishna then lifted Govardhan and held it over
the people like an umbrella. This reduced Indras pride
and he felt guilt of his act and sought forgivness from the
lord in the form of a sage.
The stories of his play with the gopis (milkmaids) of Vrindavana, especially Radha (daughter of Vrishbhanu, one of
the original residents of Vrindavan) became known as the
Rasa lila and were romanticised in the poetry of Jayadeva,
author of the Gita Govinda. These became important as
part of the development of the Krishna bhakti traditions
worshiping Radha Krishna.[62]
Krishnas childhood reinforces the Hindu concept of lila,
playing for fun and enjoyment and not for sport or gain.
His interaction with the gopis at the rasa dance or Rasalila is a great example of this. Krishna played his ute
and the gopis came immediately from whatever they were
doing, to the banks of the Yamuna River, and joined him
in singing and dancing. Even those who could not physically be there joined him through meditation.[63] The
story of Krishnas battle with Kliy also supports this
idea in the sense of him dancing on Kliy's many hoods.
Even though he is doing battle with the serpent, he is in
no real danger and treats it like a game. He is a protector,
but he only appears to be a young boy having fun. With
his supreme powers, Krishna killed innumerable powerful demons (who had been born as demons because of
curses or fate) so he could help them to attain salvation.[64]
This idea of having a playful god is very important in Hinduism. The playfulness of Krishna has inspired many celebrations like the Rasa-lila and the Janmashtami : where
they make human pyramids to break open handis (clay
pots) hung high in the air that spill buttermilk all over the
group after being broken by the person at the top. This
is meant to be a fun celebration and it gives the participants a sense of unity. Many believe that lila being connected with Krishna gives Hindus a deeper connection to
him and thus a deeper connection to Vishnu also; seeing
as Krishna is an incarnation of Vishnu. Theologists, like
Kristin Johnston Largen, believe that Krishnas childhood
can even inspire other religions to look for lila in deities
so that they have a chance to experience a part of their
faith that they may not have previously seen.[65]
reinstated Kansas father, Ugrasena, as the king of the Yadavas and became a leading prince at the court.[67] During this period, he became a friend of Arjuna and the
other Pandava princes of the Kuru kingdom, who were his
cousins. Later, he took his Yadava subjects to the city of
Dwaraka (in modern Gujarat) and established a new kingdom there. Krishna was the prince and commander of the
Armies of Dwaraka, while Balarama was crown prince
and de facto administrator as King Ugrasena was still
the emperor of Dwaraka but reigned over Mathura.[68]
According to the legends,the marriage of sri Krishna is
for the sake of the souls who sincerely devoted to the
lord sought his help to attain moksha(Salvation).accepting
there prayers the lord himself agreed to be their protector.Thus,the marriage of the lord is not to do anything for physical union, but,it is only for the union
of soul of the living(jeevaathma) with the superior creator(parmaathma)
Krishna married Rukmini, the Vidarbha princess, by abducting her, at her request, from her proposed wedding with Shishupala. He married eight queens
collectively called the Ashtabharyaincluding Rukmini,
Satyabhama, Jambavati, Kalindi, Mitravinda, Nagnajiti,
Bhadra and Lakshmana.[69][70] Krishna subsequently
married 16,000 or 16,100 maidens who were held captive by the demon Narakasura, to save their honour.[71][72]
Krishna killed the demon and released them all. According to social custom of the time, all of the captive women
were degraded, and would be unable to marry, as they
had been under the Narakasuras control. However Krishna married them to reinstate their status in the society.
This symbolic wedding with 16,100 abandoned daughters
was more of a mass rehabilitation.[73] In Vaishnava traditions, Krishnas wives are forms of the goddess Lakshmi
consort of Vishnu, or special souls who attained this
qualication after many lifetimes of austerity, while his
4.3 The prince
two queens, Rukmani and Satyabhama, are expansions of
[74]
On his return to Mathura as a young man, Krishna over- Lakshmi.
threw and killed his maternal uncle, Kansa, after quelling When Yudhishthira was assuming the title of emperor, he
several assassination attempts from Kansas followers. He had invited all the great kings to the ceremony and while
4.4
paying his respects to them, he started with Krishna because he considered Krishna to be the greatest of them all.
While it was a unanimous feeling amongst most present at
the ceremony that Krishna should get the rst honours, his
cousin Shishupala felt otherwise and started berating Krishna. Due to a vow given to Shishupals mother, Krishna
forgave a hundred verbal abuses by Shishupal, and upon
the one hundred and rst, he assumed his Virat (universal) form and killed Shishupal with his Chakra. The blind
king Dhritarashtra also obtained divine vision to be able
to see this form of Krishna during the time when Duryodana tried to capture Krishna when he came as a peace
bearer before the great Mahabharat War. Essentially,
Shishupala and Dantavakra were both re-incarnations of
Vishnus gate-keepers Jaya and Vijaya, who were cursed
to be born on Earth, to be delivered by the Vishnu back
to Vaikuntha.[75]
7
and coming out of Chakra Vyuha. Lord krishna is considered as the greatest warrior in all of Hindu mythology. He never lost any battle that he fought and was uniformly successful in all his wars. He was the rst to defeat
mighty Jarasandha, the ruler of Magadha even though he
couldn't kill him. Once battle seemed inevitable, Krishna
oered both sides the opportunity to choose between having either his army called Narayani Sena or himself alone,
but on the condition that he personally would not raise
any weapon. Arjuna, on behalf of the Pandavas, chose
to have Krishna on their side, and Duryodhana, Kaurava
prince, chose Krishnas army. At the time of the great
battle, Krishna acted as Arjunas charioteer, since this position did not require the wielding of weapons.
Krishna asked Arjuna, Have you within no time, forgotten the Kauravas evil deeds such as not accepting the
eldest brother Yudhishtira as King, usurping the entire
Kingdom without yielding any portion to the Pandavas,
meting out insults and diculties to Pandavas, attempt to
murder the Pandavas in the Barnava lac guest house, publicly attempting to disrobe and disgracing Draupadi. Krishna further exhorted in his famous Bhagavad Gita, Arjuna, do not engage in philosophical analyses at this point
of time like a Pundit. You are aware that Duryodhana
particularly have long harboured jealousy and hatred for
you Pandavas and badly want to prove their hegemony.
You are aware that Bhishmacharya and your Teachers
are tied down to their dharma of protecting the unitarian power of the Kuru throne. Moreover, you Arjuna,
are only a mortal appointee to carry out my divine will,
LIFE
an eort in which he was killed by the simultaneous attack of eight Kaurava warriors. Krishna also caused the
downfall of Drona, when he signalled Bhima to kill an
elephant called Ashwatthama, the namesake of Dronas
son. Pandavas started shouting that Ashwatthama was
dead but Drona refused to believe them saying he would
believe it only if he heard it from Yudhishthira. Krishna
knew that Yudhishthira would never tell a lie, so he devised a clever ploy so that Yudhishthira wouldn't lie and
at the same time Drona would be convinced of his sons
death. On asked by Drona, Yudhishthira proclaimed
Ashwathama Hatahath, naro va Kunjaro
va
i.e. Ashwathama had died but he was nor sure whether
it was a Dronas son or an elephant. But as soon as Yudhishthira had uttered the rst line, Pandava army on Krishnas direction broke into celebration with drums and
conchs, in the din of which Drona could not hear the
second part of the Yudhishthiras declaration and assumed that his son indeed was dead. Overcome with
grief he laid down his arms, and on Krishnas instruction
Dhrishtadyumna beheaded Drona.
When Arjuna was ghting Karna, the latters chariots
wheels sank into the ground. While Karna was trying to
take out the chariot from the grip of the Earth,unarmed,
4.6
Later life
Krishna reminded Arjuna how Karna and the other Kauravas had broken all rules of battle while simultaneously
attacking and killing Abhimanyu, and he convinced Arjuna to do the same in revenge in order to kill Karna.Thus
Arjuna broke all the rules of the battle too. During the
nal stage of the war, when Duryodhana was going to
meet his mother Gandhari for taking her blessings which
would convert all parts of his body on which her sight
falls to diamond, Krishna tricks him to wearing banana
leaves to hide his groin. When Duryodhana meets Gandhari, her vision and blessings fall on his entire body except his groin and thighs, and she becomes unhappy about
it because she was not able to convert his entire body
to diamond. When Duryodhana was in a mace-ght
with Bhima, Bhimas blows had no eect on Duryodhana. Upon this, Krishna reminded Bhima of his vow to
kill Duryodhana by hitting him on the thigh, and Bhima
did the same to win the war despite it being against the
rules of mace-ght (since Duryodhana had himself broken Dharma in all his past acts). Thus, Krishnas unparalleled strategy helped the Pandavas win the Mahabharata
war by bringing the downfall of all the chief Kaurava warriors, without lifting any weapon. He also brought back to
life Arjunas grandson Parikshit, who had been attacked
by a Brahmastra weapon from Ashwatthama while he was
in his mothers womb. Parikshit became the Pandavas
successor.
4.5
9
gave them shelter in his new palace and a respectful place
in society.
The Bhagavata Purana, Vishnu Purana, and Harivamsa
list the children of Krishna from the Ashtabharya with
some variation, while Rohinis sons are interpreted to represent the unnumbered children of his junior wives. Most
well-known among his sons are Pradyumna, the eldest son
of Krishna (and Rukmini). Pradyumna is one in 24 Keshava Namas (names), praised in all pujas.[78] and Samba,
the son of Jambavati, whose actions led to the destruction
of Krishnas clan.
Family
An hunter named Jara aiming an arrow to sleeping Krishna
Thirty-six years later, a ght broke out between the Yadavas at a festival, who killed each other. Krishnas elder brother, Balarama, then gave up his body using Yoga.
Krishna retired into the forest and started meditating under a tree. The Mahabharata also narrates the story of a
hunter who becomes an instrument for Krishnas departure from the world. The hunter Jara, mistook Krishnas
partly visible left foot for that of a deer, and shot an arrow, wounding him mortally. Krishna told Jara, O Jara,
you were Bali in your previous birth, killed by myself as
Rama in Tretayuga. Here you had a chance to even it and
since all acts in this world are done as desired by me, you
need not worry for this. Then Krishna, with four handed
10
WORSHIP
Krishna never appears to grow old or age at all in the historical depictions of the Puranas despite passing of several decades, but there are grounds for a debate whether
this indicates that he has no material body, since battles and other descriptions of the Mahabhrata epic show
clear indications that he seems to be subject to the limitations of nature.[88] While battles apparently seem to indicate limitations, Mahabharata also shows in many places
where Krishna is not subject to any limitations through
episodes Duryodhana trying to arrest Krishna where his
body burst into re showing all creation within him.[89]
Krishna is also explicitly described as without deterioration elsewhere.[90]
Proposed datings
6 Worship
6.3
6.1
Bhakti tradition
11
Vaishnavism
gards Vishnu as the supreme God and venerates his associated avatars, their consorts, and related saints and teachers. Krishna is especially looked upon as a full manifestation of Vishnu, and as one with Vishnu himself.[102] However the exact relationship between Krishna and Vishnu
is complex and diverse,[103] where Krishna is sometimes
considered an independent deity, supreme in his own
right.[104] Out of many deities, Krishna is particularly important, and traditions of Vaishnava lines are generally
centred either on Vishnu or on Krishna as supreme. The
term Krishnaism has been used to describe the sects of
Krishna, reserving the term Vaishnavism for sects focusing on Vishnu in which Krishna is an avatar, rather
than as a transcendent Supreme Being.[105]
All Vaishnava traditions recognise Krishna as eighth
avatar of Vishnu; others identify Krishna with Vishnu;
while traditions, such as Gaudiya Vaishnavism,[106][107]
Vallabha Sampradaya and the Nimbarka Sampradaya, regard Krishna as the Svayam Bhagavan, original form of
God.[108][109][110][111][112] Swaminarayan, the founder of
the Swaminarayan Sampraday, also worshipped Krishna
as God himself. Greater Krishnaism corresponds to the
second and dominant phase of Vaishnavism, revolving
around the cults of the Vasudeva, Krishna, and Gopala
of the late Vedic period.[113] Today the faith has a significant following outside of India as well.[114]
Bhakti, meaning devotion, is not conned to any one deity. However Krishna is an important and popular focus
of the devotional and ecstatic aspects of Hindu religion,
particularly among the Vaishnava sects.[106][120] Devotees of Krishna subscribe to the concept of lila, meaning 'divine play', as the central principle of the Universe.
The lilas of Krishna, with their expressions of personal
6.2 Early traditions
love that transcend the boundaries of formal reverence,
The deity Krishna-Vasudeva (ka vsudeva Krishna, serve as a counterpoint to the actions of another avatar
and narrow path of
the son of Vasudeva") is historically one of the earliest of Vishnu: Rama, He of the straight
[107]
maryada,
or
rules
and
regulations.
[8][34]
forms of worship in Krishnaism and Vaishnavism.
It is believed to be a signicant tradition of the early his- The bhakti movements devoted to Krishna became
tory of the worship of Krishna in antiquity.[9][115] This prominent in southern India in the 7th to 9th centuries
tradition is considered as earliest to other traditions that AD. The earliest works included those of the Alvar saints
led to amalgamation at a later stage of the historical de- of the Tamil country.[121] A major collection of their
velopment. Other traditions are Bhagavatism and the cult works is the Divya Prabandham. The Alvar Andal's popof Gopala, that along with the cult of Bala Krishna form ular collection of songs Tiruppavai, in which she conthe basis of current tradition of monotheistic religion of ceives of herself as a gopi, is the most famous of the old-
12
WORSHIP
6.4
In the Deccan, particularly in Maharashtra, saint poets of the Varkari sect such as Dnyaneshwar, Namdev,
Janabai, Eknath and Tukaram promoted the worship of
Vithoba,[24] a local form of Krishna, from the beginning of the 13th century until the late 18th century.[7]
In southern India, Purandara Dasa and Kanakadasa of
Karnataka composed songs devoted to the Krishna imGita Govinda by Jayadeva.
age of Udupi. Rupa Goswami of Gaudiya Vaishnavism,
While the learned sections of the society well versed in has compiled a comprehensive summary of bhakti named
[120]
Sanskrit could enjoy works like Gita Govinda or Bil- Bhakti-rasamrita-sindhu.
vamangalas Krishna-Karnamritam, the masses sang the
songs of the devotee-poets, who composed in the regional
languages of India. These songs expressing intense per- 6.5 In the West
sonal devotion were written by devotees from all walks of
life. The songs of Meera and Surdas became epitomes of In 16th Century AD when Chaitanya Mahaprabhu
launched the sankirtan movement of the congregational
Krishna-devotion in north India.
These devotee-poets, like the Alvars before them, were chanting of the holy names of the Lord (Krishna),
aligned to specic theological schools only loosely, if he commissioned his closest associates to spread the
at all. But by the 11th century AD, Vaishnava Bhakti movement everywhere. On the order of Chaitanya
schools with elaborate theological frameworks around Mahaprabhu, Nityananda Prabhu traveled extensively
the worship of Krishna were established in north India. throughout Bengal, humbly begging everyone he met to
Nimbarka (11th century AD), Vallabhacharya (15th cen- chant the holy names and worship Radha-Krishna. Many
tury AD) and (Lord Sri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu an incar- Bengalis surrendered at his lotus feet, becoming his disnation of Lord Sri Krishna according to the Bhavishya ciples and adopting the Gaudiya Vaisnava way of life.
Purana) (16th century AD) all inspired by the teach- Among these disciples was Krishnananda Dutta Chaudings of Madhvacharya (11th century AD) were the hury,
founders of the most inuential schools. These schools,
namely Nimbarka Sampradaya, Vallabha Sampradaya
and Gaudiya Vaishnavism respectively, see Krishna as the
supreme God.
In 1965, the Krishna-bhakti movement had spread outside India when its founder, Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, (who was instructed by his guru, Bhaktisiddhanta
Sarasvati Thakura) traveled from his homeland in West
6.6
In South India
13
14
IN OTHER RELIGIONS
Sanskrit plays centred on Krishna written by a major classical dramatist. The former dwells only on his childhood
exploits and the latter is a one-act play based on a single episode from the Mahbhrata when Krishna tries to
make peace between the warring cousins.[131]
The classical Indian dances, especially Odissi and
Manipuri, draw heavily on the story. The 'Rasa lila'
dances performed in Vrindavan shares elements with
Kathak, and the Krisnattam, with some cycles, such as
Krishnattam, traditionally restricted to the Guruvayur
temple, the precursor of Kathakali.[132]
8
8.1
In other religions
Jainism
8.2
Buddhism
15
8.4
Ahmadiyya Islam
8.5
Other
Dashavatara
Chaubis Avtar
10 References
[1] John Stratton Hawley, Donna Marie Wul (1982). The
Divine Consort: Rdh and the Goddesses of India. Motilal Banarsidass Publishe. ISBN 9780895811028.
[2] Krishna. Encyclopdia Britannica Online.
[3] Krishna lived 125 years. Times of India.
[4] Knott 2000, p. 56
[5] Knott 2000, p. 36, p. 15
[6] Richard Thompson,
Ph.D. (December 1994).
Reections on the Relation Between Religion and
Modern Rationalism. Retrieved 2008-04-12.
[7] Mahony, W.K. (1987). Perspectives on Krsnas Various
Personalities. History of Religions. American Oriental
Society. 26 (3): 333335. doi:10.1086/463085. JSTOR
1062381.
[8] Hein, Norvin. A Revolution in Kaism: The Cult
of Gopla. History of Religions. 25: 296317.
doi:10.1086/463051. JSTOR 1062622.
[9] Hastings, James Rodney (2003) [190826]. Encyclopedia
of Religion and Ethics. 4. John A Selbie (2nd ed.). Edinburgh: Kessinger Publishing, LLC. p. 476. ISBN 07661-3673-6. Retrieved 2008-05-03. The encyclopedia
will contain articles on all the religions of the world and
on all the great systems of ethics. It will aim at containing
articles on every religious belief or custom, and on every
ethical movement, every philosophical idea, every moral
practice.pp.540-42
Krishna worship or reverence has been adopted by several new religious movements since the 19th century
and he is sometimes a member of an eclectic pantheon [10] Selengut, Charles (1996). Charisma and Religious
in occult texts, along with Greek, Buddhist, biblical
Innovation:Prabhupada and the Founding of ISKCON.
and even historical gures.[148] For instance, douard
ISKCON Communications Journal. 4 (2). Archived from
Schur, an inuential gure in perennial philosophy and
the original on 13 July 2011.
occult movements, considered Krishna a Great Initiate;
Monier Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary
while Theosophists regard Krishna as an incarnation of [11]
(2008 revision)
Maitreya (one of the Masters of the Ancient Wisdom),
Apte Sanskrit-English Dictionary
the most important spiritual teacher for humanity along
with Buddha.[149][150]
Krishna was canonised by Aleister Crowley and is
recognised as a saint in the Gnostic Mass of Ordo Templi
Orientis.[151][152]
See also
Pradyumna
Aniruddha
Vajra (King Aniruddhas Son)
16
10
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Further reading
EXTERNAL LINKS
Valpey, Kenneth R. (2006). Attending Kas image: Caitanya Vaiava mrti-sev as devotional
truth. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-38394-3.
Sutton, Nicholas (2000). Religious doctrines in the
Mahbhrata. Motilal Banarsidass Publ.,. p. 477.
ISBN 81-208-1700-1.
History of Indian Theatre By M. L. Varadpande.
Chapter Theatre of Krishna, pp. 23194. Published
1991, Abhinav Publications, ISBN 81-7017-278-0.
13 External links
Krishna at Encyclopdia Britannica
Iloveindia.com - Spirituality - Krishna
21
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Anonymous: 1572
14.2
Images
14.2
Images
23
File:Dancing_Krishna,_India,_Tanjore,_Tamil_Nadu,_Chola_dynasty,_14th_century,_bronze,_HAA.JPG
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/Dancing_Krishna%2C_India%2C_Tanjore%2C_Tamil_Nadu%2C_Chola_
dynasty%2C_14th_century%2C_bronze%2C_HAA.JPG License: CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Hiart
File:Death_of_Krishna_-_Illustrations_from_the_Barddhaman_edition_of_Mahabharata.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Death_of_Krishna_-_Illustrations_from_the_Barddhaman_edition_of_Mahabharata.jpg License: Public
domain Contributors: http://www.oldindianarts.in/2011/10/illustrations-from-barddhaman-edition.html Original artist: Maharaja Mahatab
Chand Bahadur (1820 - 1879)
File:Festival_in_honour_of_Chrishna_(October_1853,_X,_p.114).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
e/e5/Festival_in_honour_of_Chrishna_%28October_1853%2C_X%2C_p.114%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: https:
//books.google.com.au/books?id=glwEAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false
Original artist: Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society
File:Flag_of_India.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg License: Public domain Contributors:
? Original artist: ?
File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-bysa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:HinduSwastika.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/63/HinduSwastika.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:HinduismSymbol.PNG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1f/HinduismSymbol.PNG License: CC-BYSA-3.0 Contributors: Created by Tinette user of Italian Wikipedia. Original artist: Tinette (talk contribs)
File:Kathakali_of_kerala.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3a/Kathakali_of_kerala.jpg License: CC
BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: Kathakali Original artist: Jogesh S from Bangalore, India
File:Krishna{}s_Foster-Mother,_Yashoda,_with_the_Infant_Krishna.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/6/63/Krishna%27s_Foster-Mother%2C_Yashoda%2C_with_the_Infant_Krishna.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors:
originally posted to Flickr as Krishnas Foster-Mother, Yashoda, with the Infant Krishna Original artist: Claire H.
File:Krishna{}s_great_escape_Bazaar_art,1940{}s.jpg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/
Krishna%27s_great_escape_Bazaar_art%2C1940%27s.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors:
http://www.columbia.
edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00routesdata/1400_1499/krishnabhakti/riverescape/riverescape.html
Original
artist:
Unknown<a
href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718'
title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img
alt='wikidata:Q4233718'
src='https://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png'
width='20'
height='11'
srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png
1.5x,
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data-le-height='590' /></a>
File:Krishna-in-Kyoto-1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/00/Krishna-in-Kyoto-1.jpg License: Public
domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Wikidas photo of an architectural object
File:Krishna_Holding_Mount_Govardhan_-_Crop.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/70/Krishna_
Holding_Mount_Govardhan_-_Crop.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: English Wikipedia Original artist: Mola Ram (1760-1833)
File:Krishna_Mediating_between_the_Pandavas_and_Kauravas.jpeg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/
7c/Krishna_Mediating_between_the_Pandavas_and_Kauravas.jpeg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.mfa.org/collections/
object/krishna-mediating-between-the-pandavas-and-kauravas-from-an-illustrated-manuscript-of-the-razmnama-mahabharata-148638
Original artist: ndian, Mughal period, about 1600
File:Krishna_Rukmini_Satyabhama_Garuda.jpg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/80/Krishna_
Rukmini_Satyabhama_Garuda.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://collectionsonline.lacma.org/mwebcgi/mweb.exe?request=
record;id=129807;type=101 Original artist: LACMA
File:Krishna_shows_Arjuna_his_universal_form_(bazaar_art_by_C._Konddiah_Raja,_c.1950s.jpg
Source:
https:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/15/Krishna_shows_Arjuna_his_universal_form_%28bazaar_art_by_C._Konddiah_
Raja%2C_c.1950%27s.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00routesdata/0400_
0499/pantheon/vishnuheads/vishnuheads.html Original artist: Konddiah Raja,
File:Krishna_with_flute.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/68/Krishna_with_flute.jpg License: Public
domain Contributors: Smithsonian Freer and Sackler Gallery[1] Original artist: Smithsonian Freer and Sackler Gallery
File:Kurukshetra.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/81/Kurukshetra.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Meister_der_Bhgavata-Purna-Handschrift_001.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/Meister_
der_Bh%C3%A2gavata-Pur%C3%A2na-Handschrift_001.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN 3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH. Original artist: Meister der
Bhgavata-Purna-Handschrift
File:Om.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8e/Om.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work,
but using one of characters in the Wingdings font Original artist: Kashmiri
File:Om_symbol.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/Om_symbol.svg License: Public domain Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readable author
provided. Rugby471 assumed (based on copyright claims).
File:RadhaKrishnaUdaipur.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/75/RadhaKrishnaUdaipur.JPG License:
Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Pebble101
File:Radhakrishna_manor.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e7/Radhakrishna_manor.JPG License:
CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Gaura
24
14
File:Rasa_Lila_in_Manipuri_dance_style.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/78/Rasa_Lila_in_
Manipuri_dance_style.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: http://www.flickr.com/photos/matsukin/486353380/ Original artist:
http://www.flickr.com/photos/matsukin/
File:Speaker_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg License: Public domain Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readable
author provided. Mobius assumed (based on copyright claims).
File:Sri_Mariamman_Temple_Singapore_2_amk.jpg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f1/Sri_
Mariamman_Temple_Singapore_2_amk.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: AngMoKio
File:Taj_Mahal_pr.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b1/Taj_Mahal_pr.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Pedro Roque Hidalgo
File:Vishnu.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a6/Vishnu.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
The Government Museum and Art Gallery, Chandigarh, Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718'
title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img
alt='wikidata:Q4233718'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png
1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1050' data-le-height='590' /></a>
File:Westindischer_Maler_um_1550_001.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/Westindischer_Maler_
um_1550_001.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN
3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH. Original artist: Westindischer Maler um 1550
File:Wikibooks-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Bastique, User:Ramac et al.
File:Wikidata-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Planemad
File:Wikinews-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: This is a cropped version of Image:Wikinews-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Simon 01:05, 2 August 2006 (UTC)
Updated by Time3000 17 April 2007 to use ocial Wikinews colours and appear correctly on dark backgrounds. Originally uploaded by
Simon.
File:Wikiquote-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Rei-artur
File:Wikisource-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Rei-artur Original artist: Nicholas Moreau
File:Wikiversity-logo-Snorky.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Wikiversity-logo-en.svg License:
CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Snorky
File:Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg License: CC BYSA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Dan Polansky based on work currently attributed to Wikimedia Foundation but originally
created by Smurrayinchester
14.3
Content license