Biology

CXC Biology explores the levels of organization of life, from the molecular
level, through
cellular to higher levels. It includes developing an understanding of the
interactions within
and between organisms and between organisms and their environment.
The study of biology recognizes, however, that humans have a greater
influence on the
environment than other species. The study of biology, therefore, is
designed to assist
students to recognize their responsibility to conserve, protect, maintain
and improve the
quality of the biological environment for future generations.
The Biology Syllabus is designed to allow students to work individually
and with others in
practical, field and interactive activities that are related to theoretical
concepts in the course.
It is expected that students will apply investigative and problem-solving
skills, effectively
communicate scientific information and appreciate the contribution that a
study of biology
makes to their understanding of the world.
The syllabus will assist students to develop positive values and attitudes
towards the living
components of the environment and will also provide a sound foundation
for those who
wish to pursue further studies in the sciences.
The syllabus is arranged in five sections as follows:
Section A - Organisms in the Environment1-food chain/web
Organisms in the Environment2-energy flow
Section B - Life Processes1-Cells
Life Processes2-osmosis/diffusion
Life Processes3-nutrition/photosynthesis
Life Processes4-Digestion/Enzymes
Life Processes5-Mineral Nutrition
Section C - Continuity and Variation
Section D - Disease and its Impact on Humans
Section E - The Environment and Human Activities

Animal cell

Plant Cell

All cells have these features in common:

Plasma membrane
All cells have a 'skin', called the plasma membrane, protecting it from the outside
environment. The cell membrane regulates the movement of water, nutrients
and wastes into and out of the cell.

Nucleus
At the center of the cell is the cell nucleus. The cell nucleus contains the cell's
DNA, the genetic code that coordinates protein synthesis.

Mitochondrion
Another important cellular organelle is the mitochondrion. Mitochondria (many
mitochondrion) are often referred to as the power plants of the cell because
many of the reactions that produce energy take place in mitochondria.

Ribosomes
Ribosomes participate in protein synthesis.

Lysosomes
Also important in the life of a cell are the lysosomes. Lysosomes are organelles
that contain enzymes that aid in the digestion of nutrient molecules and other
materials.

Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm is where the chemical processes (controlled by enzymes) take place.

Differences between Animal and Plant Cells

Plant cells can be larger than animal cells. The normal range for an animal cell varies from
10 to 30 micrometers while that for a plant cell stretches from 10 to 100 micrometers.
Beyond size, the main structural differences between plant and animal cells lie in a few
additional structures found in animal cells. These structures include: chloroplasts, the cell
wall, and vacuoles.

Chloroplasts
In animal cells, the mitochondria produces the majority of the cells energy from food. It does
not have the same function in plant cells. Plant cells use sunlight as their energy source; the
sunlight must be converted into energy inside the cell in a process called photosynthesis.
Chloroplasts are the structures that perform this function. They are rather large, double
membrane-bound structures (about 5 micrometers across) that contain the substance
chlorophyll, which absorbs sunlight. Additional membranes within the chloroplast contain the
structures that actually carry out photosynthesis.
Chloroplasts carry out energy conversion through a complex set of reactions similar to those
performed by mitochondria in animals. The double membrane structure of chloroplasts is
also reminiscent of mitochondria. The inner membrane encloses an area called the stoma,
which is analogous to the matrix in mitochondria and houses DNA, RNA, ribosomes, and
different enzymes. Chloroplasts, however, contain a third membrane and are generally
larger than mitochondria.
The Cell Wall
Another structural difference between in plant cells is the presence of a rigid cell wall
surrounding the cell membrane. This wall can range from 0.1 to 10 micrometers thick and is
composed of fats and sugars. The tough wall gives added stability and protection to the
plant cell.
Vacuoles
Vacuoles are large, liquid-filled organelles found only in plant cells. Vacuoles can occupy up
to 90% of a cell's volume and have a single membrane. Their main function is as a
space-filler in the cell, but they can also fill digestive functions similar to lysosomes (which
are also present in plant cells). Vacuoles contain a number of enzymes that perform diverse
functions, and their interiors can be used as storage for nutrients or, as mentioned, provide
a place to degrade unwanted substances.

Specialization in Multicellular Organisms

Multicellular organisms are made up of thousands, millions and in the case of humans
trillions of cells. Within complex organisms, cells become differentiated - that is, structurally
modified to perform particular functions.
All organisms are characterized by a high degree of complexity and organization. Singlecelled organisms have multiple organellesthe small structures that maintain the celland
complex structures, such as the cell membrane, that enable them to meet their energy and
nutrient requirements.
Multicellular organisms have even greater complexity. In single cells, nutrients can move into
the cells and waste can move out of the cells by diffusion. In large multicellular animals,
specialized cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems are required to meet these needs.
Specialization of cells into nerve cells and muscle cells, for example, has been possible
because other cells and systems of cells have evolved to serve other vital functions.
Whereas single-celled organisms each have to take care of all of their basic needsfinding
food, reproducing, sensing dangermulticellular organisms have a variety of different types

of cells, each of which specializes in meeting just one or two basic needs.
Cells specialized to perform certain functions have become grouped among similarly
specialized cells to form tissues, including epithelial tissue, connective tissue, muscle tissue,
and nerve tissue. A structure made up of two or more tissue types working together in a
common function is called an organ. The heart, for example, is made up of muscle, nerve,
and connective tissues that work together to provide the rhythmic motion that pumps blood
throughout the body.
Together, organs that share a common function or functions make up one of ten major
systems in the body. For example, the heart, blood, and blood vessels make up the
circulatory system, which is responsible for supplying oxygen and nutrients to tissues
throughout the body and removing waste products. However, despite its functional
specialization, each system is integrally connected to every other system. Oxygen enters the
circulatory system as it passes through the respiratory system. Nutrients are absorbed in the
small intestine of the digestive system. The oxygen and nutrients are then carried by the
circulatory system to provide energy to all other organ systems, including the nervous
system, which maintains the nerve signals required to keep the heart beating. The limbic
system helps clean the blood of pathogens, while the reproductive system makes it possible
to pass the individual's genes on to the next generation.
Quiz
References
http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/animals/cell/
http://www.sparknotes.com/biology/cellstructure/celldifferences/section1.html
http://www.teachersdomain.org/resources/lsps07/sci/life/stru/bodysystems/index.

Eukaryotic Cell Structure

Practice Test
1. What is the difference between plant and animal cells?
a. None, they contain the same features.
b. Animal cells contain a nucleus. Plant cells do not contain a nucleus.
c. Plant cells have a cell wall and chloroplasts, animal cells do not. Plant cells
usually are larger and contain one large vacuole. Animal cells contain
centrioles.
d. Plant cells contain a cytoskeleton and animal cells do not.
Hint

2. Once proteins are made, where do they go?

a. vacuoles
b. mitochondrion
c. endoplasmic reticulum
d. Golgi apparatus
Hint
3. What organelle in plants captures light energy and converts it to chemical energy?
a. nucleus
b. cytoskeleton
c. mitochondrion
d. chloroplast
Hint
4. Which organelle pictured is responsible for transforming energy?
a. mitochondrion

b. nucleus

c. chloroplast

d. Golgi apparatus

Hint
5. If you observed a cell under a microscope and noticed that it contained a plasma
membrane, cell wall, and ribosomes, but none of the other organelles, what could you
conclude?
a. It is damaged.
b. It is an animal cell.
c. It is an eukaryotic cell.
d. It is a prokaryotic cell.

Osmosis
Osmosis is the passage of water from a region of high water concentration through a semi-permeable
membrane to a region of low water concentration.
Osmosis is the passage of water from a region of high water concentration through a semi-permeable
membrane to a region of low water concentration.
Semi-permeable membranes are very thin layers of material (cell membranes are semi-permeable) which
allow some things to pass through them but prevent other things from passing through.
For example cell membranes will allow small molecules like Oxygen, water, Carbon Dioxide, Ammonia,
Glucose, amino-acids, etc. to pass through. Cell membranes will not allow larger molecules like Sucrose,
Starch, protein, etc. to pass through.
A region of high concentration of water is either a very dilute solution of something like sucrose or pure
water. In each case there is a lot of water: there is a high concentration of water.
When you put an animal or plant cell into a liquid containing water one of three things will happen.
If the medium surrounding the cell has a higher water concentration than the cell (a very dilute solution)
the cell will gain water by osmosis.
Water molecules are free to pass across the cell membrane in both directions, but more water will come into
the cell than will leave. The net (overall) result is that water enters the cell. The cell is likely to swell up.
If the medium is exactly the same water concentration as the cell there will be no net movement of
water across the cell membrane.
Water crosses the cell membrane in both directions, but the amount going in is the same as the amount
going out, so there is no overall movement of water. The cell will stay the same size.
If the medium has a lower concentration of water than the cell (a very concentrated solution) the cell will
lose water by osmosis.
Again, water crosses the cell membrane in both directions, but this time more water leaves the cell than
enters it. Therefore the cell will shrink.

The Consequences of Osmosis

Firstly what happens to plant cells:

Plant cells always have a strong cell wall surrounding them. When they take up water by osmosis they start to
swell, but the cell wall prevents them from bursting. Plant cells become "turgid" when they are put in dilute
solutions. Turgid means swollen and hard. The pressure inside the cell rises, eventually the internal pressure
of the cell is so high that no more water can enter the cell. This liquid or hydrostatic pressure works against
osmosis. Turgidity is very important to plants because this is what make the green parts of the plant "stand

up" into the sunlight.

When plant cells are placed in concentrated sugar solutions they lose water by osmosis and they become
"flaccid"; this is the exact opposite of "turgid". If you put plant cells into concentrated sugar solutions and look
at them under a microscope you would see that the contents of the cells have shrunk and pulled away from
the cell wall: they are said to be plasmolysed.
When plant cells are placed in a solution which has exactly the same osmotic strength as the cells they are in
a state between turgidity and flaccidity. We call this incipient plasmolysis. "Incipient" means "about to be".
When you forget to water potted plants you will see their leaves droop. Although their cells are not
plasmolsysed, they are not turgid and so they do not hold the leaves up into the sunlight

And now for the animal cells:

When animal cells are placed in sugar solutions things may be rather different because animal cells do not
have cell walls. In very dilute solutions, animal cells swell up and burst: they do not become turgid because
there is no cell wall to support the cell membrane. In concentrated solutions, water is sucked out of the cell by
osmosis and the cell shrinks. In either case there is a problem. So animal cells must always be bathed in a
solution having the same osmotic strength as their cytoplasm. This is one of the reasons why we have
kidneys. The exact amount of water and salt removed from our blood by our kidneys is under the control of a
part of the brain called the hypothalamus. The process of regulating the amounts of water and mineral salts
in the blood is called osmoregulation. .
Animals which live on dry land must conserve water; so must animals which live in the sea (the sea is very
salty!), but animals which live in freshwater have the opposite problem; they must get rid of excess water as
fast as it gets into their bodies by osmosis

Diffusion
Diffusion - the process by which molecules spread from areas of high concentratiion, to areas of low
concentration. When the molecules are even throughout a space - it is called EQUILIBRIUM
Diffusion is the spontaneous migration of substances from regions where their concentration is
high to regions where their concentration is low{ concentration gradient). Diffusion is important in
many life processes. It occurs, for example, across the alveolar membrane of the lung, which separates

the carbon-dioxide-rich blood from the oxygen-rich air. Oxygen diffuses across the membrane and
becomes dissolved in the blood; carbon dioxide diffuses across the membrane into the air.
Concentration gradient - a difference between concentrations in a space.
If someone in a room uses a deodorant spray, it doesn't take long for everyone else in the room to smell
it. This is because of diffusion.

Diffusion in gases
When a smelly gas such as a deodorant is let loose in a room, its particles mix with the particles of air.
The particles of smelly gas are free to move quickly in all directions. They eventually spread through the
whole room. This is called diffusion. You don't have to mix the smelly gas by waving your arms around it mixes on its own. Diffusion in gases is quick because the particles in a gas move quickly. It happens
even faster in hot gases.Diffusion happens quickly in gases.

Diffusion in liquids
Diffusion can also happen in liquids. This is because the particles in liquids can move around each other
until they mix evenly. Diffusion in liquids is slower than diffusion in gases because the particles in a liquid
move more slowly. Diffusion does not happen at all in solids because the particles in a solid can only
vibrate on the spot, rather than being able to move from place to place.
Diffusion and Osmosis are both types of PASSIVE TRANSPORT - that is, no energy is required for the
molecules to move into or out of the cell.

References
http://www.purchon.com/biology/osmosis.htm#definition
http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/ks3bitesize/science/chemistry/particle_model_8.shtml
http://www.aquaindia.com/products/what-is-ro.htm

Modes of Nutrition
The mechanism by which organisms obtain food are referred to as modes of nutrition. The organisms either
synthesize their own food or obtain food prepared by other organisms in various ways. There are basically two
modes of nutrition - autotrophic and heterotrophic.
Autotrophic Nutrition
'Auto' means self and 'trophic' refers to food. So, the organisms which synthesise their own food are called the
autotrophs and the process is called autotrophic nutrition.
Autotrophs include all green plants and some bacteria such as the nitrifying bacteria.
The source of energy for the autotrophs may be either light energy or chemical energy. Accordingly they are
classified as
Photoautotrophic
Chemoautotrophic
Photoautotrophic
Photoautotrophic organisms synthesize food with the help of light energy of the sun, carbon dioxide and water.
The process of synthesis of food in this method is called photosynthesis.
For example:
cyanobacteria (blue-green bacteria, prokaryotes) algae and all green plants.
All these use water as the source of hydrogen.
However, there are some other photoautotrophic bacteria, such as the green sulphur bacteria which derives the
hydrogen from hydrogen sulphide .
Chemoautotrophic/Chemotrophic/Chemosynthetic
Chemoautotrophic organisms synthesise food with the help of chemical energy. They do not require sunlight.
Thus they include organisms which are found deep in the soil where sunlight does not penetrate such as
nitrifying
bacteria. These organisms use carbon dioxide and water as sources of carbon and hydrogen but obtain energy
from chemical compounds.

For example:
Compounds such as ammonia and nitrite are oxidized in order to release energy.
Examples of chemosynthetic bacteria are nitrifying bacteria such as Nitrobacter and Nitrosomonas, hydrogen
bacteria and iron bacteria.
Heterotrophic Nutrition
'Hetero' refers to other or different and 'trophic' refers to food. Thus, those organisms which obtain their food
from
other organisms are called heterotrophic and the process of obtaining the food from other organisms is called
heterotrophic nutrition. All the heterotrophs depend directly or indirectly on the autotrophic organisms for their
food and energy requirements. Heterotrophs include most of the bacteria, fungi and all animals.
Heterotrophic nutrition is broadly classified as holozoic, saprophytic and parasitic.
http://www.tutorvista.com/content/biology/biology-ii/nutrition/modes-nutrition.php
http://www.bartleby.com/65/ph/photosyn.html
Photosynthesis
'Photo' refers to light and 'synthesis' means preparation. Thus, photosynthesis is the process by which the green
plants use light energy of the sun to synthesize carbohydrates. Carbohydrates like the simple sugars (glucose)
can
be stored as starch.
The green plants are eaten on by the herbivores which in turn are consumed by carnivores. Ultimately, the
decomposers derive their nutrition from the dead plants and animals. Thus, all organisms are directly or
indirectly
dependent on the green plants. The green plants synthesize food by photosynthesis. Thus photosynthesis is the
most important life sustaining process of nature.
Photosynthesis is a series of biochemical reactions which can be essentially summarised as follows:

6CO2+12H2O+energy=C6H12O6+6O2+6H2O.
Thus, photosynthesis can be defined as a process which utilises carbon dioxide and water in the presence of
sunlight and chlorophyll to synthesize carbohydrates like glucose.
The Photosynthetic Process
The initial process in photosynthesis is the decomposition of water (H 2O) into oxygen, which is released, and
hydrogen; direct light is required for this process. The hydrogen and the carbon and oxygen of carbon dioxide
(CO2) are then converted into a series of increasingly complex compounds that result finally in a stable organic
compound, glucose (C6H12O6), and water.
Factors limiting photosynthesis
Three factors limit photosynthesis from going any faster: Light level, carbon dioxide level, and temperature.
Without enough light a plant cannot photosynthesise very fast, even if there is plenty of water and carbon
dioxide. Increasing the light intensity will make photosynthesis faster.

Sometimes photosynthesis is limited by the level of carbon dioxide. Even if there is plenty of light a plant
cannot
photosynthesise if it has run out of carbon dioxide.
Temperature can be a limiting factor too. If it gets too cold the rate of photosynthesis will slow right down;
equally,
plants cease to be able to photosynthesise if it gets too hot.

External features of a Dicotolydon leaf

LEAF MORPHOLOGY
tip - the terminal point of the leaf
blade or lamina - the flattened, green,
expanded portion of a leaf.
margin - edge of a leaf.
midrib - the most prominent central vein in a
leaf.
lateral veins - secondary veins in a leaf.
petiole - the leaf stalk (connects blade to
stem).
stipules - leaf-like appendages (at the base
of petiole of some leaves).

Internal Features of a Dicotyledenous Leaf

http://www.tutorvista.com/content/biology/biology-ii/nutrition/modes-nutrition.php
http://www.bartleby.com/65/ph/photosyn.html

Diagram Showing the main features of the human alimentary canal

Alimentary Canal
The alimentary canal extends from the mouth to the anus and forms a large part of the digestive system. In
human
adults, it is about 9 m/30 ft long, consisting of the mouth cavity, pharynx, oesophagus, stomach, and the
small
and large intestines. It is also known as the gut. It is a complex organ, specifically adapted for digestion and
the
absorption of food. Enzymes from the wall of the canal and from other associated organs, such as the pancreas,
speed up the digestive process.
The muscles in the wall of the alimentary canal contract, mixing food with the enzymes and slowly pushing it
along in
the direction of the anus in a process known as peristalsis. Dietary fibre encourages this movement. The
constant
stream of enzymes from the canal wall and from the pancreas assists the breakdown of food molecules into
smaller,
soluble nutrient molecules, which are absorbed through the canal wall into the bloodstream and carried to
individual
cells. The wall of the canal receives an excellent supply of blood and is folded so as to increase its surface area.
These two adaptations ensure efficient absorption of nutrient molecules.
http://www.tiscali.co.uk/reference/encyclopaedia/hutchinson/m0007992.html
http://www.geocities.com/m81301/Index.html
blc.biolab.udel.edu/Harding/403.pdf
http://www.worthington-biochem.com/introBiochem/effectspH.html
The human digestive system is a complex series of organs and glands that processes food. In order to use the
food we eat, our body has to break the food down into smaller molecules that it can process; it also has to
excrete
waste. Most of the digestive organs (like the stomach and intestines) are tube-like and contain the food as it
makes its way through the body. The digestive system is essentially a long, twisting tube that runs from the
mouth
to the anus, plus a few other organs (like the liver and pancreas) that produce or store digestive chemicals.
The Digestive Process:
The start of the process - the mouth: The digestive process begins in the mouth. Food is partly broken down by
the process of chewing and by the chemical action of salivary enzymes (these enzymes are produces by the
salivary glands and break down starches into smaller molecules).
On the way to the stomach: the esophagus - After being chewed and swallowed, the food enters the esophagus.
The esophagus is a long tube that runs from the mouth to the stomach. It uses rhythmic, wave-like muscle
movements (called peristalsis) to force food from the throat into the stomach. This muscle movement gives us
the
ability to eat or drink even when we're upside-down.
In the stomach - The stomach is a large, sack-like organ that churns the food and bathes it in a very strong acid
(gastric acid). Food in the stomach that is partly digested and mixed with stomach acids is called chyme.

In the small intestine - After being in the stomach, food enters the duodenum, the first part of the small
intestine. It
then enters the jejunum and then the ileum (the final part of the small intestine). In the small intestine, bile
(produced in the liver and stored in the gall bladder), pancreatic enzymes, and other digestive enzymes
produced
by the inner wall of the small intestine help in the breakdown of food.
In the large intestine - After passing through the small intestine, food passes into the large intestine. In the large
intestine, some of the water and electrolytes (chemicals like sodium) are removed from the food. Many
microbes
(bacteria like Bacteroides, Lactobacillus acidophilus, Escherichia coli, and Klebsiella) in the large intestine
help in
the digestion process. The first part of the large intestine is called the cecum (the appendix is connected to the
cecum). Food then travels upward in the ascending colon. The food travels across the abdomen in the
transverse
colon, goes back down the other side of the body in the descending colon, and then through the sigmoid colon.
The end of the process - Solid waste is then stored in the rectum until it is excreted via the anus.
Enzymes - Natures Catalysts for Health
"Man is not nourished by what he swallows,
but by what he digests and uses."
--Hippocrates
Look up the definition of the word enzyme in a dictionary and you are likely to find, A protein functioning
as a
biochemical catalyst in a living organism. Sounds simple enough if youre a chemist, but doesnt begin to
describe the
incredible complexity of biochemical reactions that take place in the human body. Enzymes are large
molecules
tailored to facilitate a given type of reaction. Usually enzymes are proteins, an important class of biomolecules
constructed from amino acids. Enzymes catalyze reactions by speeding up life-sustaining processes that under
normal body conditions would be much too slow to be useful. Enzymes are also incredibly selective--they
ignore
thousands of molecules in the body for which they were not designed. The mechanisms of catalyzed reactions
are
often not completely understood, but a lock-and-key model is useful in representing enzyme activity. This
model
proposes that the shapes of the reacting molecule (the substrate) and the enzyme fit together like a lock and
key.
Digestive enzymes are those that the body manufactures and secretes to break down food. The salivary glands
in the
mouth, the gastric glands in the stomach, and specific cells in the pancreas secrete the enzymes that work to
digest
the proteins, fats, and sugars present in any food that is eaten. Examples of digestive enzymes are protease,
which
breaks down protein; amylase, which breaks down starch; and lipase, which breaks down fat.

Feauture
The Challenge of Digestion
Have you ever felt tired after a meal? That's because digestion requires a large amount of energy. When a
cooked or processed food is eaten, the body must supply all of the enzymes to digest that food. A fresh raw
food, however, will contain the right amount of enzymes to help digest itself, demanding fewer pancreatic
enzymes, and therefore less energy from the digestive tract. Eating a lot of cooked or processed foods can
force your digestive organs to work overtime. Some common consequences of poor digestion are heartburn,
gas, bloating, constipation, and sluggishness. Recently, research scientists have found evidence that
impaired digestion, as well as decreased enzyme activity in the blood, is directly related to the aging process
and many of the illnesses and chronic degenerative conditions so prevalent in modern society. These
studies suggest that as we age, the number of enzymes and their activity levels decrease. This informative
document was created to help you answer these important questions about the critical role food enzymes
play in human health:
The effect of Temperature and pH on Enzyme activity
The way enzymes work imposes constraints on their function. No single enzyme can function
under all of the physical and chemical conditions under which life is found. In fact, most
enzymes work well only in narrow ranges of temperature and pH.
Increased temperature speeds reactions ; However, biological reactions are catalyzed by proteinaceous
enzymes,
and each enzyme has a temperature above which its three-dimensional structure is disrupted by heat.
Therefore,
biological reactions occur faster with increasing temperature up to the point of enzyme denaturation, above
which
temperature, enzyme activity and the rate of the reaction decrease sharply.

Effects of pH
Enzymes are affected by changes in pH. The most favorable pH value - the point where the enzyme is most
active - is known as the optimum pH.
Extremely high or low pH values generally result in complete loss of activity for most enzymes. pH is also a
factor in
the stability of enzymes.

Table : pH for Optimum Enzyme activity

Enzyme pH Optimum
Lipase (pancreas) 8.0
Lipase (stomach) 4.0 - 5.0
Lipase (castor oil) 4.7
Pepsin 1.5 - 1.6
Trypsin 7.8 - 8.7
Urease 7.0
Invertase 4.5
Maltase 6.1 - 6.8
Amylase (pancreas) 6.7 - 7.0
Amylase (malt) 4.6 - 5.2
Catalase 7.0

Feauture
The Challenge of Digestion
Have you ever felt tired after a meal? That's because digestion requires a large amount
of energy. When a
cooked or processed food is eaten, the body must supply all of the enzymes to digest
that food. A fresh raw
food, however, will contain the right amount of enzymes to help digest itself,

demanding fewer pancreatic

enzymes, and therefore less energy from the digestive tract. Eating a lot of cooked or
processed foods can
force your digestive organs to work overtime. Some common consequences of poor
digestion are heartburn,
gas, bloating, constipation, and sluggishness. Recently, research scientists have found
evidence that
impaired digestion, as well as decreased enzyme activity in the blood, is directly related
to the aging process
and many of the illnesses and chronic degenerative conditions so prevalent in modern
society. These
studies suggest that as we age, the number of enzymes and their activity levels
decrease. This informative
document was created to help you answer these important questions about the critical
role food enzymes
play in human health:
http://www.tiscali.co.uk/reference/encyclopaedia/hutchinson/m0007992.html
http://www.geocities.com/m81301/Index.html
blc.biolab.udel.edu/Harding/403.pdf
http://www.worthington-biochem.com/introBiochem/effectspH.html

Plant mineral Nutrition

Plant nutrition is the study of the chemical elements that are necessary for plant growth.
Some elements are essential, meaning that the absence of a given mineral element will cause the plant to fail to
complete its life cycle; that the element cannot be replaced by the presence of another element; and that the
element is directly involved in plant metabolism (Arnon and Stout, 1939). However, this principle does not
leave any
room for the so-called beneficial elements, whose presence, while not required, has clear positive effects on
plant
growth.
Plants require specific elements for growth and, in some cases, for reproduction.
Major nutrients include:
C = Carbon 450,000 ppm
H = Hydrogen 60,000 ppm
O = Oxygen 450,000 ppm
P = Phosphorus 2,000 ppm
K = Potassium 10,000 ppm
N = Nitrogen 15,000 ppm
S = Sulfur 1,000 ppm
Ca = Calcium 5,000 ppm
Mg = Magnesium 2000 ppm
Minor Nutrients:
Fe = Iron 100 ppm

Mo = Molybdenum 0.1 ppm

B = Boron 20 ppm
Cu = Copper 6 ppm
Mn = Manganese 50 ppm
Zn = Zinc 20 ppm
Cl = Chlorine 100 ppm
Nitrogen
Nitrogen is an essential component of all proteins, and as a part of DNA, it is essential for growth and
reproduction
as well. Nitrogen deficiency most often results in stunting.
NITROGEN:
Key building block of the protein molecule upon which all life is
based
Indispensable component of the protoplasm of plants animals
and microorganisms
One of the few soil nutrients lost by volatilization and leaching,
thus requiring continued conservation and maintenance
Most frequently deficient nutrient in crop production
Nitrogen is needed for protein and nucleic acid synthesis. It is mobile in the plant (i.e. it can be recovered from
proteins in senescent leaves and recycled to some extent into new proteins in young leaves). Consequently,
deficiency strikes the older leaves first, and leads to stunting and chlorosis (yellowing) primarily of the lower
leaves.
NITROGEN (N)
Nitrogen is mobile in plants. The mobility in soil is dependent on the chemical form of the element used.
Organic
N is not available to plants until it has been converted to an inorganic form by soil bacteria.
Uptake inhibited by high phosphorus levels. N/K ratio is important: high N/low K favors vegetative growth;
low
N/high K promotes flowering and fruiting.
Nitrogen is needed for vigorous vegetative leaf and stem growth and dark green leaf color (chlorophyll
production).
It feeds soil microorganisms as they decompose organic matter. It is part of proteins, enzymes, chlorophyll, and
growth regulators.
Deficiency Symptoms

General: Stunted growth and shorter internodes, small pale yellow leaves. Plant may be a light green. Older
leaves affected first. Reds and purples may intensify in some plants.
Crops: Older leaves yellow, then dry, fire, or shed. Tomatoes show purpling of veins.
Turf: Grass light green or yellow-green. Leaf dies starting at the tip. Death of older leaves.
Broadleaf plants: Leaves are uniformly yellowish-green; this color is more pronounced in older leaves. The
leaves
are small and thin, have high fall color, and drop early. Shoots are short and smaller in diameter than usual.
Shoots
may be reddish or reddish brown. Flowers bloom heavily, but may be delayed. Fruit set is light. Fruits may be
highly colored, early to mature, and small.
Magnesium
Magnesium is an important part of chlorophyll, a critical plant pigment important in photosynthesis. It is
important in
the production of ATP through its role as an enzyme cofactor. There are many other biological roles for
magnesium-- see Magnesium in biological systems for more information. Magnesium deficiency can result in
interveinal chlorosis.
Magnesium is part of the chlorophyll in all green plants and essential for photosynthesis. It also helps activate
many
plant enzymes needed for growth.
Soil minerals, organic material, fertilizers, and dolomitic limestone are sources of magnesium for plants.
Magnesium is needed for chlorophyll synthesis. Like nitrogen, it can be scavenged from chlorophyll in
senescent
leaves, and is mobile in the plant (remember that the leaves of deciduous trees go yellow in autumn: this is
partly
due to the recovery of magnesium from their chlorophyll). Deficiency shows as interveinal chlorosis of the
lower
leaves.
Magnesium is mobile in plants, mobile in acid soils, and fairly immobile above pH 6.5. Leaches from soil.
Magnesium is necessary for formation of sugars, proteins, oils, and fats, regulates the uptake of other nutrients
(especially P), is a component of chlorophyll, and is a phosphorus carrier.
Deficiency symptoms

General: Mottled yellowing between veins of older leaves while veins remain green. Yellow areas may turn
brown
and die. Yellowing may also occur on older leaves. Leaves may turn reddish purple due to low P metabolism.
Decreased seed production.
Deficiencies most likely on leached sandy soils and where high levels of N and K have been applied.
Turf: Green or yellow-green stripes, changing to cherry red. Older leaves affected first. Increased winter injury.
Broadleaf: Leaves are thin, brittle, and drop early. Older leaves may show interveinal and marginal chlorosis,
reddening of older leaves, with interveinal necrosis late in the season followed by shedding of leaves. Shoot
growth
is not reduced until deficiency is severe. Fruit yield is reduced in severe deficiencies; apples may drop
prematurely.
Conifer: Needle tips are orange-yellow and sometimes red. Primary needles remain blue-green in young
seedlings,
but in older plants, older needles and the lower crown show symptoms first. In affected needles, the transition
to
green may be sharp.

References
http://www.luminet.net/~wenonah/min-def/list.htm
agri.atu.edu/people/Hodgson/FieldCrops/Mirror/Nutrient
Def.www.mgofmc.org/docs/nutrientdeficiency.pdf

Living Organisms in the Environment

Basic/Intermediate
FOOD CHAIN
A food chain is a model that shows how energy is passed, in the form of food, from one organism to
another. The arrows between the organisms show the direction of energy flow.
The organisms in a food chain can be either producers, consumers, or decomposers.
Producers are green plants capable of making their own food using energy from the sun in a process
called photosynthesis.
Consumers are animals that cannot make their own food. They get their energy from other plants and
animals. A food chain can have as many as three to four consumers.
First level consumers feed directly on plants; an example of this would be a mouse.
Second level consumers feed on first level consumers; an example of this would be a rattlesnake that eats
the mouse.
Third level consumers feed on second level consumers; an example of this would be a hawk eating the
rattlesnake.
Decomposers are also unable to make their own food. Bacteria and fungi are decomposers. They break
down waste products and dead organisms for food. These broken down materials are returned to the soil
to be recycled and used by plants again. An example of this would be a fungus growing on a log. Although
decomposers are very important to ecosystems, they are usually not shown on the food chain. Look at the
following list of organisms and identify them as either producers, consumers, or decomposers.
Organisms
Human
Bear
Deer
Pine tree
Rabbit
Bacteria
Mouse
Snake
Wheat
Fly maggot

Role in food chain

What is a Decomposer?
Decomposers and scavengers break down dead plants and animals. They also break down the waste
(poop) of
other organisms. Decomposers are very important for any ecosystem. If they weren't in the ecosystem,
the plants
would not get essential nutrients, and dead matter and waste would pile up.
There are two kinds of decomposers, scavengers and decomposers.
Scavengers are animals that find dead animals or plants and eat them. While they eat them, they break
them into
small bits. In this simulation, flies, wasps and cockroaches are scavengers. Earthworms are also
scavengers, but they
only break down plants.
Once a scavenger is done, the decomposers take over, and finish the job. Many kinds of decomposers are
microscopic, meaning that they can't be seen without a microscope. Others, like fungi, can be seen.
Symbiosis (Greek symbioun, to live together), in biology, term for the interdependence of different
species, which
are sometimes called symbionts. There are three main types of symbiosis, based upon the specific
relationship
between the species involved: mutualism, parasitism, and commensalism.
Symbiosis that results in mutual benefit to the interdependent organisms is commonly known as
mutualism. An
example of mutualism is the coexistence of certain species of algae and fungi that together compose
lichens. Their
close association enables them to live in extreme environments, nourished only by light, air, and
minerals. Living
separately, the alga and fungus would not survive in such conditions. Another example is the relationship
between
most mycorrhizae and certain plants. Mycorrhizae are fungal growths on the roots of such plants as
heaths, orchids,
and many conifers. The fungi penetrate the roots of the plants and make soil nutriments such as nitrogen
available to
the plants, receiving carbohydrates in return.

An example of mutualism are

LICHENS,the product of a relationship
between a Fungus and either a
blue-green Algae or a Cyano-bacteria

In parasitism, also known as antagonistic symbiosis, one organism receives no benefits and is often
injured while
supplying nutrients or shelter for the other organism (see Parasite). Parasites include viruses and bacteria
that cause
many diseases; certain protozoans that can infect plants and animals; tapeworms and flukes that infest
the intestinal
tracks and internal organs of animals; and external parasites such as lice and ticks. There are also
parasitic plants
like mistletoe that draw their nourishment from the branches of other plants.

Human tapworm

The type of symbiosis known as commensalism is an association between two different kinds of
nonparasitic
animals, called commensals, that is harmless to both and in which one of the organism benefits. Many
commensals
are free to separate. Other commensals function together so completely that they cannot separate. They
are not
considered parasitic, however, because they do not harm each other. An example is a polyp found in deep

water off
the coast of Newfoundland and Labrador. It attaches itself to the shell of a certain species of hermit crab
and, by
budding, covers the entire shell with a colony that dissolves the original shell. Because the colony grows
at the same
rate as the crab, it furnishes continuous protection, and the crab does not shed its shell at periodic
intervals as it
normally would. The polyp, in turn, benefits by moving about with the crab, thereby obtaining a greater
food supply
than it would if attached to a stationary object. Commensalism is most common among marine
invertebrates, but it
often occurs among land animalsfor example, in the association of ants with other insects such as
aphids and
beetles. The association of colon bacteria with humans and other animals, especially plant-eating
animals, is also a
type of commensalism.
Examples
epiphytes, e.g.some tropical orchids use trees or branches of trees for support without harm or benefit to
the tree.
The epiphyte obtains more light and air in this manner;
The remora, a sucker-fish, lives in close association with sharks or other larger fish. The dorsal fin of the
sucker-fish
is modified to form a sucker; it uses this to attach itself to the shark; The sucker-fish is small and does
not injure (or
benefit) the shark, but envoys the shark's protection and lives on the scraps formed as the shark devours
its prey;

REFERENCES
http://www.zephyrus.co.uk/simplefoodchain.html
http://drake.marin.k12.ca.us/stuwork/rockwater/PLANKTON/Food%20Chain.htm
http://www2.tpwd.state.tx.
us/publications/nonpwdpubs/young_naturalist/animals/predator_prey_relationship/
http://www.nhptv.org/natureworks/nwep11b.htm
http://www.qrg.northwestern.edu/projects/marssim/simhtml/info/whats-a-decomposer.html
http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761568171/Symbiosis.html

TRULY FASCINATING

Lichens are nature's pioneers. Lichens find their homes in some of the most barren and inhospitable parts
of the world. From there they slowly begin the process of creating a foundation for habitation by others.
Structurally, lichens are among the most bizarre of all forms of life. That's because every lichen species is
actually composed of two, possibly even three, distinct species of organisms. One species is a kind of
fungus. Usually the other species is an alga, but sometimes it can be a photosynthesizing bacterium known
as a cyanobacterium. Sometimes all three organisms are found in one lichen.
The drawing at the right gives an idea of what fungal hyphae wrapping around alga cells might look like at
the microscopic level. Since all three kinds of organism are profoundly different from one another, what
lichens do is almost like merging a shrub with a dog to produce something that looks and lives unlike either
shrub or dog!
In this amazing association the fungus benefits from the algae because fungi, having no chlorophyll, can't
photosynthesize their own food. A lichen's fungal part is thus "fed" by its photosynthesizing algal part. The
algae benefit from the association because the fungus is better able to find, soak up, and retain water and
nutrients than the algae. Also, the fungus gives the resulting lichen shape, and provides the reproductive
structures. This kind of relationship between two or more organisms, where both organisms benefit, is known
as mutualism.

Living Organisms in the Environment

Advanced
Energy flow in Food chains/Webs
Energy Flow
As you read through this topic, keep in mind the following:
FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS - energy is neither created nor destroyed, but it may be converted from
one form to another
SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS - in any energy conversion, less energy will be present after
conversion due to heat loss. Useable energy is lost during energy conversion.
ENERGY IS NEEDED TO MAINTAIN ORDER.
WHILE ENERGY CANNOT BE RECYCLED WITHIN AN ECOSYSTEM, NUTRIENTS AND OTHER MATERIALS
CAN BE RECYCLED
Flow of energy through a food chain.
As energy passes to a higher tropic level, approximately 90% of the useful energy is lost. High tropic levels
contain less energy and fewer organisms than lower levels.
At each tropic level in a food chain, energy is used by the organisms at that level to maintain their own life
process. Because of the 2nd law of energy, some energy is lost to the surroundings as heat. it is estimated that
in going from one tropic level to the next, about 90 % of the energy is lost.
In moving to the next tropic level, only 10 % of the original energy is available. By the third tropic level only 1%
of the energy is available

SUMMARY
Energy Flow: Pyramids, Food Chains, and Food Webs
1) Nutrients are cycled up food chain, down to the soil, and back through the plants. Each animal and plant of
the
community has its place in the food chain and nutrient cycles called its niche.
2) A food chain is a chain of eating and being eaten that connects larger and carnivorous animals to their
ultimate
plant food. Ex. Pine tree>aphids >spiders>chickadee>hawk
3) The arrows in the food chain point in the direction of the energy flow. It shows what is doing the eating.
4) A food web is necessary because many kinds of plants live side by side, and because most animals eat more
than
one kind of food. The more complex the web, the more stable the ecosystem. The more choices that are
available.
5) While the nutrients are cycled through the ecosystem, energy (calories) movement is unidirectional. Energy
is
reduced in the process according the second law of thermodynamics (Energy is lost as heat to he

environment at
each transfer).
6) First Law of Thermodynamics = energy can not be created or destroyed.
7) Animals high on food chains are larger and rarer than animals lower down the food chain. This is called the
pyramid of numbers.
8) Each layer on the pyramid represents kinds of animals living at parallel levels on food chains. All
herbivores are on
one level. All primary consumers on the next. All secondary consumers on the next. These levels are called
tropic
levels.
9) Producers organisms that make their food from non-food molecules. Ex. Plants use H2O and CO2 to
make sugar.
10) Consumers - organisms that cannot make their own food
a) Herbivores plant eaters; primary consumers
b) Carnivores meat eater; secondary consumer
c) Omnivores eats plants and meat
d) Decomposers decay dead organic material
e) Predator feeds on animals that if must hunt and kill (prey)
f) Scavenger carnivore that feeds on organisms have died naturally or that another animals has killed
g) Parasite feed on still living organisms.
11) The Number of organisms at the highest level is directly related to the # of levels in the chain. The shorter
the
chain the more people or top consumers that can be supported by the bases.
a) Ex. 27,000 lbs. alfalfa > 3300 lbs. Beef > 150 lbs. Human tissue
b) The main ingredient in Chinese food is rice. This reduces the number of links in the food chain so that more
people can be sustained.
12) Principle of Food size animals tend to be the size that let them thrust their prey into their mouths whole.
There
is an optimum size for any animal. They must be large enough to easily catch its prey but small enough so that
it
doesnt have to catch too much prey.
13) Why are big animals particularly big carnivores, rare? Small animals low on the pyramid are the food of
larger
animals up the food chain so that the energy enters in the bottom of the pyramid. Energy received by each
trophic
level is than the previous level. (lose 90%)
14) Living biomass (organic matter at any level in the food chain) is a store of energy and its maintenance cost
are a
function of its mass. Less biomass can be supported by the food energy received in each higher tropic level.
Those
animals higher on the food chain are bigger so they can consume more food to make-up for the decrease in
energy
flow. Since more food is needed per individual, the fewer organisms that will be at the top of the food chain.

15) Other factors that may affect population numbers

a) Reproductive rates
b) Mortality rates
16) As animals become larger and rarer, they also have larger home ranges. This is a necessity when energy is
in
short supply high on the food chain.
17) Attributes that should change along a gradient from herbivory to carnivory up the food chaina) Fewer species
b) Lower reproductive levels
c) Lower population levels
d) Increased home range
e) Higher maintenance cost
f) Food of higher caloric value
g) Reduced feeding specialization
h) More complex behavior
i) Longer life expectancy
References
http://www.homewood.k12.al.us/~lhardin/energyflow.htm
http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/biology/livingthingsenvironment/1feedingrelationshipsrev6.shtml
http://io.uwinnipeg.ca/~simmons/16cm05/1116/16ecosys.htm