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[AR 8.1]
207
(T preserves addition)
2. T (u) = T (u)
209
2. T maps each line through the origin to a line through the origin
(or to just the origin).
210
(x, y )
(x, y )
211
1 0
AT =
0 1
212
" 12
13
5
13
5
13
12
13
213
3. Rotation
around
the origin anticlockwise by an angle of /2 has
0 1
matrix
1 0
4. Rotation
around theorigin anticlockwise by an angle of has
matrix
Q
214
Examples continued
5. Compression/expansion along the x-axis has matrix
1 c
6. Shear along the x-axis has matrix
0 1
1 0
6. Shear along the y -axis has matrix
c 1
215
Successive Transformations
Example
Find the image of (x, y ) after a shear along the x-axis with c = 1
followed by a compression along the y -axis with c = 21 .
Solution:
Let R : R2 R2 be the compression and denote its standard matrix
representation by AR . Similarly let S : R2 R2 be the shear and
denote its standard matrix representation by AS . Then the coordinate
matrix of R(S(x, y )) is given by
x
AR AS
y
It remains to recall AR and AS , and to compute the matrix products.
216
Note
1. The composition of two linear transformations T (v) = R(S(v)) is
also written T (v) = R S(v)
2. The matrix for the linear transformation S followed by the linear
transformation R is the matrix product AR AS .
In other words
ARS = AR AS
(This is why matrix multiplication is defined the way it is!)
3. Notice that (reading left to right) the two matrices are in the
opposite order to the order in which the transformations are
applied.
217
and R
we have that
T (u + v) = T (u) + T (v)
and
T (u) = T (u)
218
= T (u) + T (v)
For the second part,
219
and AT =
220
Theorem
Every linear transformation T : Rn Rm has a standard matrix
representation AT specified by
AT = [ [T (e1 )] [T (e2 )] [T (en )] ]
where each [T (ei )] denotes the coordinate matrix of T (ei ) and
S = {e1 , . . . , en } is the standard basis for Rn .
Then
[T v] = AT [v]
for all v Rn .
Note
Proof
Let v Rn and write
v = 1 e1 + 2 e2 + + n en
The coordinate matrix of v with respect to the standard basis is then
1
2
[v] = .
..
n
(independently of v )
()
In words, this equation says that AT times the column matrix [v] is
equal to the coordinate matrix of T (v).
Since T is linear, we have that
T (v) = 1 T (e1 ) + 2 T (e2 ) + + n T (en )
222
224
Examples
1. Define T : R3 R4 by T (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (x1 , x3 , x2 , x1 + x3 ).
Calculate AT .
225
[AR 8.4]
for all u U.
()
Note: For this matrix equation to make sense, the size of AC,B must be
m n.
Theorem
There exists a unique matrix satisfying the above condition (). It is
given by
i
h
AC,B = [T (b1 )]C [T (b2 )]C [T (bn )]C
The proof is the same as for the case of the standard matrix AT .
The matrix AC,B is also denoted by [T ]C,B and is called the matrix of T
with respect to the bases B and C.
In the special case in which U = V and B = C, we often write [T ]B in
place of [T ]B,B .
227
Example
Find [T ]C,B for the linear transformation T : P2 P1 given by
T (a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 ) = (a0 + a2 ) + a0 x
using the bases B = {1, x, x 2 } for P2 and C = {1, x} for P1 .
Solution
T (1) =
T (x) =
T (x 2 ) =
[T ]C,B =
228
Example
5 1 0
A linear transformation T :
has matrix
with
1 5 2
respect to the standard bases of R3 and R2 . What is its matrix with
respect to the basis B = {(1, 1, 0), (1, 1, 0), (1, 1, 2)} of R3 and
the basis C = {(1, 1), (1, 1)} of R2 ?
R3
R2
Solution
We apply T to the elements of B to get:
Then we write the result in terms of C:
We obtain the matrix AC,B =
229
Example
Consider the linear transformation T : V V where V is the vector
space of real valued 2 2 matrices and T is defined by
T (Q) = Q T = the transpose of Q.
Find the matrix representation of T with respect to bases:
B=
C=
and
1 1
1 0
1 0
0 1
,
,
,
0 0
0 1
1 0
1 0
1 0
0 1
0 0
0 0
,
,
,
0 0
0 0
1 0
0 1
230
Solution
The task is to work out the coordinates with respect to C of the image
of each element in B.
231
Example
Consider the linear transformation T : P2 R2 defined by
T (a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 ) = (a0 a1 + a2 , 2a0 2a1 + 2a2 )
Find bases for ker(T ) and Im(T ).
233
Note
When we calculate ker(T ) we find that we are solving equations of the
form AT X = 0. So ker(T ) corresponds to the solution space for AT .
To calculate Im(T ) we can use the fact that, because B spans U then
T (B) must span T (U); the image of T . But the elements of T (B) are
given by the columns of AT . Thus the column space of AT gives the
coordinate vectors of the elements of Im(T ). It follows that
rank(T ) = rank(AT ).
We can now use the result of slide 166 to prove the following:
234
Definition
Recall that a function T : U V is called injective or one-to-one if
T (x) = T (y) implies x = y. It is called surjective or onto if T (U) = V .
For linear transformations, these conditions simplify to the following:
Theorem
A linear transformation T : U V is injective if ker(T ) = {0} and is
surjective if Im(T ) = V .
Example
Is the linear transformation of the preceding example injective ?
Is it surjective ?
235
Definition (Invertibility)
A linear transformation T : U V is invertible if there is a linear
transformation S : V U such that
1. (S T )(u) = u
2. (T S)(v) = v
for all u U
for all v V
Lemma
1. If T is invertible, then the linear transformation S is unique. It is
called the inverse of T and is denoted T 1 .
2. A linear transformation T is invertible iff T is both injective and
surjective.
3. If we fix bases B for U and C for V then
[T 1 ]B,C = ([T ]C,B )1
236
Theorem
There exists a unique matrix P such that for any vector v V ,
[v]C = P[v]B
The matrix P is given by
P = [ [b1 ]C [bn ]C ]
and is called the transition matrix from B to C.
In words, the columns of P are the coordinate matrices, with respect to
C, of the elements of B.
We will sometimes denote this transition matrix by PC,B
It is also sometimes denoted by PBC
238
Proof:
We want to find a matrix P such that for all vectors v in V ,
[v]C = P[v]B
Recall that if T : V V is any linear transformation, then
[T (v)]C = [T ]C,B [v]B
where
()
[T ]C,B = [T (b1 )]C [T (b2 )]C [T (bn )]C
239
240
A simple case
The transition matrix is easy to calculate when one of B or C is the
standard basis.
Example
In R2 , write down the transition matrix from B to S, where
B = {(1, 1), (1, 1)} and S = {(1, 0), (0, 1)} .
1
Use this to compute [v]S , given that [v]B =
.
1
Solution
i
h
PS,B = [b1 ]S [b2 ]S =
[v]S = PS,B [v]B =
241
Example
For B and S as in the previous example, compute PB,S , the transition
matrix from S to B.
2
Use it to compute [v]B , given [v]S =
.
0
Solution
We saw that in this case
PS,B
1 1
=
1 1
It follows that
PB,S =
[v]B =
243
and
Combining these,
[v]C = PC,S [v]S = PC,S PS,B [v]B
Using the uniqueness of the transition matrix, we get
1
PS,B
PC,B = PC,S PS,B = PS,C
Example
With U = V = R2 and B = {(1, 2), (1, 1)} and C = {(3, 4), (1, 1)},
find PC,B .
PS,B =
PS,C =
So
PC,S =
and
PC,B =
245
246
Example continued
Now find the matrix of T with respect to the basis
B = {(1, 1), (1, 1)}
Solution
Theorem
The matrix representations of T : V V with respect to two bases C
and B are related by the following equation:
[T ]B = PB,C [T ]C PC,B
Proof:
We need to show that for all v V
[T (v)]B = PB,C [T ]C PC,B [v]B
Starting with the right-hand side we obtain:
PB,C [T ]C PC,B [v]B = PB,C [T ]C [v]C
= PB,C [T (v)]C
= [T (v)]B
(property of PC,B )
(property of [T ]C )
(property of PB,C )
248
Example
For the above linear transformation T : R2 R2 given by
T (x, y ) = (3x y , x + 3y ) we saw that
[T ]C =
[T ]B =
where C = {(1, 0), (0, 1)} is the standard basis and B = {(1, 1), (1, 1)}
Since C is the standard basis, it is easy to write down
PC,B =
From which we calculate PB,C =
Calculation verifies that in this case we do indeed have:
[T ]B = PB,C [T ]C PC,B
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250