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History of Yemen
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Yemen is one of the oldest centers of civilization in the Near East.[1] Its relatively fertile
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land and adequate rainfall in a moister climate helped sustain a stable population, a
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feature recognized by the ancient Greek geographer Ptolemy, who described Yemen as
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Eudaimon Arabia (better known in its Latin translation, Arabia Felix) meaning "fortunate
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Some scholars[who?] believe that Yemen remains the only region in the world that is
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History of Yemen
exclusively Semitic, meaning that Yemen historically did not have any non-Semitic-
Ancient history
[show]
speaking people. Yemeni Semites derived their Musnad script by the 12th to 8th
Islamic history
[show]
centuries BC, which explains why most historians date all of the ancient Yemeni
Modern history
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controlled the lucrative spice trade: Ma'in, Qataban, Hadhramaut, Awsan, Saba and
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Himyar.[2] Islam arrived in AD 630, and Yemen became part of the Muslim realm.
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1 Ancient history
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2 Middle Ages
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4 Two states
5 Unification
Sabaean inscription
addressed to the moon-god
Almaqah, mentioning five
South Arabian gods, two
reigning sovereigns and two
governors, 7th century BC.
5.1 Al Qaeda
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5.2.2 2012
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6 See also
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7 Notes
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8 References
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9 Further reading
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10 External links
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Ancient history
[ edit ]
Main articles: Ancient history of Yemen, Sabaeans, Qataban, Minaeans and Himyarite Kingdom
With its long sea border between early civilizations, Yemen has long existed at a crossroads of cultures with a strategic location in
terms of trade on the west of the Arabian Peninsula. Large settlements for their era existed in the mountains of northern Yemen as
Shqip
Srpskohrvatski /
Svenska
early as 5000 BC.[3] Little is known about ancient Yemen and how exactly it transitioned from nascent Bronze Age civilizations to more
trade-focussed caravan kingdoms. This may be due to social or official discouragement of research into pre-Islamic civilizations in
Arabia.[4]
The Sabaean Kingdom came into existence from at least the eleventh century BC.[5] There
Edit links
were four major kingdoms or tribal confederations in South Arabia: Saba, Hadramout,
Qataban and Ma'in. Saba is believed to be biblical Sheba and was the most prominent
federation.[6] The Sabaean rulers adopted the title Mukarrib generally thought to mean
"unifier",[7] or a "priest-king".[8] The role of the Mukarrib was to bring the various tribes under
the kingdom and preside over them all.[9] The Sabaens built the Great Dam of Marib around
940 BC.[10] The dam was built to withstand the seasonal flash floods surging down the valley.
Between 700 and 680 BC, the Kingdom of Awsan dominated Aden and its surroundings.
Sabaean Mukarrib Karib'il Watar I changed his ruling title to that of a king,[11] and conquered
the entire realm of Awsan, expanding Sabaean rule and territory to include much of South
Arabia.[12] Lack of water in the Arabian Peninsula prevented the Sabaeans from unifying the
entire peninsula. Instead, they established various colonies to control trade routes.[13]
Evidence of Sabaean influence is found in northern Ethiopia, where the South Arabian
alphabet religion and pantheon, and the South Arabian style of art and architecture were
introduced.[14][15][16] The Sabaean created a sense of identity through their religion. They
worshipped El-Maqah and believed themselves to be his children.[17] For centuries, the
Sabaeans controlled outbound trade across the Bab-el-Mandeb, a strait separating the Arabian Peninsula from the Horn of Africa and
the Red Sea from the Indian Ocean.[18]
By the 3rd century BC, Qataban, Hadramout and Ma'in became independent from Saba and established themselves in the Yemeni
arena. Minaean rule stretched as far as Dedan,[19] with their capital at Baraqish. The Sabaeans regained their control over Ma'in after
the collapse of Qataban in 50 BC. By the time of the Roman expedition to Arabia Felix in 25 BC, the Sabaeans were once again the
dominating power in Southern Arabia.[20] Aelius Gallus was ordered to lead a military campaign to establish Roman dominance over
the Sabaeans.[21] The Romans had a vague and contradictory geographical knowledge about Arabia Felix or Yemen. The Roman
army of ten thousand men was annihilated before Marib.[22] Strabo's close relationship with Aelius Gallus led him to attempt to justify
his friend's defeat in his writings. It took the Romans six months to reach Marib and sixty days to return to Egypt. The Romans blamed
their Nabataean guide and executed him for treachery.[23] No direct mention in Sabaean inscriptions of the Roman expedition has yet
been found.
After the Roman expedition perhaps earlier the
country fell into chaos and two clans, namely Hamdan
and Himyar, claimed kingship, assuming the title King
of Sheba and Dhu Raydan.[24] Dhu Raydan (i.e.
Himyarites) allied themselves with Aksum in Ethiopia
against the Sabaeans.[25] The chief of Bakil and king
of Saba and Dhu Raydan, El-sharah Yahdub,
launched successful campaigns against the
A funerary stela featuring a musical
scene, 1st century AD
his enemies by cutting them to pieces.[26] Sana'a came into prominence during his reign as he
built the Ghumdan Palace to be his place of residence.
The Himyarite annexed Sana'a from Hamdan circa AD 100.[27] Hashdi tribesmen rebelled
against them, however, and regained Sana'a in around
180.[28]
Shammar Yahri'sh conquered Hadramout and Najran and Tihama, thus unifying Yemen and consolidating Himyarite rule.[29][30] The
Himyarites rejected polytheism and adhered to a consensual form of monotheism called Rahmanism.[31] In 354, Roman Emperor
Constantius II sent an embassy headed by Theophilos the Indian to convert the Himyarites to Christianity.[32] According to
Philostorgius, the mission was resisted by local Jews.[33] Several inscriptions have been found in Hebrew and Sabaean praising the
ruling house in Jewish terms for helping and empowering the People of Israel.[34]
According to Islamic traditions, King As'ad The Perfect mounted a military expedition to support the Jews of Yathrib.[35] Abu Karib
As'ad, as known from the inscriptions, led a military campaign to central Arabia or Najd to support the vassal Kingdom of Kindah
against the Lakhmids.[36] However, no direct reference to Judaism or Yathrib was discovered from his lengthy reign. Abu Kariba died in
445, having reigned for almost 50 years.[37] By 515, Himyar became increasingly divided along religious lines and a bitter conflict
between different factions paved the way for an Aksumite intervention. The last Himyarite king Ma'adikarib Ya'fur was supported by
Aksum against his Jewish rivals. Ma'adikarib was Christian and launched a campaign against the Lakhmids in Southern Iraq, with the
support of other Arab allies of Byzantium.[38] The Lakhmids were a Bulwark of Persia, which was intolerant to a proselytizing religion
like Christianity.[39]
After the death of Ma'adikarib Ya'fur in around 521, a Himyarite Jewish warlord named Yousef Asar Yathar rose to power. His honorary
title Yathar means "to avenge". Yemenite Christians, aided by Aksum and Byzantium, systematically persecuted Jews and burned
down several synagogues across the land. Yousef avenged his people with great cruelty.[40] He marched toward the port city of Mocha
killing 14,000 and capturing 11,000.[38] Then he settled a camp in Bab-el-Mandeb to prevent aid flowing from Aksum. At the same
time, Yousef sent an army under the command of another Jewish warlord, Sharahil Yaqbul, to Najran. Sharahil had reinforcements
from the Bedouins of the Kindah and Madh'hij tribes, eventually wiping out the Christian community in Najran.[41] Yousef or Dhu Nuwas
(The one with sidelocks) as known in Arabic literature, believed that Christians in Yemen were a fifth column.[42] Christian sources
portray Dhu Nuwas (Yousef Asar) as a Jewish zealot, while Islamic traditions say that he threw 20,000 Christians into pits filled with
flaming oil.[40] This history, however, is shrouded in legend.[33] Dhu Nuwas left two inscriptions, neither of them making any reference
to fiery pits. Byzantium had to act or lose all credibility as protector of eastern Christianity. It is reported that Byzantium Emperor Justin
I sent a letter to the Aksumite King Kaleb, pressuring him to "attack the abominable Hebrew".[38] A tripartite military alliance of
Byzantine, Aksumite and Arab Christians successfully defeated Yousef around 525527 and a Christian client king was installed on
the Himyarite throne.[43]
Esimiphaios was a local Christian lord, mentioned in an inscription celebrating the burning of
an ancient Sabaean palace in Marib to build a church on its ruins.[44] Three new churches
were built in Najran alone.[44] Many tribes did not recognize Esimiphaios's authority.
Esimiphaios was displaced in 531 by a warrior named Abraha, who refused to leave Yemen
and declared himself an independent king of Himyar. Emperor Justinian I sent an embassy to
Yemen. He wanted the officially Christian Himyarites to use their influence on the tribes in
inner Arabia to launch military operations against Persia. Justinian I bestowed the dignity of
king upon the Arab sheikhs of Kindah and Ghassan in central and north Arabia.[45] From early
on, Roman and Byzantine policy was to develop close links with the powers of the coast of the Red Sea. They were successful in
converting Aksum and influencing their culture. The results with regard to Yemen were rather disappointing.[45]
A Kendite prince called Yazid bin Kabshat rebelled against Abraha and his Arab Christian allies. A truce was reached once The Great
Dam of Marib had suffered a breach.[46] Abraha died around 555565 no reliable sources regarding his death are available. The
Sasanid empire annexed Aden around 570. Under their rule, most of Yemen enjoyed great autonomy except for Aden and Sana'a.
This era marked the collapse of ancient South Arabian civilization, since the greater part of the country was under several
independent clans until the arrival of Islam in 630.[47]
Middle Ages
[ edit ]
[ edit ]
Persian origin called Fayruz al-Daylami. Christians, who were mainly staying in Najran along
with Jews, agreed to pay Jizya, although some Jews converted to Islam, such as Wahb ibn Munabbih and Ka'ab al-Ahbar.
The country was stable during the Rashidun Caliphate. Yemeni tribes played a pivotal role in the Islamic conquests of Egypt, Iraq,
Persia the Levant, Anatolia, North Africa, Sicily and Andalusia.[50][51][52] Yemeni tribes that settled in Syria, contributed significantly to
the solidification of Umayyad rule, especially during the reign of Marwan I. Powerful Yemenite tribes like Kindah were on his side
during the Battle of Marj Rahit.[53][54] Several emirates led by people of Yemeni descent were established in North Africa and
Andalusia. Effective control over entire Yemen was not achieved by the Umayyad Caliphate. Imam Abdullah ibn Yahya Al-Kindi was
elected in 745 to lead the Ib movement in Hadramawt and Oman. He expelled the Umayyad governor from Sana'a and captured
Mecca and Medina in 746.[55] Al-Kindi, known by his nickname Talib al-Haq (Seeker of truth), established the first Ibadi state in the
history of Islam but was killed in Taif around 749.[55]
Muhammad ibn Abdullah ibn Ziyad founded the Ziyadid dynasty in Tihama around 818 the state stretched from Haly (In present-day
Saudi Arabia) to Aden. They nominally recognized the Abbasid Caliphate but were in fact ruling independently from their capital in
Zabid.[56] The history of this dynasty is obscure they never exercised control over the highlands and Hadramawt, and did not control
more than a coastal strip of the Yemen (Tihama) bordering the Red Sea.[57] A Himyarite clan called the Yufirids established their rule
over the highlands from Saada to Taiz, while Hadramawt was an Ibadi stronghold and rejected all allegiance to the Abbasids in
Baghdad.[56] By virtue of its location, the Ziyadid dynasty of Zabid developed a special relationship with Abyssinia. The chief of the
Dahlak islands exported slaves as well as amber and leopard hides to the then ruler of Yemen.[58]
The first Zaidi imam, Yahya ibn al-Husayn, arrived to Yemen in 893. He was the founder of the Zaidi imamate in 897. He was a
religious cleric and judge who was invited to come to Saada from Medina to arbitrate tribal disputes.[59] Imam Yahya persuaded local
tribesmen to follow his teachings. The sect slowly spread across the highlands, as the tribes of Hashid and Bakil, later known as the
twin wings of the imamate, accepted his authority.[60] Yahya established his influence in Saada and Najran he also tried to capture
Sana'a from the Yufirids in 901, but he failed miserably. In 904, the Qarmatians invaded Sana'a. The Yufirid emir As'ad ibn Ibrahim
retreated to Al-Jawf, and between 904 and 913, Sana'a was conquered no less than 20 times by Qarmatians and Yufirids.[61] As'ad
ibn Ibrahim regained Sana'a in 915. The country was in turmoil as Sana'a became a battlefield for the three dynasties as well as
independent tribes.
The Yufirid emir Abdullah ibn Qahtan attacked and burned Zabid in 989, severely weakening the Ziyadid dynasty.[62] The Ziyadid
monarchs lost effective power after 989, or even earlier than that. Meanwhile, a succession of slaves held power in Zabid and
continued to govern in the name of their masters eventually establishing their own dynasty around 1022 or 1050 according to
different sources.[63] Although they were recognized by the Abbasid Caliphate in Baghdad, they ruled no more than Zabid and four
districts to its north.[64] The rise of the Ismaili Shia Sulayhid dynasty in the Yemeni highlands reduced their history to a series of
intrigues.
Sulayhid Dynasty
[ edit ]
Ali al-Sulayhi was killed by Najah's sons on his way to Mecca in 1084. His son Ahmad alMukarram led an army to Zabid and killed 8,000 of its
inhabitants.[70]
Zurayids to govern Aden. Ahmad al-Mukarram, who had been afflicted with facial paralysis
resulting from war injuries, retired in 1087 and handed over power to his wife Arwa al-Sulayhi.[71] Queen Arwa moved the seat of the
Sulayhid dynasty from Sana'a to Jibla, a small town in central Yemen near Ibb. Jibla was strategically near the Sulayhid dynasty
source of wealth, the agricultural central highlands. It was also within easy reach of the southern portion of the country, especially
Aden. She sent Ismaili missionaries to India where a significant Ismaili community was formed that exists to this day.[72] Queen Arwa
continued to rule securely until her death in 1138.[72]
Arwa al-Sulayhi is still remembered as a great and much loved sovereign, as attested in
Yemeni historiography, literature, and popular lore, where she is referred to as Balqis alsughra , that is "the junior queen of Sheba".[73] Although the Sulayhids were Ismaili, they
never tried to impose their beliefs on the public.[74] Shortly after queen Arwa's death, the
country was split between five competing petty dynasties along religious lines.[75] The Ayyubid
dynasty overthrew the Fatimid caliphate in Egypt. A few years after their rise to power, Saladin
dispatched his brother Turan Shah to conquer Yemen in 1174.[76]
Zurayid Dynasty
[ edit ]
Ayyubid conquest
[ edit ]
Rasulid Dynasty
[ edit ]
Yusuf I appropriated the title of caliph.[93] He chose the city of Ta'izz to became the political
capital of the kingdom because of its strategic location and proximity to Aden.[94] al-Muzaffar Yusuf I died in 1296 having reigned for
47 years.[93] When the news of his death reached the Zaydi imam Al-Mutawakkil al-Mutahhar bin Yahya he commented by saying:[93]
The greatest king of Yemen, the Muawiyah of the time, has died. His pens used to break our lances and swords to
pieces
The Rasulid state nurtured Yemen's commercial links with India and the Far East.[95] They
profited greatly by the Red Sea transit trade via Aden and Zabid.[89] The economy also boomed
due to the agricultural development programs instituted by the kings who promoted massive
cultivation of palms.[89] It was during this period that coffee became a lucrative cash crop in
Yemen.[72] The Rasulid kings enjoyed the support of the population of Tihama and southern
Yemen while they had to buy the loyalty of Yemen's restive northern highland tribes.[89] The
Rasulid sultans built numerous Madrasas in order to solidify the Shafi'i school of thought which is
still the dominant school of jurisprudence amongst Yemenis today.[96] Under their rule, Ta'izz and
Zabid became major international centers of Islamic learning.[89] The Kings themselves were
learned men in their own right who not only had important libraries but who also wrote treatises
on a wide array of subjects, ranging from astrology and medicine to agriculture and
genealogy.[94]
13th century slave market in
Yemen
The dynasty is regarded as the greatest native Yemeni state since the fall of pre-Islamic
Himyarite Kingdom.[97] They were, of course, of Turkic descent[98] but claimed an ancient
Yemenite origin to justify their rule. The Rasulids were not the first dynasty to create a fictitious
genealogy for political purposes, nor were they doing anything out of the ordinary in the tribal context of Arabia.[99] By claiming
descent from a solid Yemenite tribe, the Rasulid brought Yemen to a vital sense of unity in an otherwise chaotic regional milieu.[99]
They had a difficult relationship with the Mamluks of Egypt because the latter considered them a vassal state.[94] Their competition
centered over the Hejaz and the right to provide kiswa of the Ka'aba in Mecca.[94] The dynasty became increasingly threatened by
disgruntled family members over the problem of succession, combined by periodic tribal revolts, as they were locked in a war of
attrition with the Zaydi imams in the northern highlands.[89] During the last twelve years of Rasulid rule, the country was torn between
several contenders for the kingdom. The weakening of the Rasulids provided an opportunity for the Banu Taher clan to take over and
establish themselves as the new rulers of Yemen in 1454.[96]
Tahiride Dynasty
[ edit ]
Modern history
[ edit ]
[ edit ]
highlands independently. Imam al-Mutawakkil Yahya chose his son Ali to succeed him, a decision that infuriated his other son alMutahhar ibn Yahya.[109] Al-Mutahhar was lame and therefore not qualified for the Imamate.[109] He urged Oais Pasha, the Ottoman
colonial governor in Zabid, to attack his father.[110] Indeed, Ottoman troops supported by tribal forces loyal to Imam al-Mutahhar
stormed Ta'izz and marched north toward Sana'a in August 1547. The Turks officially made Imam al-Mutahhar a Sanjak-bey with
authority over 'Amran. Imam al-Mutahhar assassinated the Ottoman colonial governor and recaptured Sana'a but the Ottomans led by
zdemir Pasha, forced al-Mutahhar to retreat to his fortress in Thula. zdemir Pasha effectively put Yemen under Ottoman rule
between 1552 and 1560, he garrisoned the main cities. built new fortresses and rendered secure the main routes.[111] zdemir died in
Sana'a in 1561 to be succeeded by Mahmud Pasha.
Mahmud Pasha was described by other Ottoman officials as corrupt and unscrupulous governor, he used his authority to take over a
number of castles some of which belonged to the former Rasulid Kings.[109] Mahmud Pasha killed a Sunni scholar from Ibb.[112] The
Ottoman historian claimed that this incident was celebrated by the Zaydi Shia community in the northern highlands.[112] Disregarding
the delicate balance of power in Yemen by acting tactlessly, he alienated different groups within Yemeni society, causing them to
forget their rivalries and unite against the Turks.[111] Mahmud Pasha was displaced by Ridvan Pasha in 1564. By 1565, Yemen was
split into two provinces: the highlands under the command of Ridvan Pasha and Tihama under Murad Pasha. Imam al-Mutahhar
launched a propaganda campaign in which he claimed contact with prophet Mohammed in a dream advising him to wage jihad against
the Ottomans.[113] Al-Mutahhar led the tribes to capture Sana'a from Ridvan Pasha in 1567. When Murad tried to relieve Sana'a,
highland tribesmen ambushed his unit and slaughtered everyone of them.[114] Over 80 battles were fought, the last decisive
encounter took place in Dhamar around 1568 in which Murad Pasha was beheaded and had his head sent to al-Mutahhar in
Sana'a.[114][115] By 1568, only Zabid remained under the possession of the Turks.[115]
Lala Kara Mustafa Pasha, the Ottoman governor of Syria, was ordered by Selim II to suppress
the Yemeni rebels,[116] the Turkish army in Egypt was reluctant to go to Yemen however.[116]
Mustafa Pasha sent a letter with two Turkish shawishes hoping to persuade al-Mutahhar to
give an apology and say that he did not promote any act of aggression against the Ottoman
army, and claim that the ignorant Arabians according to the Turks, acted on their own.[117]
Imam al-Mutahhar refused the Ottoman offer. Mustafa Pasha sent an expeditionary force
under the command of Uthman Pasha, the expeditionary force was defeated with great
The imam was able to regain them temporarily in 1818, but new intervention by the Ottoman viceroy of Egypt in 1833 again wrested
the coast from the ruler in Sana'a. After 1835 the imamate changed hands with great frequency and some imams were assassinated.
After 1849 the Zaidi polity descended into chaos that lasted for decades.[139]
[ edit ]
compensate the sultan with an annual payment of 6000 riyals.[140] The British evicted the
Sultan of Lahej from Aden and forced him to
accept their "protection".[140] In November
1839, 5000 tribesmen tried to retake the town
but were repulsed and 200 were killed. The
British realized that Aden's prosperity
depended on their relations with the
neighboring tribes, which required that they
Flag of the Colony of Aden.
and friendship" treaties with nine tribes surrounding Aden, whereas they would remain
independent from British interference in their affairs as long as they do not conclude
treaties with foreigners (non-Arab colonial powers).[142] Aden was declared a free zone in
1850. With emigrants from India, East Africa and Southeast Asia, Aden grew into a "world
city". in 1850, only 980 Arabs were registered as original inhabitants of the city.[143] The
English presence in Aden put them at odds with the Ottomans. The Turks asserted to the
British that they held sovereignty over the whole of Arabia, including Yemen as successor
of Mohammed and the chief of the universal Caliphate.[144]
Ottoman Return
[ edit ]
burdened with continuing military operation against the Zaydi tribes.[151] The hit-and-run
tactics of the northern highlands tribesmen wore out the Ottoman military. They resented
the Turkish Tanzimat and defied all attempts to impose a central government upon
them.[149] The northern tribes united under the leadership of the House of Hamidaddin in
1890. Imam Yahya Hamidaddin led a rebellion against the Turks in 1904, the rebels
disrupted the Ottoman ability to govern.[153] The revolts between 1904 and 1911 were especially damaging to the Ottomans, costing
them as much as 10,000 soldier and 500,000 pound per year.[154] The Ottomans signed a treaty with imam Yahya Hamidaddin in
1911. Under the treaty, imam Yahya was recognized as an autonomous leader of the Zaydi northern highlands. The Ottomans
continued to rule Shafi'i areas in the mid-south until their departure in 1918.
[ edit ]
confederation of Marib, attacked Shabwah but were bombed by the British and had to retreat.
The Italian Empire was the first to recognize Imam Yahya as the King of Yemen in 1926. This
created a great deal of anxiety for the British, who interpreted it as recognition of Imam Yahya's
claim to sovereignty over Greater Yemen which included the Aden protectorate and Asir.[163] The
idrisis turned to Ibn Saud seeking his protection from Yahya hamid ed-Din. In 1932, however, the
Idrisis broke their accord with Ibn Saud and went back to Imam Yahya seeking help against Ibn
Saud himself, who had begun liquidating their authority and expressed his desire to annex those
territories into his own Saudi domain.[164][165] Imam Yahya demanded the return of all Idrisi
dominion.[164] That same year, a group of Hejazi liberals fled to Yemen and plotted to expel Ibn
Saud from the former Hashemite Kingdom of Hejaz which was conquered by the Saudis seven
years earlier. Ibn Saud appealed to Britain for aid.[166] The British government sent arms and aeroplanes .[166] The British were
anxious that Ibn Saud's financial difficulties may encourage the Italian Empire to bail him out.[164] Ibn Saud suppressed the Asiri
rebellion in 1933, after which the Idrsids fled to Sana'a.[166] Negotiations between the Imam Yahya Hamid ed-Din and Ibn Saud proved
fruitless. After a military confrontation, Ibn Saud announced a ceasefire in May 1934.[166] Imam Yahya agreed to release Saudi
hostages and the surrender of the Idrisis to Saudi custody. Imam Yahya ceded the three provinces of Najran, Asir and Jazan for 20
years.[167] and signed another treaty with the British government in 1934. The Imam recognized the British sovereignty over Aden
protectorate for 40 years.[168] Yahya submitted to the Saudi and British demands out of fear for Hudaydah. According to Bernard
Reich, Professor of Political Science and International Affairs at George Washington University, Yahya could have done better by
reorganizing the Zaydi tribes of the northern highlands as his ancestors did against the Turks and British intruders and turn the lands
they captured into another graveyard.[169]
Although the imamate lost Asir, it was able to put down rebel tribes in the north using Iraq-trained Yemani troops. With the country,
now established within clearly defined territory, finally pacified, the urban nationalists began to assert themselves. These nationalists
had long practiced non-Zaidi traditions (especially Shafi'i), and were centered in the coastal province of Tahama, the city of Ta'izz and
the British-occupied Aden. Many had been students in Cairo and had acquired connections with the Muslim Brotherhood and Algerian
nationalists. Muslim Brotherhood operatives in Yemen aligned themselves with the urban opposition and supported Zaidi prince
Abdullah bin Ahmad al-Wazir, who joined those actively seeking to overthrow Imam Yahya. On February 17, 1948 the opposition
revolted in Sana'a and killed Imam Yahya. Crown prince Ahmad was able to rally northern tribes and retake the capital, quelling the
revolt after a brief siege on March 12, 1948.[170]
Imam Ahmad reversed the isolationist policies of his father and opened Yemen's economy and society to the outside world. It went as
the theocratic and largely medieval Imamate which became the first Arab state to accept Soviet aid. Beginning in 1955 Yemen entered
into various treaties of friendship and from 1957 began receiving large amounts of Soviet arms as well as Soviet and Chinese military
advisers. When the imam went abroad owing to illness, crown prince Muhammad al-Badr led a pro-Soviet party and communist activity
increased. When the Imam returned in 1959, brutal repression ensued and communists were expelled.[171]
In April 1956 Yemen joined a defensive pact with Syria and Egypt, and in February 1958 it federated with the United Arab Republic.
The latter move was conceived as a defensive measure against republican agitation, which urban nationalists still engaged in from
British-occupied Aden. So long as Yemen was federated with the UAR, republicans would be deprived any assistance from Egyptian
President Nasser. Although the federation only lasted for three years, crown prince al-Badr continued to portray himself as an Arab
patriot, often railing against "reactionary Arab monarchs."[172]
Two states
[ edit ]
later officially known as the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen and a programme of
nationalisation was begun.[175]
Relations between the two Yemeni states fluctuated between peaceful and hostile. The South was supported by the Eastern bloc. The
North, however, wasn't able to get the same connections. In 1972, the two states fought a war. The war was resolved with a ceasefire
and negotiations brokered by the Arab League, where it was declared that unification would eventually occur. In 1978, Ali Abdallah
Saleh was named as president of the Yemen Arab Republic.[176] After the war, the North complained about the South's help from
foreign countries. This included Saudi Arabia.[177]
1979 Fresh fighting between YAR and PDRY. Renewed efforts to unite the two states.[176]
1986 Thousands die in south in political rivalry. President Ali Nasser Muhammad flees the country and is later sentenced to death
for treason. New government formed.[176]
1990 May "Unified Republic of Yemen proclaimed, with Saleh as president."
Unification
[ edit ]
Al Qaeda
[ edit ]
In January 2009, the Saudi and Yemeni al-Qaeda branches merged to form Al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula (AQAP). Al Qaeda in
the Arabian Peninsula is based in Yemen, and many of its members were Saudi nationals who had been released from Guantanamo
Bay.[192] Saleh released 176 al-Qaeda suspects on condition of good behaviour, but terrorist activities continued.
The Yemeni army launched a fresh offensive against the Shia insurgents in 2009, assisted by Saudi forces. Tens of thousands of
people were displaced by the fighting. A new ceasefire was agreed upon in February 2010. However, by the end of the year, Yemen
claimed that 3,000 soldiers had been killed in renewed fighting. The Shia rebels accused Saudi Arabia of providing support to salafi
groups to suppress Zaidism in Yemen.[193] Saleh's government used Al-Qaeda in its wars against the insurgent Houthis clan.[194]
Some news reports have suggested that, on orders from U.S. President Barack Obama, U.S. warplanes fired cruise missiles at what
officials in Washington claimed were Al Qaeda training camps in the provinces of Sana'a and Abyan on 17 December 2009.[195]
Instead of hitting Al-Qaeda operatives, it hit a village killing 55 civilians.[196] Officials in Yemen said that the attacks claimed the lives of
more than 60 civilians, 28 of them children. Another airstrike was carried out on 24 December.[197]
The U.S. launched a series of drone attacks in Yemen to curb a perceived growing terror threat due to political chaos in Yemen.[198]
Since December 2009, U.S. strikes in Yemen have been carried out by the U.S. military with intelligence support from CIA.[199] The
drone strikes are protested by human-rights groups who say they kill innocent civilians and that the U.S. military and CIA drone strikes
lack sufficient congressional oversight, including the choice of human targets suspected of being threats to America.[200] Controversy
over U.S. policy for drone attacks mushroomed after a September 2011 drone strike in Yemen killed Anwar al-Awlaki and Samir Khan,
both U.S. citizens.[201] Another drone strike in October 2011 killed Anwar's teenage son, Abdulrahman al-Awlaki.
In 2010 the Obama administration policy allowed targeting of people whose names are not known. The U.S. government increased
military aid to $140 million in 2010.[202] U.S. drone strikes continued after the ousting of President Saleh.[203]
Further information: al-Qaeda insurgency in Yemen
[ edit ]
Hadi took office for a two-year term upon winning the uncontested
presidential elections in February 2012, in which he was the only
candidate standing.[212] A unity government including a prime minister
from the opposition was formed. Al-Hadi will oversee the drafting of a
new constitution, followed by parliamentary and presidential elections in
2014.[needs update]
2012 [ edit ]
AQAP claimed responsibility for the February 2012 suicide attack on the presidential palace which killed 26 Republican Guards on the
day that President Hadi was sworn in. AQAP was also behind the suicide bombing which killed 96 soldiers in Sana'a three months
later. In September 2012, a car bomb attack in Sana'a killed 11 people, a day after a local al-Qaeda leader Said al-Shihri was
reported killed in the south.
By 2012, there has been a "small contingent of U.S. special-operations troops" in addition to CIA and "unofficially acknowledged"
U.S. military presence in response to increasing terror attacks by AQAP on Yemeni citizens.[213] Many analysts have pointed out the
former Yemeni government role in cultivating terrorist activity in the country.[214] Following the election of new president Abd Rabbuh
Mansur Hadi, the Yemeni military was able push Ansar al-Sharia back and recapture the Shabwah Governorate.
See also
[ edit ]
History of Asia
South Yemen
Politics of Yemen
South Arabia
Notes
[ edit ]
ISBN 0802849601.
6. ^ Geoffrey W. Bromiley. The International Standard Bible
108. ^ a
ISBN 0891583009.
109. ^ a
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8. ^ P. M. Holt, Peter Malcolm Holt, Ann K. S. Lambton, Bernard
Lewis (21 April 1977). The Cambridge History of Islam.
. British Museum.
ISBN 3701622922.
12. ^ "The kingdoms of ancient South Arabia"
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123. ^ Harold F. Jacob (2007). Kings of Arabia: The Rise and Set of
the Turkish Sovranty in the Arabian Peninsula. Garnet & Ithaca
Press. p. 70. ISBN 1859641989.
124. ^ Muammad ibn Amad Nahrawl (2002). Lightning Over
Yemen: A History of the Ottoman Campaign in Yemen, 156971
[( ] in Arabic). OI.B.Tauris. p. 197.
ISBN 1860648363.
125. ^ 'Abd al-Samad al-Mawza'i (1986). al-Ihsan f dukhl Mamlakat
al-Yaman taht zill Adalat al-'Uthman [
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a b
a b
^a b
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131. ^ Kjetil Selvik, Stig Stenslie (2011). Stability and Change in the
Modern Middle East. I. B. Tauris. p. 90. ISBN 1848855893.
132. ^ Anna Hestler, Jo-Ann Spilling (2010). Yemen. Marshall
Cavendish. p. 23. ISBN 0761448500.
133. ^ Richard N. Schofield (1994). Territorial foundations of the Gulf
states. UCL Press. p. 90. ISBN 1857281217.
134. ^ Robert D. Burrowes (2010). Historical Dictionary of Yemen.
Rowman & Littlefield. p. 295. ISBN 0810855283.
135. ^ Nelly Hanna (2005). Society and Economy in Egypt and the
Eastern Mediterranean, 16001900: Essays in Honor of Andr
Raymond. American Univ in Cairo Press. p. 124.
ISBN 9774249372.
136. ^ Roman Loimeier (2013). Muslim Societies in Africa: A
Historical Anthropology. Indiana University Press. p. 193.
ISBN 0253007976.
137. ^ Marta Colburn (2002). The Republic of Yemen: Development
Challenges in the 21st Century. CIIR. p. 15. ISBN 1852872497.
138. ^ Ari Ariel (2013). Jewish-Muslim Relations and Migration from
Yemen to Palestine in the Late Nineteenth and Twentieth
Centuries. BRILL. p. 24. ISBN 9004265376.
139. ^ R.L. Playfair (1859), A History of Arabia Felix or Yemen.
Bombay R.B. Serjeant & R. Lewcock (1983), San'a': An Araban
Islamic City. London.
140. ^ a
bc d
^a b
^a b c d e f
bc
bc d
bc de f
.
on 22
78. ^ H.C. Kay, Yaman: Its early medieval history, London 1892, pp.
78. ^ H.C. Kay, Yaman: Its early medieval history, London 1892, pp.
66-7.
p. 19.
80. ^ Robert W. Stookey, Yemen: The politics of the Yemen Arab
Republic, Boulder 1978, p. 96.
81. ^ Mohammed Abdo Al-Sururi (1987).
[ political life and aspects of civilization in
Yemen during the reign of Independent States] (in Arabic).
University of Sana'a. p. 311.
82. ^ Farhad Daftary (2007). The Isma'ilis: Their History and
Doctrines. Cambridge University Press. p. 260.
ISBN 1139465783.
83. ^ Farhad Daftary (2007). The Isma'ilis: Their History and
Doctrines. Cambridge University Press. p. 260.
ISBN 1139465783.
84. ^ Josef W. Meri (2004). Medieval Islamic Civilization.
Psychology Press. p. 871. ISBN 0415966906.
85. ^ Mohammed Abdo Al-Sururi (1987).
[ political life and aspects of civilization in
Yemen during the reign of Independent States] (in Arabic).
University of Sana'a. p. 350.
86. ^ Mohammed Abdo Al-Sururi (1987).
[ political life and aspects of civilization in
Yemen during the reign of Independent States] (in Arabic).
University of Sana'a. p. 354.
87. ^ Mohammed Abdo Al-Sururi (1987).
[ political life and aspects of civilization in
Yemen during the reign of Independent States] (in Arabic).
University of Sana'a. p. 371.
88. ^
a bc de fg
bc
22 February 2013.
194. ^ "Yemen's Forever War: The Houthi Rebellion" . Washington
Institute. Retrieved 22 February 2013.
195. ^ Ross, Brian Esposito, Richard Cole, Matthew et al. (18
December 2009). "Obama Ordered U.S. Military Strike on
Yemen Terrorists"
on 1 January 2010.
bc d
. Al Jazeera. 23
93. ^ a
a b
199. ^ Siobhan Gorman, Adam Entous (14 June 2011). "CIA Plans
Drone Strikes in Yemen"
York).
201. ^ "Memo on Drone Strikes Draws Scrutiny"
. Wall Street
10 January 2010.
203. ^ Andrew Katz: U.S. Officials: Drone Strike That Hit Yemen
Wedding Convoy Killed Militants, Not Civilians , 20 December
2013.
204. ^ Hendawi, Hamza (12 October 2014). "Yemen's crisis reflects
arc of Arab Spring revolts"
2015.
205. ^ al-Naggar, Mona (6 February 2015). "In Yemen, Hard Times
Remain a Constant as Rebels Take Charge" . The New York
Times. Retrieved 6 February 2015.
206. ^ "Meet The Group That Now Rules Yemen" . BuzzFeed. 6
February 2015. Retrieved 6 February 2015.
207. ^ "Al-Qaeda thrives in Yemen amid weak security, stalled
dialogue" . Al Arabiya. 6 February 2015. Retrieved 6 February
2015.
208. ^ al-Haj, Ahmed (6 February 2015). "Yemen's Shiite rebels
announce takeover of country"
6 February 2015.
209. ^ "Houthi militia installs 'presidential council' to run Yemen"
. Anadolu Agency.
211. ^ Kerr, Simeon (26 February 2015). "UN and Gulf back Yemeni
. Financial Times.
Qaeda?"
References
[ edit ]
Further reading
[ edit ]
Alessandro de Maigret. Arabia Felix, translated Rebecca Thompson. London: Stacey International, 2002. ISBN 1-900988-07-0
Andrey Korotayev. Ancient Yemen. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995. ISBN 0-19-922237-1 [1] .
External links
[ edit ]
A Dam at Marib
http://web.archive.org/web/20040913083237/http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5302.htm
History of Yemen
Yemenite Virtual Museum
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