Hungerford: Algebra

IV.1. Modules
Note: R is a ring.
1. If A is an abelian group and n > 0 an integer such that na = 0, a A, then A is
a unitary Zn -module, with the action of Zn on A given by ka = ka, where k Z and
k 7 k Zn under the canonical projection Z 7 Zn .
Proof: k Z, let k be the non negative integer which is the remainder of k when divided
by n (as well as the corresponding element in Zn ). That is, for some integer mk , we have
k = nmk + k, 0 k < n.
Since a A, na = 0, and so
ka = (nmk + k)a = mk (na) + ka = 0 + ka = ka.
Thus it is not ambiguous to define ka = ka, a A and k Zn .
After we have shown that ka = ka is well-defined, we shall show that this would make
A a unitary Zn -module by checking the definition. Note that k, h Zn and a, b A, we
have
(1.1) k(a + b) = k(a + b) = ka + kb = ka + kb.
(1.2) (h + k)a = (h + k)a = (h + k)a = ha + ka = ha + ka.
(1.3) h(ka) = h(ka) = h(ka) = (hk)a = hka.
(1.4) 1a = 1a = a.
Therefore, by the definition of modules (Definition IV-1.1), A is a unitary Zn -module.
2. Let f : A 7 B be an R-module homomorphism.
(a) f is a monomorphism if and only if for every pair of R-module homomorphisms g, h :
D 7 A such that f g = f h, we have g = h.
(b) f is an epimorphism if and only if for every pair of R-module homomorphisms k, t :
B 7 C such that kf = tf , we have k = t.
Proof:

(a) Suppose that f is a monomorphism and that a pair of R-module homo-

morphisms g, h : D 7 A satisfying f g = f h. For any d D, since f g = f h, we have

f (g(d)) = f (h(d)). Since f is a monomorphism, we must have g(d) = h(d). As d is an
arbitrary element in D, we conclude that g = h.

Conversely, we assume that for every pair of R-module homomorphisms g, h : D 7 A

such that f g = f h, we have g = h. Suppose by contradiction that f is not a monomorphism.
Then Ker f 6= {0A }. Let D = Ker f , g : D 7 A be given by g(x) = x, x D, and
h : D 7 A be given by h(x) = 0A , x D. Then x D = Ker f ,
f (g(x)) = f (x) = 0B , and f (h(x)) = f (0A ) = 0B ,
and so f g = f h. But as Ker f 6= {0A }, g 6= h, contrary to the assumption that g and h
should have been the same. Therefore, Ker f must be {0A } and so f must be a monomorphism.
(b) Suppose that f is an epimorphism and that a pair of R-module homomorphisms k, t :
B 7 C satisfying kf = tf . For any c C, since f is an epimorphism, a A such that
c = f (a). Since kf = tf , we have k(c) = kf (a) = tf (a) = t(c), and so we conclude that
k = t.
Conversely, for every pair of R-module homomorphisms k, t : B 7 C such that kf = tf ,
we have k = t. Suppose by contradiction that f is not an epimorphism. Then Im f 6= B.
Let C = B/ Im f , g : B 7 C be given by g(b) = b+ Im f be the canonical epimorphism,
b B, and h : B 7 C be given by h(b) = 0B + Im f , b B. Then a A,
k(f (a)) = f (a) + Im f = Im f, and t(f (a)) = Im f,
and so kf = tf . But as Im f 6= B, k 6= t, contrary to the assumption that k and t should
have been the same. Therefore, Im f must be B and so f must be an epimorphism.
3. Let I be a left ideal of a ring R and A an R-module.
(a) If S is a nonempty subset of A, then
IS =

( n
X

ri ai : n N ; ri I and ai S

i=1

is a submodule of A. Note that if S = {a}, then IS = Ia = {ra : r I}.

(b) If I is a two-sided ideal, then A/IA is an R/I-module with the action of R/I given by
(r + I)(a + IA) = ra + IA.
Proof:

(a) We first show that IS is a subgroup of A. Pick x, x0 IS, we may assume

that for positive integers m, n, ri , ri0 I and ai , a0i A,

x=

m
X

ri ai and x0 =

i=1

n
X
i=1

ri0 a0i .

It follows that
x x0 =

m+n
X

ri00 a00i IS,

i=1

where

ri00

= ri if 1 i n and

ri00

0
rin

if n + 1 i m + n, and where a00i = ai if

1 i n and a00i = a0in if n + 1 i m + n. Hence IS is a subgroup of A.

To show that IS is a submodule of A, we also need to show that r R, and x IS,
rx IS. Again let x =

n
X

ri ai IS. Then since I is a left ideal, r R, rri I and so

i=1

rx = r

n
X

ri ai

n
X

i=1

r(ri ai ) =

i=1

n
X

(rri )ai IS.

i=1

(b) Since IA is a submodule of A, and since I is an ideal of R, both quotients A/IA and R/I
are meaningful. Note that A/IA is a group and that R/I is a ring. It suffices to verify the
definition of a module for the given action. Let r +I, s+I R/I and a+IA, b+IA A/IA
be arbitrarily elements.
(3b.1) Since A is an R-module, r(a + b) = ra + rb. Thus
(r + I)((a + IA) + (b + IA)) = (r + I)((a + b) + IA) = r(a + b) + IA
= (ra + rb) + IA = (ra + IA) + (rb + IA)
= (r + I(a + IA) + (r + I)(b + IA).
(3b.2) Since A is an R-module, (r + s)a = ra + sa. Thus
((r + I) + (s + I))(a + IA) = ((r + s) + I)(a + IA) = (r + s)a + IA
= (ra + sa) + IA = (ra + IA) + (sa + IA)
= (r + I)(a + IA) + (s + I)(a + IA).
(3b.3) Since A is an R-module, r(sa) = (rs)a. Thus
(r + I)((s + I))(a + IA)) = (r + I)((sa) + IA) = r(sa) + IA
= (rs)a + IA = (rs + I)(a + IA).
By the definition of modules, we conclude that A/IA is an R/I-module with the action of
R/I given by (r + I)(a + IA) = ra + IA.
4. If R has an identity, then a nonzero unitary cyclic R-module A is isomorphic to to an
R-module of the form R/J, where J is a left ideal of R.

Proof:

Let A be a unitary cyclic R-module. Then for some element a A, A = Ra =

{ra : r R}.
Let J = {x R : xa = 0A }. We shall first show that J is a left ideal of R. In fact,
x, x0 J and r R, we have xa = x0 a = 0A and so (x x0 )a = xa x0 a = 0A , and
(rx)a = r(xa)r(0A ) = 0A . Thus J is a left ideal of R.
Note that R/J is an additive abelian group. With the action r R and x + J R/J,
r(x + J) = (rx) + J, R/J is an R-module.
View R as an R-module with the ring multiplication as the action. Define a map
f : R 7 A by f (r) = ra, r R. Then as A = {ra : r R}, f is an onto map.
Since A is an R-module, r, s R, f (r + s) = (r + s)a = ra + sa = f (r) + f (s), and
f (rs) = (rs)a = r(sa) = rf (s). Hence f is an R-module homomorphism. Moreover,
Kerf = {r R : f (r) = 0A } = {r R : ra = 0A } = J.
By the First Isomorphism Theorem (Theorem IV-1.7), A
= R/J is a R-module isomorphism.
9. If f : A 7 A is an R-module homomorphism such that f f = f , then
A = Ker f Im f.
Proof: Let a A. Let a2 = f (a) and a1 = aa2 . Then a2 Im f . Since f is an R-module
homomorphism and since f f = f , f (a1 ) = f (a a2 ) = f (a) f (a2 ) = f (a) f f (a) =
f (a) f (a) = 0, and so a1 Ker f . It follows that any a A can be written as a = a1 + a2
with a1 Ker f and a2 Im f .
Suppose that y Ker f Im f . Since y Im f , then x A such that y = f (x). Since
y Ker f , and since f f = f ,
0 = f (y) = f f (x) = f (x) = y,
and so Ker f Im f = {0}. It follows that
A = Ker f Im f.