I.

Flat Rolling
a. Define a draft and reduction (qualitatively)
i. Draft the amount the thickness of the work is reduced by
ii. Reduction Draft expressed as a fraction of the starting stock
thickness (sum of drafts over original thickness)
b. What is spreading? Know and explain what factors contribute to
spreading in flat rolling.
i. Spreading Increase in work width due to rolling
ii. Most pronounced with low width to thickness ratios and low
coefficients of friction
iii. Conservation of mass is preserved
c. Understand the effect that friction and size of roll radius have on draft
size.
i. Smaller rolls smaller contact length, less force required, reduce
stiffness, prone to flexing
ii. Larger rolls larger contact length, more force required, stiffness
increased, less prone to flexing
iii. Higher friction means higher draft size but higher force required
iv. Higher roll radius means higher draft size but higher force
required
d. What is forward slip and what is its relationship to rolling?
i. Forward slip amount of slip between rolls and work
ii. Slipping and friction occur to bring the work forward through the
rolls
e. What is the no slip point in rolling and what are the friction forces
before and after it?
i. No slip point Point where the velocity of the work equals the
roll velocity
ii. Friction force on entrance side is greater than friction force on
exit side
f. Know and explain the defects commonly observed after flat rolling.
What causes each?
i. Wavy Edges roll bending caused thinner edges than in center,
edges elongate more and eventually buckle
ii. Zipper/Edge Cracks result of poor material ductility, due to
rolling temp or material defects
iii. Alligatoring complex phenomena caused by non-uniform
deformation due to impurities and defects
g. Describe the factors that influence the roll force, F, in flat rolling.
i. Flow stress, roll-work contact area
h. Know and explain the 2 main functions of the rolls.
i. Pull the work into the rolls
ii. Strain the work to reduce the cross section
i. What are the 2 types of rolling? Explain both
i. Hot Rolling Large deformation possible, free of residual
stresses, properties are isotropic, poor tolerances, poor surface
finish

II.

ii. Cold Rolling Strengthens material, permits tighter tolerances

on thickness, good surface finish
j. List 3 ways in which forces in flat rolling can be reduced.
i. Increase work temp
ii. Decrease roll radius
iii. Decrease draft
iv. Add lubricant
Forging
a. Know and explain the 3 main types of forging operations discussed in
class.
i. Open Die work is compressed between two flat dies allowing
the metal to flow without constraint in the lateral directions
relative to the die surfaces
ii. Impression Die die surface contains a shape or impression that
is imparted to the work during compression, this constraining
metal flow to a significant degree. A portion of the work metal
flows beyond the die impression to form flash
iii. Flashless the work is completely constrained within the die and
no excess flash is produced. The volume of the starting
workpiece must be controlled very closely so that it matched the
volume of the die cavity
b. Know and explain the advantages of forging over machining
i. High strength
ii. Grains flow in direction of shape
c. Know and explain the advantages and limitations of impression die
forging
i. Advantages greater strength, favorable grain orientation, no
porosity issues, less waste, high production rate
ii. Limitations not capable of close tolerances, some machining
necessary
d. Understand what the shape factor is and how to use it to solve for
forging force.
i. Due to more complex shapes the forces in the process are
significantly greater and more difficult to analyze
ii. Shape factor provides a is factor intended to account for
increases in force required to forge part shapes of various
complexity
e. Understand the importance of the flash.
i. Flash allows more complex part shapes
ii. As the flash begins to form in the die gap, friction resists
continued flow of metal into the gap, thus constraining the bulk
of the work material to remain in the die cavity
iii. Restricting metal flow in the gap causes the compression
pressures on the part to increase significantly, this forcing the
material to fill the sometimes intricate details of the die cavity to
ensure a high quality product
f. Know the specific differences between cold, warm and hot forging.

III.

i. Cold forging (room) - increase strength due to work hardening

ii. Warm forging (above room, below recrystallization)- reduced
tooling loads, reduced forging press loads, increased steel
ductility
iii. Hot forging (above recrystallization) - Large deformation
possible, free of residual stresses, properties are isotropic, poor
tolerances, poor surface finish
g. Explain the differences between open die and impression die forging.
i. Open die produces rough forms that require subsequent
operations to refine the parts to final geometry
ii. Impression die forging is near net shape
h. Know what kind of manufactured parts are forged (why was forging
chosen?)
i. Parts that need high strength and good directional properties are
forged due to the orientation of the grain structure due to
forging
i. What is flashless forging and when is it used?
i. Flashless forging - the work is completely constrained within the
die and no excess flash is produced. The volume of the starting
workpiece must be controlled very closely so that it matched the
volume of the die cavity
ii. Used for precision parts or when need to be coined
j. What is barreling effect and what causes it? How does temperature
affect it?
i. Barreling is the bulging of a work
ii. Hot work and cold dies increased bulging (cools quickly on ends
while still flowing in middle)
k. Are there disadvantages to forging? What are these? Explain
i. Parting line, no small fillets or corner radii (stress
concentrations), flash must be removed, machining often
needed
Extrusion
a. Distinguish between the direct and indirect extrusion, what is different
about the process?
i. Direct Ram compresses metal billet in container, forcing it to
flow through one or more opening in a die at the opposite end of
the container (high friction)
ii. Indirect Die is mounted to ram and metal is forced to flow
through the clearance in a direction opposite to the motion of
the ram (no friction)
b. Where does friction exist in direct vs indirect extrusion? Is it the
same/different? Why?
i. Direct Between the billet and container wall, and between die
and work
ii. Indirect Between die and work
c. Understand what dead metal zone is and how it relates to the
extrusion process

d.

e.

f.

g.

h.

i.

j.

i. Dead metal zone area next to die opening where metal

becomes stagnant and does not flow. Creates high shearing
stresses
Define what the die shape factor is in extrusion (qualitatively), why is it
important?
i. Die shape factor ratio of the pressure required to extrude a
cross section of a given shape relative to the extrusion pressure
for a round cross section with the same area
ii. Factor affecting the extruder pressure
What is the reduction or extrusion ratio? How is it used to calculate
true strain?
i. The initial area over the final area, true strain is the natural log
of the extrusion ratio
What are advantages or extrusion in general? Are there any
disadvantages? Limitations?
i. Advantages variety of shapes and cross sections, grain
structure is enhanced with cold/warm extrusion, very close
tolerances, little to no waste
ii. Disadvantages limited complexity of parts, uniform cross
sectional shapes only
List advantages of cold extrusion over hot extrusion
i. Increased strength due to strain hardening, close tolerances,
improved surface finish, absence of oxide layers, high
production rates, eliminates need to heat billet
When is hot extrusion used over cold extrusion?
i. Allows more extreme size reductions, more complex shapes,
reduces ram force, increases ram speed
Be prepared to discuss the effects of die angle on ram force and the
process of extrusion
i. Low die angle surface area of the die is large, leading to
increased friction at the die-billet interface, higher friction
results in higher ram force
ii. High die angle causes more turbulence in the metal flow
during reduction, increasing the ram force required
iii. Optimum angle is in the middle
Be prepared to list the name of, discuss/draw the 4 types of extrusion
defects, discussed in class. Understand how they are produced, what
causes them and how they can be prevented.
i. Fir Treeing If temp, friction, or speed too high, cracking occurs
intergranular, caused by hot shortness, Al Mg ZN alloys mainly,
can be avoided by lowering billet temp and speed
ii. Bamboo Defect pressure builds up, product moves forward,
gets stuck, repeats, add a dummy block with diameter slightly
smaller than billet, heat billet more

iii. Pipe Defect Increase lubricant, decrease friction, machine

starting billet, minimize temp gradient within billet, use dummy
block with slightly smaller diameter than billet
iv. Chevron Cracking/Center Burst center of extrusion develops
cracks, attributed to the hydrostatic tensile stress at
deformation zone in die, tendency to increase if plastic zones
dont meet, to increase plastic zones decrease die angle
(increase friction), increase reductions (increase plastic zones)
k. Know how shape complexity affects ram pressure
i. Shape complexity increases ram pressure