UEEA1333

Analogue Electronics
Topic 6
Regulators

Jan 2014
1

In this topic, we will:

Learn how to choose a power transistor and
the appropriate heat sink
Understand the operation of series and shunt
voltage regulators
Analyze regulator performance such as load
regulation, line regulation and efficiency

Reference
Donald A. Neamen, (2007), Microelectronics
Circuit Analysis and Design, 3rd Edition,
McGraw-Hill. ISBN-10:007-125443-9. Chapter 8.
Sedra, Smith, (2004) 5th Ed. Microelectronic
Circuits, Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19514252-7. Chapter 14.
Theodore F. Bogart, Jr. et al, (1997) 5th Ed.
Electronic Devices and Circuits, Prentice Hall.
ISBN 0-13-031061-1. Chapter 15.
3

Power Transistors
Used in power amplifiers and voltage regulators
Required to conduct currents in the range of amperes
and withstand power dissipation in watts and tens-ofwatts range
Differ in their physical structure, packaging, and
specifications from the small signal transistors
Important properties:

Maximum rated current

Maximum rated voltage
Maximum rated power (function of temperature)
Safe operating area
Junction temperature
Thermal resistance

Power BJTs
Parameter (Maximum
ratings)

Power BJT Power BJT

(2N3055) (2N6078)

VCE(max)

Small-signal
BJT
(2N2222A)
40 V

60 V

250 V

IC(max)

0.8 A

15 A

7A

PD(max) at T = 25 C

1.2 W

115 W

45 W

35-100

5-20

12-70

fT

300 MHz

0.8 MHz

1 MHz
5

Maximum power dissipation

Instantaneous power dissipation:
pQ = vCE iC + vBE iB vCE iC

since iB << iC

1
Average power: PQ = vCE iC dt
T 0

If we assume DC quantities, power dissipation is

related to VCE and IC:

PT = VCE I C
9

Safe operating area (SOA)

Second breakdown occurs when BJT operated at high

voltage and high current, causing permanent failure
10

Example: Consider the common-emitter circuit

shown. Given RL = 8 and VCC = 24 V.
Determine the required maximum current,
voltage and power ratings of the BJT.

VCE 0 : I C (max)

VCC 24
=
=
=3A
RL
8

I C = 0 : VCE (max) = VCC = 24 V

Load line is given by
VCE = VCC I C RL
must remain in SOA

11

Transistor power dissipation :

2

PT = VCE I C = (VCC I C RL ) I C = VCC I C I C RL

Current at which maximum power occurs :
VCC
dPT
= VCC 2 I C RL = 0 I C =
2 RL
dI C
24
IC =
= 1.5 A
2(8)
VCE = VCC I C RL = 24 1.5(8) = 12 V
PT (max) = 12(1.5) = 18 W
maximum power dissipation occurs at center of load line
* For safety margin, select transistor with larger maximum
ratings than the maximum values from the circuit
12

Junction temperature
Power transistors dissipate large amount of power in
their collector-base junctions.
The dissipated power is converted into heat, which raises
the junction temperature.
The junction temperature, TJ must not be allowed to exceed
the specified maximum TJ,max, otherwise the transistor
could suffer permanent damage
For silicon devices TJ,max is in the range from 150 C to
200 C (specified in data sheet).
Special packaging for power transistor required

14

Thermal resistance
Thermal resistance of an element is defined as:
T2 T1
21 =
[unit : C/W]
P
where T2 T1 = temperature difference
across the element
P = thermal power dissipated
by the element
Ohm' s law analogy : R, T V , P I
15

Transistor in free air (no heat sink)

the heat dissipated in the transistor junction will be
conducted away from the junction to the transistor
case, and from the case to the surrounding
environment (ambient).
TJ TA = JA PD

JA = thermal resistance between junction and ambience

JA (specified on the data sheet). It depends transistor
packaging.

16

 JA can be expressed as: JA = JC + CA

where JC = thermal resistance between junction and
transistor case
CA = thermal resistance between case and ambience
JC is fixed by the device design and packaging (can be reduced
by encapsulating in a relatively large metal case)

case
E.g.: 2N3904
JC = 83.3 C/W JA = 200 C/W

ambience

17

Transistor with heat sink

CA can be reduced below its free air value by providing
means to facilitate heat transfer from the case to ambience
A common method is to bolt the transistor to the chassis or
to an extended metal surface, which becomes a heat sink.
Heat can easily be conducted from the transistor case to the
heat sink, whereby the thermal resistance CS (case to sink)
can be made small by coating the mating surfaces of the
transistor and sink with a thermally conducting compound
Also the heat is effectively transferred (by convection and
radiation) from sink to the ambience, resulting in a low
thermal resistance SA
18

Let

CS = thermal resistance between case and heat sink

SA = thermal resistance between case and ambient
PD = power dissipated in the transistor
TJ TA = PD ( JC + CS + SA )

Maximum power than can be

dissipated by a transistor
PD,max is depends on the
thermal resistances, ambient
temperature and TJ,max.

heatsink

19

 Example: Consider a power MOSFET.

Determine the maximum power dissipation
with and without heat sink. When heat sink is
used, find temperature of the transistor case
and heat sink at maximum power dissipation.
Given the following:
JC = 1.75 C/W
SA = 5 C/W
TA = 30 C

CS = 1 C/W
CA = 50 C/W
TJ ,max = 150 C

20

Solution :
Without heat sink :
TJ ,max TA 150 30
PD ,max =
=
= 2.32 W
JC + CA 1.75 + 50
With heat sink :
TJ ,max TA
150 30
PD ,max =
=
= 15.5 W
JC + CS + SA 1.75 + 1 + 5
TS TA = PD ,max SA
TS = 30 + 15.5(5) = 107.5 C
TC TA = PD ,max ( CS + SA )
TC = 30 + 15.5(1 + 5) = 123 C
21

Maximum power dissipation

The transistor manufacturer usually specify TJmax , the
maximum power dissipation at a particular ambient
temperature TA0 (usually 250C), PD0 and the thermal
resistance JA

22

 for operation at ambient temperatures below

TA0 the device can safely dissipate PD0 watts
for operation above TA0, the maximum
allowable power dissipation must be derated
(reduced) according to the straight line:
PDmax = ( TJmax TA)/ JA
As TA approaches TJmax, the allowable power
dissipation decreases

23

Example: A BJT is specified to have maximum power dissipation

PD0 = 2 W at an ambient temperature TA0 of 25 C, and a
maximum junction temperature TJmax of 150 C. Find :
(a) the thermal resistance JA
(b) the maximum power that can be safely dissipated at an
ambient temperature of 50 C.
(c) the junction temperature if the device is operating at TA= 25 C
and is dissipating 1W.
Solution:

TJ max TA0 150 25

a) JA =
=
= 62.5 o C/W
PD 0
2
TJ max TA0 150 50
b) PD max =
=
= 1.6 W
62.5
JA

c)

TJ = TA + JA PD 0 = 25 + 62.5 1 = 87.5 o C

24

 The device manufacturer may also supply a

derating curve for PDmax versus the case
temperature TC
Rated power PD,rated is the power at which the
device reaches maximum temperature while
the case temperature remains at room
temperature i.e. TC0 = 250C (usually)

Rated power
PD,rated
25

 However, maintaining the case temperature at the

room temperature requires thermal resistance between
case and ambient to be zero or an infinite heat sink is
used, which is impossible
Therefore, TC > TA, so maximum rated power cannot
be achieved and PD,max << PD,rated
For TC0 TC TJmax , the maximum safe power
dissipation is obtained when TJ = TJmax, and is given
by

PD ,max =

TJ ,max TC

JC
26

 Example: Determine the maximum safe power dissipation for a

BJT with a rated power PD,rated = 20 W and TJ,max = 175 C.
The transistor is mounted on a heat sink with the parameters
CS = 1 C/W and SA = 5 C/W. Assume ambient temperature
is 25 C.

Solution:

JC =

TJ ,max TC 0

PD ,max =

PD ,rated

175 25
=
= 7.5 C/W
20

TJ ,max TA

JC + CS + SA

175 25
=
= 11.1 W
7.5 + 1 + 5
27

Example: A BJT is specified to have TJmax = 150 oC and to be

capable of dissipating maximum power as follows:
40 W at TC = 25 oC
2 W at TA = 25 oC
Above 25 oC, the maximum power dissipation is to be derated
linearly with JC = 3.12 oC/W and JA = 62.5 oC/W. Find the
following:
(a) The maximum power that can be dissipated safely by this
transistor when operated in free air at TA = 50oC.
(b) The maximum power that can be dissipated safely by this
transistor when operated at an ambient temperature of 50oC, but
with a heat sink for which CS = 0.5oC/W and SA = 4oC/W. Find
the temperature of the case and of the heat sink.
(c) The maximum power that can be dissipated safely if an
infinite heat sink is used and TA = 50oC.
28

Solution:
(a)
PD max =

TJ max TA0

JA

150 50
=
= 1.6 W
62.5

(b) With a heat sink,

JA = JC + CS + SA
= 3.12 + 0.5 + 4 = 7.62 o C/W
PD max

150 50
=
= 13.1 W
7.62

29

(c) An infinite heat sink, if it existed, would cause the case

temperature TC to equal the ambient temperature TA. The
infinite heat sink has CA = 0 .

PD max =

TJ max TA0

JC

150 50
=
= 32 W
3.12

* obviously, one cannot buy an infinite heat sink;

nevertheless, this terminology is used by some manufacturers
to describe the power-derating curve. The abscissa is then
labeled TA and the curve is called power dissipation versus
ambient temperature with an infinite heat sink.
* although the transistor can be called a 40-W transistor, this
level of power dissipation cannot be achieved in practice, it
would require an infinite heatsink and TA 25 C
30

Voltage regulation
Types of power supply:
AC-to-DC converter converts AC to DC e.g.
using rectifier
Inverter converts DC to AC
DC-to-DC converter converts DC voltage to a
different (higher) level

May be fixed or adjustable voltage

31

 DC voltage can be obtained from AC as shown:

32

 The supply above is unregulated

There are 100 or 120-Hz ripples which becomes
more obvious when the load current increases
variation in AC line voltage will affect the output
voltage
Temperature and load current affects value of
diode voltage drop

A regulated voltage will provide constant

output voltage over a wide range of loads,
temperature and line voltage
33

Load or voltage regulation

Measures the regulators ability to maintain the
output voltage when the output load changes
Percent load or voltage regulation: Output
voltage

VNL
V
VFL
100%
VR =
VFL
where VFL = full load voltage

VNL

VFL

VNL = no load voltage

I FL

For ideal power supply, VR = 0%

Load
current

Full load current

34

Line regulation
Measures how sensitive the output is to changes in the line
(input) voltage

(Vo / Vo )
LR =
100%
Vi
where (Vo / V ) = percent change in output voltage
V = change in input voltage
* assume load is constant

36

Voltage regulator
Voltage regulator is a circuit used to maintain
the output voltage of a power supply as
constant as possible, regardless of load current,
line voltage and temperature changes.
It monitors output voltage and generates
feedback that automatically increases or
decreases the supply voltage to compensate for
the change in the output.
May be classified as series or shunt regulator
37

Zener diode as voltage reference

A simple voltage regulator consists of a
resistor and zener diode
Zener diode is operated in reverse breakdown
region
The zener voltage VZ remains almost constant as
the (reverse) current varies

This makes it useful as a voltage reference, to

provide an almost constant voltage in regulator
circuits
38

IZK

39

 When the load current changes, the zener current

increases or decreases, keeping the current through RS
constant
This is known as a shunt regulator since the
regulating device is parallel with the load
Input current is kept almost constant if load current
increases, shunt current decreases, and vice versa
However, at large load currents, regulation is poor 40

Series regulator
Block diagram:
Input
voltage

Reference
voltage

Control
element

Comparator
circuit

Output
voltage

Sampling
circuit

43

 Control element is a device whose operating

state adjusts as necessary to maintain constant
VO is in series between input and output
Sampling circuit produces feedback voltage
proportional to VO
Comparator compares feedback voltage with
reference voltage to produce control signal
Control signal adjusts operating state of the
control element accordingly. i.e. if VO
attempts to decrease, control signal causes
control element to increase VO
44

Series pass transistor regulator

-

PT

Zener is used as reference voltage, while VBE is

control voltage and VO is feedback voltage
45

 Zener is reverse biased with current supplied through R

VS is unregulated but must remain sufficiently large,
and R must be sufficiently small, to keep the diode in
reverse breakdown
Thus VZ is essentially constant: VO = VZ - VBE
If VS changes, VO remains constant since VBE is constant
(although it does change with temperature)
If Vo decreases, VBE increases, causing transistor to
conduct more, i.e. IB, increases (IZ decreases since IR is
constant)
VS VZ
IR =
= IB + IZ
R
Thus IC increases, so load current increases, which
increases VO
46

 The maximum power dissipation of the

transistor is given by:

PT (max) = VCE I C (max) = (VS VO ) I FL

where IFL is the full load current
The power is dissipated as heat which has to
be transferred away (e.g. using heatsink or
forced air cooling), otherwise the transistors
temperature will rise and may overheat.
47

 Example: The voltage from an unregulated

power supply may vary from 12 V (full load)
to 16 V (no load). A power transistor with a
maximum rating of 1 A is to be used as the
pass transistor of a 9 V regulator. The
minimum hfe of the transistor is 25. The
required maximum load current is 500 mA.
Design the series voltage regulator, given the
zener knee current is 10 mA and the baseemitter voltage of the transistor is 0.7 V.
Determine the maximum power dissipation of
the transistor.
48

VO = VZ VBE VZ = 9.7 V
I B (max) =

I L (max)
hFE

= 20 mA

When the base current is at its maximum,

the zener current is at its minimum and
it must at least equal 10 mA.
I R = I ZK + I B (max) = 30 mA
At full load, supply voltage is 12 V
R =

VS (min) VZ
IR

12 9.7
=
= 76.7
0.03

PT (max) = VCE I C = (VS VO ) I FL = (12 0.9)0.5 = 1.5 W

49

Darlington transistor
Darlington transistor combines two bipolar transistors
(Darlington pair) in a single device so that the current
amplified by the first is amplified further by the
second transistor.
This gives it high current gain
takes up less space than using two discrete transistors
only a tiny base current is required to make the pair turn on

I C1 = I B 2 = 1 I B1
I C 2 = 2 I B 2 = 2 1 I B1 = D I B1
50

Darlington pass-transistor regulator

51

 In the series pass transistor regulator, if Vo

decreases, VBE increases, causing IB to
increase, so that IC increases. IZ will decrease
Since IB = IC / hfe, for the same magnitude of
change in IL, the change in IB can be
minimized if hfe is larger by using Darlington
pair
This minimizes change in IZ thus improving
load regulation
As there are two BE voltage drops,

VO = VZ VBE1 VBE 2 = VZ 2VBE

52

 A transistor may be used as comparator

R1
Vo = VZ + VBE 2 +
Vo
R1 + R2
R1
Vo = (VZ + VBE 2 )1 +
R2

53

 When VO decreases, VB2 decreases and the

differential voltage VBE2 is reduced as VE2 is a
constant reference voltage set by VZ
This results in smaller base current and IC2 is
reduced, which reduces voltage drop across R3,
causing VB1 to increase
Thus IC1 increases and increases the VO
If VO increases, the opposite happens
R is chosen to ensure the zener is in reverse
breakdown
54

Current limiting
This is a form of short circuit or overload
protection, whereby the circuit limits the
current that can be drawn from the supply to a
certain maximum value, even if the output
terminals are short-circuited
This is to protect the power supply
components such as transformer and rectifier
diodes from being damaged, leading to PCB
damage and fire.
57

 For example, if the regulator above is shorted at the

load, Q2 is OFF because the feedback voltage is 0.
All the current through R3 flows to the base of Q1, so
the collector current becomes very large
Power dissipation of the transistor Q1 becomes very
large
58

Example: Consider the basic series pass feedback

regulator. Given that VS = 12 V, Q1 has a hFE = 100
and R3 = 1 k. Determine the power dissipation of
Q1 if the load is short-circuited.
Answer: 13.6 W

VS VBE 12 0.7
IB =
=
= 11.3 mA o
R3
1000
I C = hFE I B = 100(11.3m) = 1.13 A
PT = I CVCE = 1.13(12) = 13.6 W

59

 A simple protection scheme is to use a fuse or

fusible resistor connected in series at the input
of the regulator
When abnormally large current flows, the fuse will
be broken, thereby preventing further flow of
current

A common scheme is to limit the pass

transistor current to a maximum value, hence
limiting the load current
Regulation will be lost if the load is further
decreased as the load current can no longer be
increases
60

 Under normal condition, D1 and D2 is off

When load current is large enough, the voltage drop
across RCS turns on both diodes
61

 When output is regulated (D1 and D2 is off) :

I R1 + I L = I PT
I L I PT

since I L >> I R1

I PT (max) I L (max)

VD
=
RCS

When load is shorted, the load current becomes

VS 2VD
I LSC = I PT (max) +
R3
Current through Q1

Current Through
Diodes

62

 Under normal condition, Q3 is off

When load current is large enough, the voltage drop
across RCS turns on Q3 and shunt away the base
current of Q1
63

 Required value of RCS:

RCS

VBE 3
=
I L (max)

Under short circuit condition:

I LSC

VS VBE1 VBE 3
= I PT (max) +
R3

64

Foldback limiting
Disadvantage of current limiting is that a large current still
flows, thus power dissipation of pass transistor is high
Foldback limiting reduces both output current and output
voltage
The decrease in output voltage is sensed and used to decrease
the amount of current that can flow to the load

67

Overvoltage protection
Protection against input over-voltage condition
If the supply voltage is too high, the power dissipated at the
pass transistor may be too excessive, as VCE becomes larger
A common scheme using SCR (thyristor):

73

 Under normal operation, the zener diode is

OFF, SCR is OFF (no current flows)
When VS > VZ, the zener diode start to
conducts
The voltage across RG will turn on the SCR
when it is larger than the trigger voltage (0.7V)
VS is short-circuited by the SCR and the
voltage regulator is protected
The SCR will continue to conduct until the
unregulated power supply fuses opens and
current stops flowing
74

Shunt regulator
Block diagram:
Input
voltage

I SH + I L

IL

I SH

Output
voltage

Control
element

Reference
voltage

Comparator
circuit

Sampling
circuit

75

 Control element is parallel with the load

it maintains constant load voltage by shunting
more or less current from the load

Can think of the control element as a variable

resistance
When load voltage decreases, the resistance is
made to increase, so less current is diverted from
the load, and the load voltage rises

76

 Q1 serves as shunt control element

Since VZ is constant, change in output voltage causes
proportional change in VB2
If Vo decreases, VB2 decreases
Q2 conducts less heavily, IC2 decreases, hence IC1
decreases, so less current is shunted from the load,
77
allowing load voltage to rise

Regulator efficiency
Let the output power to the load Pout = VOIL
and the input power Pin= VSIS

Pout
VO I L
Efficiency =
100% =
100%
Pin
VS I S
The difference between Pout and Pin is Preg, the power
wasted in the regulator components
Generally speaking, series and shunt regulators have
poor efficiency
79