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Mycenaean Greece
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Mycenaean Greece refers to the last phase of the Bronze Age in Ancient Greece (c.

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16001100 BCE). It represents the first advanced civilization in mainland Greece, with its

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palatial states, urban organization, works of art and writing system.[1] Among the centers

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of power that emerged, the most notable were those of Pylos, Tiryns, Midea in the

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Peloponnese, Orchomenos, Thebes, Athens in Central Greece and Iolcos in Thessaly.

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The most prominent site was Mycenae, in Argolid, to which the culture of this era owes

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its name. Mycenaean and Mycenaean-influenced settlements also appeared in

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Epirus,[2][3] Macedonia,[4][5] on islands in the Aegean Sea, on the coast of Asia Minor, the

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Levant,[6] Cyprus[7] and Italy.[8]

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Mycenaean Greece perished with the collapse of Bronze-Age culture in the eastern
Mediterranean. Various theories have been proposed for the end of this civilization,
among them the Dorian invasion or activities connected to the Sea People. Additional

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theories such as natural disasters and climatic changes have been also suggested. The
Mycenaean period became the historical setting of much ancient Greek literature and
mythology, including the Trojan Epic

Cycle.[9]

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1 Chronology

Wikidata item

2 Writing

Cite this page

3 Identity

Print/export

4.1 Shaft Grave era (c. 16001450 BC)

4.2 Mycenaean Koine era (c. 1450 BC1250 BC)

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Languages
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4.3.3 Hypotheses for the Mycenaean collapse

5 Political organization

6 Economy

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6.1 Organization

Bn-lm-g

6.2 Large-scale infrastructure

etina
Cymraeg
Deutsch
Eesti

6.3 Trade
7 Religion
8.1 Palaces
8.2 Fortifications
8.3 Other architectural features

Espaol

10 Art and craftwork

Euskara

10.1 Vessels

10.2 Figures and figurines

Hrvatski
Bahasa Indonesia
Interlingua
slenska

10.3 Frescoes
11 Burial practices
12 See also
13 References
13.1 Citations
13.2 Sources

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14 Further reading

15 External links

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Lietuvi

Chronology

Neolithic Greece

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Greek Bronze Age

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Ancient Greece

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Medieval Greece

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Modern Greece

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History by topic

V T E

8 Architecture

9 Warfare

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Part of a series on the

Greece portal

Franais

Greek Dark Ages

4.3.2 Final collapse

5.2 Society and administration

Catal

Minoan civilization

Followed by

4.3.1 Initial decline and revival

Preceded by

4.2.1 Involvement in Asia Minor

5.1 Palatial states

c. 1600 BC 1100 BC

4.3 Collapse (c. 12501100 BC)

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Bronze Age

Dates

4 History

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Mycenaean Greece

[ edit ]

Main article: Helladic period

Magyar

The Bronze Age in mainland Greece is generally termed as the "Helladic period" by modern

Nederlands

archaeologists, after Hellas, the Greek name for Greece. This period is divided into three

subperiods: The Early Helladic (EH) period (c. 29002000 BC) was a time of prosperity with

Norsk bokml
Occitan

the use of metals and a growth in technology, economy and social organization. The Middle

Polski

Helladic (MH) period (ca. 20001650 BC) faced a slower pace of development, as well as the

Portugus

evolution of megaron-type cist graves.[1] Finally, the Late Helladic (LH) period (c. 16501050

Romn

BC) roughly coincides with Mycenaean Greece.[1]

Simple English

The Late Helladic period is further divided into LHI, LHII, both of which coincide with the early

Slovenina

period of Mycenaean Greece (c. 16501425 BC), and LHIII (c. 14251050 BC), the period of

/ srpski

expansion, decline and collapse of the Mycenaean civilization.[1] The transition period from the

Srpskohrvatski /

Suomi

Bronze Age to the Iron Age in Greece is known as Sub-Mycenaean (c. 10501000 BC).[1]

Writing

Svenska
Tagalog

The Lion Gate, the main entrance of

the citadel of Mycenae, 13th century BC.

[ edit ]

Main article: Linear B

Trke

In circa 1600 BC, the Mycenaean Greeks borrowed from the Minoan civilization its syllabic

Ting Vit

writing system (i.e. Linear A) and developed their own syllabic script known as Linear B.[10]

The Linear B script was utilized by the Mycenaean palaces in Greece for administrative
Edit links

purposes where economic transactions were recorded on clay tablets and some pottery in the
Mycenaean dialect of the Greek language.[10] The Linear B tablets were first discovered in
Crete by English archaeologist Sir Arthur Evans in circa 1900 and later deciphered by English
architect and cryptographer Michael Ventris in 1952.[11][12] Ventris's discovery of an archaic
Greek dialect in the Linear B tablets demonstrated that Mycenaean Greek was "the oldest
known Greek dialect, elements of which survived in Homers language as a result of a long
oral tradition of epic poetry."[10]

Identity

Linear B tablets (Mycenaean Greek).

[ edit ]

See also: Names of the Greeks and Achaeans (Homer)

The decipherment of the Mycenaean Linear B script, a writing system adapted
for the use of the Greek language of the Late Bronze Age,[13] demonstrated the
continuity of Greek speech from the 2nd millennium BC into the 8th century BC
when a new script emerged. Moreover, it revealed that the bearers of
Mycenaean culture were ethnically connected with the populations that resided
in the Greek peninsula after the end of this cultural period.[14] Various collective
terms for the inhabitants of Mycenaean Greece were used by Homer in his 8th
century BC epic, the Iliad, in reference to the Trojan War. The latter was
supposed to have happened in the late 13thearly 12th century BC, when a
coalition of small Greek states under the king of Mycenae, besieged the walled
city of Troy. Homer used the ethnonyms Achaeans, Danaans and Argives, to
refer to the besiegers.[15] These names appear to have passed down from the
time they were in use to the time when Homer applied them as collective terms in
his Iliad.[16] There is an isolated reference to a-ka-wi-ja-de in the Linear B

Two Mycenaean Greek warriors with boar's tusk

helmets on a dual-chariot on a fresco from Pylos
(about 1350 BC) (left) and Two Mycenaean female
charioteers from Tiryns, 1200 BCE (right)

records in Knossos, Crete dated to c. 1400 BC, which most probably refers to a
Mycenaean (Achaean) state on the Greek mainland.[17]
Egyptian records mention a T(D)-n-j or Danaya (Tanaju) land for the first time in ca. 1437 BC, during the reign Pharaoh Thutmoses III.
This land is geographically defined in an inscription from the reign of Amenhotep III (c. 13881351 BC), where a number of Danaya
cities are mentioned, which cover the largest part of southern mainland Greece.[18] Among them, cities such as Mycenae, Nauplion
and Thebes, have been identified with certainty. Danaya has been equated with the ethnonym Danaoi (Greek: ), the name of
the mythical dynasty that ruled in the region of Argos, also used as an ethnonym for the Greek people by Homer.[18][19]
In the official records of another Bronze Age empire, that of the Hittites in Anatolia, various references from c. 1400 BC to 1220 BC
mention a country named Ahhiyawa.[20][21] Recent scholarship, based on textual evidence, new interpretations of the Hittite
inscriptions, as well as on recent surveys of archaeological evidence about Mycenaean-Anatolian contacts during this period,
concludes that the term Ahhiyawa must have been used in reference to the Mycenaean world (land of the Achaeans), or at least to a
part of it.[22][23] This term may have also had broader connotations in some texts, possibly referring to all regions settled by
Mycenaeans or regions under direct Mycenaean political control.[20] Another similar ethnonym Ekwesh in 12th century BC Egyptian
inscriptions, has been commonly identified with the Ahhiyawans. These Ekwesh were mentioned as a group of the Sea People.[24]

History

[ edit ]

Shaft Grave era (c. 16001450 BC)

[ edit ]

Mycenaean civilization originated and evolved from the society and culture of the Early and
Middle Helladic period in mainland Greece under influences from Minoan Crete.[25] Towards
the end of the Middle Bronze Age (c. 1600 BC) a significant increase in the population and the
number of settlements occurred.[26] A number of centers of power emerged in southern
mainland Greece dominated by a warrior elite society,[1][25] while the typical dwellings of that
era were an early type of megaron buildings. Some more complex structures are classified as
forerunners of the later palaces. In a number of sites, defensive walls were also erected.[27]
Meanwhile, new types of burials and more imposing ones have been unearthed, which display

a great variety of luxurious objects.[26][28] Among the various burials types, the shaft grave
became the most common form of elite burial, a feature that gave the name to the early period
of Mycenaean Greece.[26] Among the Mycenaean elite, deceased males were usually laid in
gold masks and funerary armor, while females in gold crowns and clothes gleaming with gold
ornaments.[29] The royal shaft graves next to the acropolis of Mycenae, in particular the Grave

Death mask, known as Mask of

Agamemnon, Grave Circle A, Mycenae,
16th century BC.

Circles A and B signified the elevation of a native Greek-speaking royal dynasty whose
economic power depended on long-distance sea trade.[30]
During this period, the Mycenaean centers witnessed increased contacts with the outside world and especially with the Cyclades and
the Minoan centers in the island of Crete.[1][26] Mycenaean presence appears to be also depicted in a fresco at Akrotiri, on Thera
island, which possibly displays many warriors in Boar's tusk helmets, a feature typical of Mycenaean warfare.[31] In the early 15th
century, commerce intensified with Mycenaean pottery reaching the western coast of Asia Minor, including Miletus and Troy, Cyprus,
Lebanon, Palestine and Egypt.[32]
At the end of the Shaft Grave era, a new and more imposing type of elite burial emerged, the Tholos: large circular burial chambers
with high vaulted roofs and a straight entry passage lined with stone.[33]

Mycenaean Koine era (c. 1450 BC1250 BC)

[ edit ]

The eruption of Thera, which according to archaeological data occurred in c. 1500 BC,
resulted in the decline of the Minoan civilization of Crete.[34] This turn of events gave the
opportunity to the Mycenaeans to spread their influence throughout the Aegean. Around c.
1450 BC, they were in control of Crete itself, including Knossos, and colonized several other
Aegean islands, reaching as far as Rhodes.[35][36] Thus the Mycenaeans became the
dominant power of the region, marking the beginning of the Mycenaean 'Koine' era (from
Greek: , common), a highly uniform culture that spread in mainland Greece and the
Aegean.[37]
From the early 14th century BC, Mycenaean trade began to take advantage of the new
trading opportunities in the Mediterranean after the Minoan

collapse.[36]

The trade routes

Fresco depicting a female figure in

the acropolis of Mycenae, 13th century
BC.

were expanded further reaching Cyprus, Amman in the Near East, Apulia in Italy and Spain.[36]
At that time (c. 1400 BC), the palace of Knossos yielded the earliest records of the Greek
Linear B script, based on the previous Linear A of the Minoans. The use of the new script spread in mainland Greece and offers
valuable insight of the administrative network of the palatial centers. However, the unearthed records are of limited value for the
reconstruction of the political landscape in Bronze Age Greece.[38]
Excavations at Miletus, southwest Asia Minor, suggest that Mycenaeans settled there already from c. 1450 BC,
replacing the previous Minoan installations.[39] This site became a sizable and prosperous Mycenaean center
for most of the Late Bronze Age until the 12th century BC.[40] Apart from the archaeological evidence, this is
also attested in Hittite records, which indicate that Miletos (Milawata in Hittite) was the most important base for
Mycenaean activity in Asia Minor.[41] Mycenaean presence also reached the adjacent sites of Iasus and
Ephesus.[42]
Meanwhile, imposing palaces were built in the main Mycenaean centers of the mainland. The earliest palace
structures were megaron-type buildings, such as the Menelaion in Sparta, Lakonia.[43] Palaces proper are
datable from c. 1400 BC, when Cyclopean fortifications were erected at Mycenae and nearby Tiryns.[1]
Mycenaean
panoply, found in
Dendra, Argolid, c.
1400 BC.

Additional palaces were built in Midea and Pylos in Peloponnese, Athens, Eleusis, Thebes and Orchomenos in
Central Greece and Iolcos, in Thessaly, the latter being the northernmost Mycenaean center. Knossos in
Crete became also a Mycenaean center, where the former Minoan complex intervened a number of
adjustments, including the addition of a throne room.[44] These centers were based on a rigid network of
bureaucracy while administrative competences, were classified in various sections and offices, according to

specialization of work and trades. At the head of this society was the king, known as wanax (Linear B: wa-na-ka) in Mycenaean Greek
terms. All powers were centered on him, who was the main landlord, the spiritual and military leader. At the same time he was an
entrepreneur and trader and was aided by a network of high officials.[45]
Involvement in Asia Minor [ edit ]
Contemporary Hittite texts indicate the presence of Ahhiyawa which strengthens its position in western Anatolia from c. 1400 to c.
1220 BC.[41] Ahhiyawa is generally accepted as a Hittite translation of Mycenaean Greece (Achaeans in Homeric Greek), but a
precise geographical definition of the term cannot be drawn from the texts.[46] During this period, the kings of Ahhiyawa were clearly
able to deal with the Hittite kings both in a military and diplomatic way.[47] Moreover, Ahhiyawan activity was to interfere in Anatolian
affairs, with the support of anti-Hittite uprisings or through local vassal rulers, which the Ahhiyawan king used as agents for the
extension of his influence.[48]
In c. 1400 BC, Hittite records mention the military activities of an Ahhiyawan
warlord, Attarsiya, a possible Hittite way of writing the Greek name Atreus, who
attacked Hittite vassals in western Anatolia.[49] Later, in c. 1315 BC, Hittite
interests in the region were again threatened by an anti-Hittite rebellion headed
by Arzawa, a Hittite vassal state, with the support of the king of Ahhiyawa.[50]
Around the same time, Ahhiyawa is reported to have seized various islands,
presumably in the Aegean, an impression also supported by archaeological
evidence.[51] During the reign of the Hittite king Hattusili III (c. 12671237 BC), the
king of Ahhiyawa is recognized as a "Great King" and of equal status with the
other contemporary great Bronze Age rulers: the kings of Egypt, Babylonia and

Eastern Mediterranean and the Middle East during

the 14th century BC. Mycenaean Greece in purple.

Assyria.[52] At that time, another anti-Hittite movement, led by Piyama-Radu,

broke out and was supported by the king of Ahhiyawa.[53] Piyama-Radu had been ravaging the land of Wilusa and latter led the
armed takeover of the island of Lesbos, which was subsequently handed over to Ahhiyawa.[54]
The Hittite-Ahhiyawan confrontation in Wilusa, the Hittite name for Troy, may provide the historical foundation for the Trojan War
tradition.[55] As a result of this instability, the Hittite king initiated correspondence in order to convince his Ahhiyawan counterpart to
restore peace in the region. The Hittite record mentions a certain Tawagalawa, a possible Hittite translation for Greek Eteocles, as
brother of the king of Ahhiyawa.[54][56]

Collapse (c. 12501100 BC)

[ edit ]

Initial decline and revival [ edit ]

In c. 1250 BC, the first wave of destruction has been witnessed in various centers of mainland
Greece for reasons that cannot be identified by archaeologists. In Boeotia, Thebes was
burned to the ground, around that year or slightly later. Nearby Orchomenos shared the same
fate, while the Boeotian fortifications of Gla were deserted.[57] In the Peloponnese, a number
of buildings surrounding the citadel of Mycenae were attacked and burned.[58]
Marching soldiers observed by a
female figure, in a krater of c. 1200 BC
in Mycenae.

These incidents appear to have prompted the massive strengthening and expansion of the
fortifications in various sites. In some cases, arrangements were also made for the creation of
subterranean passages which led to underground cisterns. Tiryns, Midea and Athens
expanded their defences with new cyclopean-style walls.[59] The extension program in

Mycenae almost doubled the fortified area of the citadel. To this phase of extension belongs the impressive Lion Gate, the main
entrance into the Mycenaean acropolis.[59]
It appears that after this first wave of destruction a short-lived revival of Mycenaean culture followed.[60] Mycenaean Greece continues
to be mentioned in international affairs, particularly in Hittite records. In c. 1220 BC, the king of Ahhiyawa is again reported of being
involved in an anti-Hittite uprising in western Anatolia.[61] Another contemporary Hittite text reveals that Ahhiyawan ships need to be
prohibited from reaching Assyrian-controlled harbors, as part of a trade embargo imposed on Assyria.[62] In general, in the second
half of 13th century BC, trade was in decline in the Eastern Mediterranean, most probably due to the unstable political environment
there.[63]
Final collapse [ edit ]
None of the defence measures appear to have prevented the final destruction and collapse of the Mycenaean states. A second
destruction struck Mycenae in ca. 1190 BC or shortly thereafter. This event marked the end of Mycenae as a major power. The site
was then reoccupied, but on a smaller scale.[58] The palace of Pylos, in the southwestern Peloponnese, faced destruction in c. 1180
BC.[64][65] The Linear B archives found there, preserved by the heat of the fire that destroyed the palace, mention hasty defence
preparations due to an imminent attack without giving any detail about the attacking force.[60]
As a result of this turmoil, specific regions in mainland Greece witnessed a dramatic population decrease, especially Boeotia, Argolis
and Messenia.[60] Mycenaean refugees migrated to Cyprus and the Levantine coast.[65] Nevertheless, other regions on the edge of
the Mycenaean world prospered, such as the Ionian islands, the northwestern Peloponnese, parts of Attica and a number of Aegean
islands.[60] The acropolis of Athens paradoxically appears to have avoided destruction.[60]
Hypotheses for the Mycenaean collapse [ edit ]
See also: Bronze Age collapse and Dorian Invasion
The reasons that lead to the collapse of the Mycenaean culture have been hotly debated
among scholars. At present, there is no satisfactory explanation for the collapse of the
Mycenaean palace systems. The two most common theories are population movement and
internal conflict. The first attributes the destruction of Mycenaean sites to invaders.[66]
The hypothesis of a Dorian invasion, known as such in Ancient Greek tradition, that led to the
end of Mycenaean Greece, is supported by sporadic archaeological evidence such as new
types of burials, in particular cist graves, and the use of a new dialect of Greek, the Doric one.
It appears that the Dorians moved southward gradually over a number of years and
devastated the territory, until they managed to establish themselves in the Mycenaean

Invasions, destructions and

possible population movements during
the collapse of the Bronze Age, ca.
1200 BC.

centers.[67] A new type of ceramic also appeared, called "Barbarian Ware" because it was
attributed to invaders from the north.[60] On the other hand, the collapse of Mycenaean
Greece coincides with the activity of the Sea Peoples in the Eastern Mediterranean. They caused widespread destruction in Anatolia
and the Levant and were finally defeated by Pharaoh Ramesses III in c. 1175 BC. One of the ethnic groups that comprised these
people were the Eqwesh, a name that appears to be linked with the Ahhiyawa of the Hittite inscriptions.[68]
Alternative scenarios propose that the fall of the Mycenaean Greece was a result of internal disturbances which lead to internecine
warfare among the Mycenaean states or civil unrest in a number of states, as a result of the strict hierarchical social system and the
ideology of the wanax.[69] In general, due to the obscure archaeological picture in 12th-11th century BC Greece, there is a continuing
controversy among scholars over whether the impoverished societies that succeeded the Mycenaean palatial states were newcomers
or populations that already resided in Mycenaean Greece. Recent archaeological findings tend to favor the latter scenario.[60]
Additional theories, concerning natural factors, such as climate change, droughts or earthquakes have been also proposed.[69] The
period following the end of Mycenaean Greece, c. 1100-800 BC, is generally termed the "Greek Dark Ages".[70]

Political organization
Palatial states

[ edit ]

[ edit ]

Mycenaean palatial states, or centrally organized palace-operating polities,

are recorded in ancient Greek literature and mythology (i.e. Iliad, Catalogue
of Ships) and confirmed by discoveries made by modern archaeologists such
as Heinrich Schliemann. Each Mycenaean kingdom was in principle governed
from the palace, which exercised control over most, if not all, industries within
its realm. The palatial territory was divided into several provinces, each
headed by its own administrative center,[71] while each province was further
divided in smaller districts, the da-mo.[71] A number of palaces and
fortifications appear to be part of a wider kingdom. For instance, Gla, located
in the region of Boeotia, was part of the state of Orchomenos.[57] Moreover,
Mycenae ruled a territory at least two and arguably even three times the size
of other palatial states in Bronze Age Greece. Moreover, its territory would
have also included adjacent centers, such as Tiryns and Nauplion, which
could plausibly be seen as important yet dependent settlements, ruled by

Reconstruction of the political landscape in c. 14001250 BC mainland southern Greece.

branches of Mycenae's royal dynasty.[72]

The unearthed Linear B texts are in general of limited value for the reconstruction of the political landscape in Mycenaean Greece
and they do not support the existence of a larger Mycenaean state.[46][73] On the other hand, contemporary Hittite and Egyptian
records suggest the presence of a unified state under a single leader.[74] Alternatively, based on archaeological data, some sort of
confederation among a number of palatial states appears to be possible.[46] If some kind of united political entity existed, the dominant
center was probably located in Thebes or in Mycenae, with the latter state being the most probable center of power.[75]

Society and administration

[ edit ]

The Neolithic agrarian village (6000 BC) constituted the foundation of Bronze Age political culture in Greece.[76] The vast majority of
the preserved Linear B records deals with administrative issues and give the impression that palatial administration throughout
Greece was highly uniform with the use of the same language, terminology, system of taxation and distribution.[38][71] Considering this
sense of uniformity, the evidence coming from the most fully preserved archive, that of the palace of Pylos, is in general taken as
representative of all the palatial centers of the Mycenaean world.[38]
The state was ruled by a king, the wanax (), whose role was religious and perhaps also military and judicial.[77] The wanax
covered virtually all aspects of palatial life, from religious feasting and offerings to the distribution of goods and craftsmen or
troops.[78] Under him was the lwgetas ("the leader of the people"), whose role appears mainly religious.[78] His activities seem to
roughly overlap with the wanax and is usually seen as the second-in-command.[78] Both wanax and lwgetas stood at the head of a
military aristocracy known as the eqeta ("companions" or "followers"),[77][79] The land possessed by the wanax is usually the tmenos
(te-me-no). There is also at least one instance of a person, Enkhelyawon, at Pylos, who appears titleless in the written record but
whom modern scholars regard as being probably a king.[80]
A number of local officials positioned by the wanax, appear to be in charge of the districts, such as ko-re-te (koreter, '"governor"), poro-ko-re-te (prokoreter, "deputy") and the da-mo-ko-ro (damokoros, "one who takes care of a damos"), the latter being appointed
probably in charge of the commune. A council of elders was chaired, the ke-ro-si-ja (cf. , gerousa). The basileus, who in
latter Greek society was the name of the king, refers to communal officials.[77]
In general, Mycenaean society appears to have been divided into two groups of free men: the king's entourage, who conducted
administrative duties at the palace and the people, da-mo,[81] These last were watched over by royal agents and were obliged to
perform duties for and pay taxes to the palace.[77] Among those who evolved in the palace setting could be found well-to-do high
officials who probably lived in the vast residences found in proximity to Mycenaean palaces, but also others, tied by their work to the
palace and not necessarily better off than the members of the da-mo, such as craftsmen, farmers, and perhaps merchants. On a
lower rung of the social ladder were found the slaves, do-e-ro, (cf. , dolos).[82] These are recorded in the texts as working
either for the palace or for specific deities.[77]

Economy

[ edit ]

Organization

[ edit ]

The Mycenaean economy, given its pre-monetary nature, was focused on the redistribution of
goods, commodities and labor by a central administration. The preserved Linear B records in
Pylos and Knossos indicate that the palaces were closely monitoring a variety of industries
and commodities, the organization of land management and the rations given to the
dependent personnel.[83][84] The Mycenaean palaces maintained extensive control of the
nondomestic areas of production through careful control and acquisition and distribution in
the palace industries, and the tallying of produced goods.[85][86] For instance, the Knossos
tablets record c. 80,000-100,000 sheep were grazing in central Crete, the quantity of the
expected wool from these sheep and their offspring, as well as how this wool was allocated.[86]
The archives of Pylos display a specialized workforce, where each worker belonged to a
precise category and was assigned to a specific task in the stages of production, notably in
textiles.[87]
Nevertheless, palatial control over resources appears to have been highly selective in spatial
terms and in terms of how different industries were

managed.[88]

Thus, sectors like the

production of perfumed oil and bronze materials were directly monitored from the palace, but
the production of ceramics was only indirectly monitored.[89] Regional transactions between
the palaces are also recorded in few occasions.[90]

Mycenaean pottery found in the

Argolid.

Large-scale infrastructure

[ edit ]

The palatial centers organized their workforce and resources for the construction of large
scale projects in the fields of agriculture and industry.[84] The magnitude of some projects
indicates that this was the result of combined efforts from multiple palatial centers. Most
notable of them are the drainage system of the Kopais basin in Boeotia, the construction of a
large dam near Tiryns, and the drainage of the Nemea valley.[91] Moreover, the construction of
harbors, capable of accommodating large Bronze Age era ships, such as the one found at
Uluburun, like in the case of the harbor of Pylos, is also

noticeable.[91]

The Mycenaean

Mycenaean stirrup vase found in the

acropolis of Ugarit, Eastern
Mediterranean (c. 14001300 BC).

economy also featured large-scale manufacturing as testified by the extent of workshop

complexes that have been discovered, the largest known to date being the recent ceramic
and hydraulic installations found in Euonymeia, 5 km south of the Mycenaean palace in Athens, that produced tableware, textiles,
sails, and ropes for export and shipbuilding.[92]
The most famous infrastructure work from the Mycenaean era is the system of roads.[91] This appears to have served at least
prominently a military role, facilitating the speedy deployment of troops. To this impression add the remains of a Mycenaean road in
combination with what is thought to have been a Mycenaean fortification wall, spanning the Isthmus near Corinth. The Mycenaean era
saw the zenith of Greek engineering. This appears not to have been restricted to the Argive plain.[93]

Trade

[ edit ]

Trade over vast areas of the Mediterranean was essential for the Mycenaean economy. The
palaces of Mycenaean Greece imported raw materials, such as metals, ivory and glass, and
exported processed commodities and objects made from these materials, in addition to local
products: oil, perfume, wine, wool and pottery.[84] International trade of that time was not only
conducted by palatial emissaries but also by independent merchants.[94]
Based on archaeological findings in the Middle East, in particular physical artifacts, textual
references, inscriptions and wall paintings, it appears that Mycenaean Greeks achieved strong
commercial and cultural interaction with most of the Bronze Age people living in this region:
Canaanites, Kassites, Mitanni, Assyrians, and Egyptians.[94][95][96] The 14th century Uluburun
shipwreck, off the coast of southern Anatolia, displays the established trade routes that supplied

Gold earring, ca. 1600 BC,

Louvre Museum.

the Mycenaeans with all the raw materials and items that the economy of Mycenaean Greece
needed, such as copper and tin for the production of bronze products.[97] A chief export of the
Mycenaeans was olive oil, which was a multi-purpose product.[98]
Cyprus appears to be the principal intermediary station between Mycenaean Greece and the
Middle East, based on the considerable greater quantities of Mycenaean goods found
there.[99] On the other hand, trade with the Hittite lands in central Anatolia paradoxically
appears to have been limited.[94][100] Trade with Troy is also well attested, while Mycenaean
trade routes expanded further to the Bosphorus and the shores of the Black Sea.[101]
Mycenaean swords have been found as far away as Georgia in the eastern Black Sea
Reconstruction of a Mycenaean
ship.

coast.[102]
Commercial interaction was also intense with the Italian peninsula and the western
Mediterranean. Mycenaean products, especially pottery was exported to southern Italy, Sicily

and the Aeolian islands. Mycenaean products also penetrated further into Sardinia,[103][104] as well as southern Spain.[105]
Sporadic objects of Mycenaean manufacture were found in various distant locations, like in Central Europe,[106] such as in Bavaria,
Germany, where an amber object inscribed with Linear B symbols has been unearthed.[107] Mycenaean bronze double axes and other
objects dating from the 13th century BC have been found in Ireland and in Wessex and Cornwall in England.[108][109]

Religion

[ edit ]

See also: Mycenaean religion and List of Mycenaean gods

Temples and shrines are conspicuously rare in the Mycenaean archaeological record. Moreover, monumental cultic buildings have not
been found at any of the palatial center, with the exception of the cult center at Mycenae, which seems to have been a later (13th
century BC) development.[110] Small shrines have been identified in Asine, Berbati, Malthi and Pylos,[111] while a number of sacred
enclosures have been located near Mycenae, Delphi and Amyklae.[112] However, Linear B records indicate, at least in the kingdoms of
Pylos and Knossos, that there must have been a variety of sanctuaries dedicated to various deities. They also indicate that there
were religious festivities including offerings.[113] Written Mycenaean records mention various priests and priestesses who were
responsible for specific shrines and temples.[114] Especially the latter were prominent figures in society, while the role of Mycenaean
women in religious festivities was important, just as in Minoan Crete.[115]
The Mycenaean pantheon already included many divinities that can be found in Classical Greece,[116] though it's difficult to claim
whether these deities had the characteristics and responsibilities attributed to them at later periods.[117] In general, the same gods
were worshipped throughout the entire Mycenaean palatial world. There may be some indications for local deities at various sites, in
particular the Cretan pantheon appears to have known a number of distinctly local divinities. The uniformity of Mycenaean religion is
also reflected in archaeological evidence with the phi- and psi-figurines that have been found all over Late Bronze Age Greece.[110]
Poseidon (Linear B: Po-se-da-o) seems to have occupied a place of privilege. He was a chthonic deity, connected with earthquakes
(E-ne-si-da-o-ne: Earth-shaker), but it seems that he also represented the river spirit of the underworld.[118] Paean (Pa-ja-wo) is
probably the precursor of the Greek physician of the gods in Homer's Iliad. He was the personification of the magic-song which was
supposed to "heal" the patient.[119] A number of divinites have been read in the Mycenaean scripts only by their epithets used during

later antiquity. For example, Qo-wi-ja ("cow-eyed") is a standard Homeric ephithet of Hera.[120] Ares appeared under the name
Enyalios (assuming that Enyalios is not a separate god).[121] Additional divinities that can be also found in later periods include
Hephaestus, Erinya, Artemis (a-te-mi-to and a-ti-mi-te) and Dionysos (Di-wo-nu-so).[122][123][124][125] Zeus also appears in the
Mycenaean pantheon, but he was certainly not the chief deity.[117]
A collection of "ladies" or "mistresses", Po-ti-ni-ja (Potnia) is read in the Mycenaean scripts. As such, Athena (A-ta-na) appears in an
inscription at Knossos as mistress Athena, similar with a later Homeric expression, but in the Pylos tablets she is mentioned without
any accompanying word.[126] Si-to po-ti-ni-ja appears to be an agricultural goddess, possibly related to Demeter of later antiquity,[120]
while in Knossos there is the "mistress of the Labyrinth".[127] The "two queens and the king" (wa-na-ssoi, wa-na-ka-te) are mentioned
in Pylos.[128][129] Goddess Pe-re-swa mentioned may be related with Persephone.[120][126] A number of Mycenaean divinities seem to
have no later equivalents, such as Marineus, Diwia and Komawenteia.[117]

Architecture
Palaces

[ edit ]

[ edit ]

The palatial structures at Mycenae, Tiryns and Pylos were erected on the summits of hills
or rocky outcrops, dominating the immediate surroundings.[130] The best preserved are
found in Pylos and Tiryns, while Mycenae and the Menelaion are only partially preserved.
In Central Greece, Thebes and Orchomenos have been only partially exposed. On the
other hand, the palace built at the acropolis of Athens has been almost completely
destroyed. A substantial building at Dimini in Thessaly, possibly ancient Iolcos,[131] may
be interpreted by a number of archaeologist as a palace.[130] A Mycenaean palace has
been also unearthed in Laconia, near the modern village of Xirokambi.[132]
The palatial structures of mainland Greece share a number of distinctive features.[133]

Tiryns, map of the palace and the

surrounding fortifications.

The focal point of the socio-political aspect of a Mycenaean palace was the megaron, the
throne room.[130] It was laid out around a circular hearth surrounded by four columns. The
throne was generally found on the right-hand side upon entering the room, while the interior
of the megaron was lavishly decorated, which flaunted images designed intentionally to
demonstrate the political and religious power of the ruler.[134] Access to the megaron was
provided through a court, which is reached via a propylon.[133] The iconography of the
palaces is remarkably uniform throughout Greece. In the case of Pylos and Tiryns the
paintings are focused on marine motives, providing depictions of octopi, fish and dolphins.[135]
Around the megaron a group of courtyards each opening upon several rooms of different

The hearth of the megaron of Pylos.

dimensions, such as storerooms and workshops, as well as reception halls and living
quarters.[133] In general Mycenaean palaces have yielded a wealth of artifacts and
fragmentary frescoes.[133]
Additional common features are shared by the palaces of Pylos, Mycenae and Tiryns[133] a large court with colonnades lies directly in
front of the central megaron,[136] while a second, but smaller, megaron is also found inside these structures.[133] The staircases in the
palace of Pylos indicate that the palaces had two stories.[137] The private quarters of the royal family were presumably located on the
second floor.[138]

Fortifications

[ edit ]

The construction of defensive structures was closely linked with the establishment of the
palaces in mainland Greece. The principal Mycenaean centers were well fortified and usually
situated on an elevated terrain, like on the acropolis of Athens, Tiryns and Mycenae or on
coastal plains, in the case of Gla.[139] Mycenaean Greeks in general appreciated the
symbolism of war as expressed in defensive architecture, thus they aimed also at the visual
impressiveness of their fortifications.[139]
Cyclopean is the term normally applied to the masonry characteristics of Mycenaean
fortification systems and describes walls built of large, unworked boulders more than 8 m
(26 ft) thick and weighing several metric tonnes.[140] They were roughly fitted together without
the use of mortar or clay to bind them, though smaller hunks of limestone fill the interstices.
Their placement formed a polygonal pattern giving the curtain wall an irregular but imposing
appearance.[141] At the top it would have been wide enough for a walkway with a narrow
protective parapet on the outer edge and with hoop-like crenellations.[141] The term
Cyclopean was derived by the latter Greeks of the Classical era who believed that only the
mythical giants, the Cyclops, could have constructed such megalithic structures.[139] On the
other hand, cut stone masonry is used only in and around gateways.[141] Another typical
feature of Mycenaean megalithic construction was the use of a relieving triangle above a lintel
block an opening, often triangular, designed to reduce the weight over the lintel. The space
was filled with some lighter stone.[141]
Cyclopean fortifications were typical of Mycenaean walls, especially at the citadels of
Mycenae, Tiryns, Argos, Crisa and Athens, while smaller boulders are found in Midea and
large limestone slabs are found at Gla.[141] In the Mycenaean settlements found in Epirus and
Cyprus, Cyclopean style walls are also present,[142][143] as well as in western Anatolia.[144]
Besides the citadels, isolated forts were also erected on various strategic locations. The
fortification systems also incorporated technical refinements such as secret cisterns, galleries,

Cyclopean masonry in the southern

walls of Mycenae.

sally ports and projecting bastions for the protection of gateways.[139] On the other hand, the
palace of Pylos, although a major center of power, paradoxically appears to have been left
without any defensive walls.[145]

Other architectural features

Part of the galleries within the walls

of Tiryns.

[ edit ]

Mycenaean domestic architecture stems largely from preceding Middle Helladic traditions (c. 20001650 BC) both in shape, as well as
in location of settlement. The uniformity of domestic architectural traditions occurred probably as a result of a shared past among the
communities of Greek mainland rather than as a product of cultural expansion of the Mycenaean Koine.[43] Moreover, varying sizes of
mudbricks were used in the construction of the building structures.[133]
Contrary to a popular belief, some Mycenaean representative buildings already featured roofs made of fired tiles, as in Gla and
Midea.[146]

Warfare

[ edit ]

Main article: Military of Mycenaean Greece

The military nature of the Mycenaean Greeks is evident by the numerous weapons unearthed, warrior and combat representations in
contemporary art, as well as by the preserved Greek Linear B records.[147][148] The Mycenaeans invested in the development of
military infrastructure, with military production and logistics being supervised directly from the palatial centers.[148][149] According to the
Linear B records in the palace of Pylos, every rural community (the damos) was obliged to supply a certain number of men who had to
serve in the army. Similar service was also performed by the aristocracy.[150]
Mycenaean armies were initially based on heavy infantry, equipped with spears, large shields and
in some occasion armor.[151] Later in the 13th century BC, Mycenaean warfare underwent major
changes both in tactics and weaponry and armed units became more uniform and flexible, while
weapons became smaller and lighter.[148] The spear remained the main weapon among
Mycenaean warriors, while the sword played a secondary role in combat.[152] Other offensive
weapons used were bows, maces, axes, slings and javelins.[152][153] The precise role and
contribution of chariots on the battlefield is a matter of dispute due to the lack of sufficient
evidence.[154] It appears that chariots were initially used as a fighting vehicle during the 16th to
14th century BC while later in the 13th century BC their role was limited to a battlefield

Replicas of Mycenaean swords

and cups.

transport.[155]
The boar's tusk helmet was the most identifiable piece of Mycenaean armor being in use from the beginning to the collapse of
Mycenaean culture. It is also known from several depictions in contemporary art in Greece and the Mediterranean.[156][157] A
representative piece of Mycenaean armor is the Dendra panoply (c. 14501400 BC) which consisted of a cuirass of a complete set of
armor made up of several elements of bronze.[158] In general, most features of the later hoplite panoply of classical Greek antiquity,
were already known to Mycenaean Greece.[159] "Figure-of-eight" shields were the most common type of Mycenaean shields.[160]
During the Late Mycenaean period, smaller types of shields were adopted, either of completely circular shape, or almost circular with
a cut out part from their lower edge.[161]

Art and craftwork

Vessels

[ edit ]

[ edit ]

Main article: Mycenaean pottery

During the Late Mycenaean period (14001200 BC), Mycenaean vessels/pottery exhibited
similarities spanning a significant area of the Eastern Mediterranean (i.e. from the Levant to
Sicily) and possibly reflecting a form of economic and political union centered at Mycenae.[162]
However, the pottery of Crete during this time remained distinct indicating a degree of autonomy
on the island.[162] The Mycenaean Greeks produced in large quantities a variety of diverselystyled vessels such as stirrup jars, large bowls, alabastron, krater and stemmed cups (or kylikes)
resembling champagne glasses.[162]
Stirrup jars (Linear B: ka-ra-re-u, khlareus "oil vessel"), specifically, were first invented on the
island of Crete during the 16th century BC and used widely by the Mycenaeans from 1400 BC
onward for transporting and storing wine and oil the jars were usually pear-shaped or
globular.[162] As for stemmed cups (or kylikes), they evolved from Ephyraean goblets and a large
quantity was discovered at a site called the "Potter's Shop" located in Zygouries.[162] Mycenaean
drinking vessels such as the stemmed cups contained single decorative motifs such as a shell,
an octopus or a flower painted on the side facing away from the drinker.[162] The Mycenaean
Greeks also painted entire scenes (called "Pictorial Style") on their vessels depicting warriors,
chariots, horses and deities reminiscent of events described in Homer's Iliad.[163] Other items

Silver repouss rhyton with gold

horns, from Grave Circle A at
Mycenae, 16th century BC
(Archaeological Museum, Athens).

developed by the Mycenaeans include clay lamps,[164] as well as metallic vessels such as bronze
tripod cauldrons (or basins).[165] A few examples of vessels in faience and ivory are also known.[166]

Figures and figurines

[ edit ]

The Mycenaean period has not yielded sculpture of any great size. The statuary of the period consists for the most part of small
terracotta figurines found at almost every Mycenaean site in mainland Greece, in tombs, in settlement debris, and occasionally in cult
contexts (Tiryns, Agios Konstantinos on Methana). The majority of these figurines are female and anthropomorphic or zoomorphic.
The female figurines can be subdivided into three groups which were popular at different periods: the earliest are the Phi-type, which

look like the Greek letter phi and their arms give the upper body of the figurine a rounded shape. The Psi-type looks like the letter
Greek psi: these have outstretched upraised arms. The latest (12th century BC) are the Tau-type: these figurines look like the Greek
letter tau with folded(?) arms at right angles to the body. Most figurines wear a large 'polos' hat.[167] They are painted with stripes or
zigzags in the same manner as the contemporary pottery and presumably made by the same potters. Their purpose is uncertain, but
they may have served as both votive objects and toys: some are found in children's graves but the vast majority of fragments are from
domestic rubbish deposits.[168] The presence of many of these figurines on sites where worship took place in the Archaic and
Classical periods (circa 200 below the sanctuary of Athena at Delphi, others at the temple of Aphaia on Aegina, at the sanctuary of
Apollo Maleatas above Epidauros and at Amyklae near Sparta), suggests both that many were indeed religious in nature, perhaps as
votives, but also that later places of worship may well have first been used in the Mycenaean period.[169]
Larger male, female or bovine terracotta wheelmade figures are much rarer. An important group was found in the Temple at Mycenae
together with coiled clay snakes,[170] while others have been found at Tiryns and in the East and West Shrines at Phylakopi on the
island of Melos.[171]

Frescoes

[ edit ]

The painting of the Mycenaean age was much influenced by that of the Minoan age. Fragments of wall
paintings have been found in or around the palaces (Pylos, Mycenae, Tiryns) and in domestic contexts
(Zygouries).[172] The largest complete wall painting depicting three female figures, probably goddesses,
was found in the so-called "cult center" at Mycenae.[173] Various themes are represented: hunting, bull
leaping (tauromachy), battle scenes, processions, etc. Some scenes may be part of mythological
narratives, but if so their meaning eludes us. Other frescoes include geometric or stylised motifs, also
used on painted pottery (see above).

Burial practices

[ edit ]

The usual form of burial during this period was inhumation.[174] The earliest Mycenaean burials were
mostly in individual graves in the form of a pit or a stone lined cist and offerings were limited to pottery
and occasional items of jewellery.[175] Groups of pit or cist graves containing elite members of the
community were sometimes covered by a tumulus (mound) in the manner established since the Middle

Fresco of a Mycenaean
woman.

Helladic.[176] It has been argued that this form dates back to the Kurgan culture[177] however, Mycenaean
burials are in actuality an indigenous development of mainland Greece with the Shaft Graves housing native rulers.[178] Pit and cist
graves remained in use for single burials throughout the Mycenaean period alongside more elaborate family graves.[179] The shaft
graves at Mycenae within Grave Circles A and B belong to the same period represent an alternative manner of grouping elite burials.
Next to the deceased were found full sets of weapons, ornate staffs as well as gold and silver cups and other valuable objects which
point to their social rank.[180]
Beginning also in the Late Helladic period are to be seen
communal tombs of rectangular form. Nevertheless, it is difficult
to establish whether the different forms of burial represent a
social hierarchization, as was formerly thought, with the "tholos"
being the tombs of the elite rulers, the individual tombs those of
the leisure class, and the communal tombs those of the people.
Cremations increased in number over the course of the period,
becoming quite numerous in last phase of the Mycenaean
era.[181]

The tholos was introduced during the early 15th century

Treasury of Atreus, 13th century BC royal tholos tomb near Mycenae:

exterior (left) and interior (right) view.

as the new and more imposing form of elite.[182] The most

impressive tombs of the Mycenaean era are the monumental royal tombs of Mycenae, undoubtedly intended for the royal family of the
city. The most famous is the Treasury of Atreus, a tholos. A total of nine of such tholos tombs are found in the vicinity of Mycenae,
while six of them belong to a single period (Late Helladic IIa, c. 1400-1300 BC).[183] It has been argued that different dynasties or
factions may have competed through conspicuous burial.[184]

See also

[ edit ]

Archaeological Museum of Chora

Mycenaean language
Aegean civilizations

References
Citations

[ edit ]

[ edit ]

1. ^ a

bc de fgh

Fields 2004, pp. 1011.

2. ^ Hammond 1976, p. 139: "Moreover, in this area a small tholos-

104. ^ Ridgway 1992, p. 4 Taylour 1958 Fisher 1998 Runnels &

Murray 2001, p. 15 Vianello 2005, "Eastern Sicily and the

tomb with Mycenaean pottery of III B style and a Mycenaean

Aeolian Islands", p. 51 Feuer 2004, pp. 155157 van

acropolis have been reported at Kiperi near Parga, and another

Wijngaarden 2002, Part IV: The Central Mediterranean, pp. 203-

Mycenaean acropolis lay above the Oracle of the Dead on the

hill called Xylokastro."

260.
105. ^ de la Cruz 1988, pp. 7792 Ridgway 1992, p. 3 Runnels &

3. ^ Tandy 2001, p. xii (Fig. 1) p. 2: "The strongest evidence for

Murray 2001, p. 15.

Mycenaean presence in Epirus is found in the coastal zone of

106. ^ Castleden 2005.

the lower Acheron River, which in antiquity emptied into a bay on

107. ^ Amber object bearing Linear B symbols

the Ionian coast known from ancient sources as Glykys Limin

(Figure 2-A)."

108. ^ Budin 2009, p. 53: "One of the most extraordinary examples of

4. ^ Borza 1992, p. 64: "The existence of a Late Bronze Age

Mycenaean settlement in the Petra not only confirms its
importance as a route from an early period, but also extends the
limits of Mycenaean settlement to the Macedonian frontier."

the extent of Mycenaean influence was the Pelynt Dagger, a

fragment of a Late Helladic III sword, which has come to light in
the tomb of a Wessex chieftain in southern England!"
109. ^ Feuer 2004, p. 259.

5. ^ Aegeo-Balkan Prehistory Mycenaean Sites

110. ^ a

6. ^ van Wijngaarden 2002, Part II: The Levant, pp. 31124 Bietak

111. ^ Castleden 2005, p. 146.

Kelder 2010, p. 115.

& Czerny 2007, Sigrid Deger-Jalkotzy, "Mycenaeans and

112. ^ Castleden 2005, p. 157.

Philistines in the Levant", pp. 501629.

113. ^ Kelder 2010, p. 114.

7. ^ van Wijngaarden 2002, Part III: Cyprus, pp. 125202.

114. ^ Castleden 2005, p. 144.

8. ^ Peruzzi 1980 van Wijngaarden 2002, Part IV: The Central

115. ^ Castleden 2005, p. 160.

Mediterranean, pp. 203260.

9. ^ The extent to which Homer attempted to or succeeded in
recreating a "Mycenaean" setting is examined in Moses I. Finley
The World of Odysseus, 1954.
10. ^ a

bc

"Linear A and Linear B" . Encyclopaedia Britannica.

Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc. Retrieved 3 March 2016.

11. ^ "Sir Arthur Evans"

. Encyclopaedia Britannica.

Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc. Retrieved 3 March 2016.

12. ^ "Michael Ventris"

from the Freising

district of Germany, excavations in the years 19941997.

. Encyclopaedia Britannica. Encyclopaedia

Britannica, Inc. Retrieved 3 March 2016.

13. ^ Chadwick 1976, p. 617.
14. ^ Latacz 2004, pp. 159, 165.

116. ^ Paul, Adams John (10 January 2010). "Mycenaean

Divinities"

. Northridge, CA: California State University.

Retrieved 25 September 2013.

117. ^ a

bc

Castleden 2005, p. 143.

118. ^ Nilsson 1940.

119. ^ Nilsson 1967, Volume I, pp. 500504 Chadwick 1976, p. 88:
"Pa-ja-wo suggested Homeric Paieon, which earlier would have
been Paiawon, later Paidn, an alternative name of Apollo, if not
again a separate god."
120. ^ a

bc

Chadwick 1976, p. 95.

121. ^ Chadwick 1976, pp. 95, 99.

122. ^ Nilsson 1967, Volume I, pp. 565568.

15. ^ Latacz 2004, p. 120.

123. ^ Chadwick 1976, p. 99.

16. ^ Latacz 2004, p. 138.

124. ^ Chadwick & Baumbach 1963, p. 176f.

17. ^ Hajnal & Posch 2009, pp. 12.

125. ^ Kn V 52 (text 208 in Ventris and Chadwick) Chadwick 1976,

18. ^ a

Kelder 2010, pp. 4647.

p. 88.

19. ^ Kelder 2010, pp. 3738 Latacz 2004, p. 159.

126. ^ a

20. ^ a

127. ^ Chadwick 1976, pp. 9293.

Beckman, Bryce & Cline 2012, p. 4.

21. ^ Latacz 2004, p. 123.

Mylonas 1966, p. 159.

128. ^ Mylonas 1966, p. 159: "Wa-na-ssoi, wa-na-ka-te, (to the two

22. ^ Bryce 2005, p. 58.

queens and the king). Wanax is best suited to Poseidon, the

23. ^ Latacz 2004, p. 122.

special divinity of Pylos. The identity of the two divinities

24. ^ Bryce 2005, p. 357.

25. ^ a

Dickinson 1977, pp. 32, 53, 107108 Dickinson 1999,

pp. 97107.
26. ^ a

bc d

Schofield 2006, p. 31.

27. ^ Schofield 2006, p. 51.

28. ^ Schofield 2006, p. 48.

addressed as wanassoi, is uncertain."

129. ^ Chadwick 1976, p. 76.
130. ^ a

bc

Fields 2004, p. 19.

131. ^ Cline 2012, p. 485.

132. ^ , (28 April 2009). "
" . Ethnos.gr. Retrieved 25 September 2013.

29. ^ Schofield 2006, p. 32.

133. ^ a

30. ^ Dickinson 1977, pp. 53, 107.

134. ^ Fields 2004, p. 21.

31. ^ Schofield 2006, p. 67.

135. ^ Kelder 2010, p. 110.

32. ^ Schofield 2006, pp. 6468.

136. ^ Fields 2004, p. 20.

33. ^ Castleden 2005, p. 97 Schofield 2006, p. 55.

137. ^ Fields 2004, p. 45.

34. ^ Chadwick 1976, p. 12.

138. ^ Fields 2004, p. 46.

35. ^ Tartaron 2013, p. 28.

139. ^ a

36. ^ a

140. ^ Schofield 2006, p. 78.

bc

Schofield 2006, pp. 7172.

37. ^ Schofield 2006, p. 75.

141. ^ a

bc de fg

bc d

Kelder 2010, p. 109.

Fields 2004, p. 10.

bc de

Fields 2004, p. 11.

38. ^ a

bc

Kelder 2010, p. 8.

142. ^ Tandy 2001, p. 20: "In LH IBBB (ca. 1310-1190), Mycenaean

39. ^ Tartaron 2013, p. 21.

material culture spread widely throughout coastal and inland

40. ^ Kelder 2010, pp. 50, 52.

Epirus in this period Mycenaean engagement in Epirus was

41. ^

a b

strongest, both quantitatively and qualitatively. Though the Kiperi

Bryce 2005, p. 361.

42. ^ Castleden 2005, p. 194: "The Mycenaean colonies in Anatolia

tholos may have gone out of use early in LH IIIB, the Cyclopean

were emphatically confined to a narrow coastal strip in the west.

wall found there, as well as those at Ephyra, Kastriza, and Ayia

There were community-colonies at Ephesus, Iasos and Miletus,

but they had little effect on the interior..."
43. ^ a

Eleni, cannot have been built (and probably after) LH IIIB."

143. ^ Iacovou 2013, p. 610. Iacovou quotes Vassos Karageorghis
who states that "The introduction of 'Cyclopean'-type walls at the

Kelder 2010, p. 107.

44. ^ Kelder 2010, pp. 108109.

very beginning of the LC IIIA period at Enkomi, Kition, Sinda and

45. ^ Kelder 2010, p. 11 Fields 2004, p. 53.

Maa-Palaeokastron was due to the arrival of Mycenaean settlers

46. ^

a bc

Beckman, Bryce & Cline 2012, p. 6.

47. ^ Kelder 2010, pp. 119120.

48. ^ Bryce 2005, p. 59 Kelder 2010, p. 23.

147. ^ Cline 2012, p. 305.

50. ^ Bryce 2005, p. 193.

148. ^ a

51. ^ Kelder 2010, p. 26.

52. ^ Bryce 2005, p. 58 Kelder 2010, pp. 119120.

152. ^ a

55. ^ Bryce 2005, pp. 361, 364.

Kelder 2010, p. 34.

58. ^ a

Cline 2014, p. 130.

59. ^ a

Castleden 2005, p. 219.

60. ^ a

bc de fg

155. ^ Fields 2004, p. 22.

156. ^ Schofield 2006, p. 119.

Freeman 2014, p. 126.

159. ^ Kagan & Viggiano 2013, p. 36: "In fact, most of the essential
items of the "hoplite panoply" were known to Mycenaean

63. ^ Tartaron 2013, p. 20.

Greece, including the metallic helmet and the single thrusting

64. ^ Cline 2014, p. 129.

spear."

Tartaron 2013, p. 18.

160. ^ D'Amato & Salimbeti 2011, p. 20.

66. ^ Mylonas 1966, pp. 227228.

161. ^ Cline 2012, p. 312 Schofield 2006, p. 123.

67. ^ Mylonas 1966, pp. 231232.

162. ^ a

68. ^ Drews 1993, p. 49.

69. ^ a

Tartaron 2013, p. 19.

bc

bc de f

Castleden 2005, p. 135.

163. ^ Castleden 2005, pp. 135137: "Large kraters decorated in

Pictorial Style are found almost exclusively in Cyprus, and for a

70. ^ Freeman 2014, p. 127.

71. ^ a

157. ^ D'Amato & Salimbeti 2011, p. 23.

158. ^ D'Amato & Salimbeti 2011, p. 27.

62. ^ Kelder 2010, p. 32.

65. ^

Howard 2011, p. 50.

154. ^ Howard 2011, p. 63.

61. ^ Kelder 2010, p. 33.

a b

153. ^ Schofield 2006, p. 306 D'Amato & Salimbeti 2011, p. 13.

56. ^ Bryce 2005, p. 290.

b

Cline 2012, p. 313.

151. ^ Howard 2011, p. 7.

Kelder 2010, p. 27.

57. ^ a

bc

149. ^ Palaima 1999, pp. 367368.

150. ^ D'Amato & Salimbeti 2011, p. 10.

53. ^ Bryce 2005, p. 224.

b

145. ^ Fields 2004, p. 44.

146. ^ Wikander 1990, p. 288 Shear 2000, p. 134.

49. ^ Bryce 2005, pp. 129, 368.

54. ^ a

in Cyprus."
144. ^ Kelder 2010, p. 127.

long time it was naturally assumed that they were manufactured

Kelder 2010, p. 9.

there, but a few examples have been found on the Greek

72. ^ Kelder 2010, p. 97.

mainland, mostly near Mycenae, and it has now been

73. ^ Kelder 2010, pp. 89.

established that they were all manufactured at workshops close

74. ^ Kelder 2010, pp. 45, 86, 107.

to Mycenae, probably at Berbati just to the east of the city,

75. ^ Kelder 2010, pp. 8687.

where there are the right clay sources. The ware was probably

76. ^ Thomas 1995, p. 350.

specifically made for export to Cyprus, where they were used as

77. ^ a

centerpieces for drinking ceremonies. The decoration appears to

bc de

Chadwick 1976, Chapter 5: Social Structure and

Administrative System, pp. 6983.

78. ^ a

bc

description, but the scenes showing warriors, horses and

79. ^ Fields 2004, p. 57.

80. ^ Chadwick 1976, pp. 7172

81. ^ . Liddell, Henry George Scott, Robert An

Intermediate Greek-English Lexicon at the Perseus Project.
82. ^

. Liddell, Henry George Scott, Robert A Greek

English Lexicon at the Perseus Project.

83. ^ Olsen 2014, p. 7.
84. ^ a

bc

Cline 2012, p. 145.

85. ^ Cline 2012, p. 242.

86. ^ a

have been painted on at high speed and the effect is sometimes

crude Reynold Higgins calls it 'barbarous', which is a fair

Kelder 2010, p. 11.

Budin 2009, p. 94.

87. ^ Chadwick 1976, p. 152.

chariots can still tell us much about everyday life in Mycenaean

Greece, and as much again about Mycenaean religious beliefs
and mythology. One krater from Enkomi in Cyprus shows a
charioteer with his groom riding along, perhaps into battle, while
a long-robed god, Zeus perhaps, stands in his way holding the
scales of destiny that will decide his fate. It is an archetypal
scene reminiscent of several in the Iliad, where the gods are
shown intervening in battle and deciding the outcome."
164. ^ Furumark 1941, p. 78: "There are two types of Mycenaean
lamps. One of these (type 321) has a broad horizontal lip with
two opposite depressions for wicks. This type is the clay version

88. ^ Olsen 2014, p. 6.

of a Minoan stone lamp, known in many examples both from

89. ^ Budin 2009, p. 96.

Crete and from the Mainland. The other (type 321 a) has one

90. ^ Tartaron 2013, p. 24.

91. ^ a

bc

Kelder 2010, p. 116.

92. ^ Gilstrap, William Day, Peter Kaza, Konstantina Kardamaki,

wick-spout and a handle at the opposite side."

165. ^ Castleden 2005, pp. 56, 166.
166. ^ Schofield 2006, p. 107.

Elina (9 May 2013). Pottery Production at the Late Mycenaean

167. ^ French 1971, pp. 101187.

site of Alimos, Attica. Materials and Industries in the

168. ^ See account of their use in K.A. and Diana Wardle "The

Mycenaean World: Current Approaches to the Study of Materials

Child's Cache at Assiros, Macedonia", in Sally Crawford and

and Industries in Prehistoric Greece, University of Nottingham,

Gillian Shepherd (eds): Children, Childhood and Society:

910 May 2013

Institute for Archaeology and Antiquity Interdisciplinary Studies

(PDF). Nottingham, UK. pp. 1314.

93. ^ Kelder 2010, p. 117.

94. ^ a

bc

Cline 2007, p. 200.

95. ^ Stubbings 1951, IV: Mycenaean II Pottery in Syria and

Palestine V: Mycenaean III Pottery in Syria and Palestine.
96. ^ Petrie 1894.
97. ^ Cline 2012, pp. 300, 387, 787.

(Volume I) Oxford: Archaeopress, 2007.

169. ^ Hgg & Marinatos 1981, Robin Hgg, "Official and Popular
Cults in Mycenaean Greece", pp. 3539.
170. ^ Moore, Taylour & French 1999.
171. ^ Renfrew, Mountjoy & Macfarlane 1985.

172. ^ Immerwahr 1990.

98. ^ Castleden 2005, p. 107: "Huge quantities of olive oil were
produced and it must have been a major source of wealth. The
simple fact that southern Greece is far more suitable climatically
for olive production may explain why the Mycenaean civilization
made far greater advances in the south than in the north. The oil
had a variety of uses, in cooking, as a dressing, as soap, as
lamp oil, and as a base for manufacturing unguents."
99. ^ Tartaron 2013, p. 29 Kling 1989 Nikolaou 1973 International
Archaeological Symposium 1973.

173. ^ Taylour 1969, pp. 9197 Taylour 1970, pp. 270280.

174. ^ Cavanagh & Mee 1998.
175. ^ Taylour, French & Wardle 2007 Alden 2000.
176. ^ Pelon 1976.
177. ^ Hammond 1967, p. 90.
178. ^ Dickinson 1977, pp. 3334, 53, 5960.
179. ^ Lewartowski 2000.
180. ^ Dickinson 1977, pp. 53, 107 Anthony 2007, p. 48.
181. ^ Papadimitriou 2001.

100. ^ Cline 2007, p. 197.

182. ^ Castleden 2005, p. 97.

101. ^ Cline 2007, p. 196.

183. ^ Kelder 2010, p. 95.

102. ^ Boston University The Historical Society .

103. ^ Tartaron 2013, p. 22 Feuer 2004, pp. 155157 Balmuth &

184. ^ Graziado 1991, pp. 403440.

Tykot 1998, "The Mycenaeans in Sardinia", p. 400 Runnels &

Murray 2004, p. 15.

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Further reading

[ edit ]

Barlow, Jane Atwood Bolger, Diane L. Kling, Barbara (1991).

Huxley, G.L. (1960). Achaeans and Greeks. Oxford and New York:

Cypriot Ceramics: Reading the Prehistoric Record

Oxford University Press.

. Philadelphia,

PA: University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and

Mellink, Machteld J. (April 1983). "The Hittites and the Aegean

Anthropology. ISBN 978-0-92-417110-9.

World: Part 2. Archaeological Comments on Ahhiyawa-Achaians in

Burkert, Walter (1987) [1985]. Greek Religion: Archaic and

Western Anatolia". American Journal of Archaeology 87 (2): 138

Classical . Oxford and Malden: Blackwell Publishing Limited.

141. doi:10.2307/504929

ISBN 978-1-11-872499-6.

Mountjoy, Penelope A. (1986). Mycenaean Decorated Pottery: A

Doumas, Christos (1980). Thera and the Aegean World II: Papers

Guide to Identification (Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 73)

Presented at the Second International Scientific Congress,

Gteborg: Paul Astrms Forlag. ISBN 978-9-18-609832-2.

Santorini, Greece, August 1978 . London: Thera and the Aegean

Nur, Amos Cline, Eric (2000). "Poseidon's Horses: Plate Tectonics

World. ISBN 978-0-95-061332-1.

and Earthquake Storms in the Late Bronze Age Aegean and

French, Elizabeth Bayard (2002). Mycenae: Agamemnon's

Eastern Mediterranean"

Capital . Stroud: Tempus. ISBN 0-7524-1951-X.

27 (1): 4363. doi:10.1006/jasc.1999.0431

Gitin, Seymour Mazar, Amihay Stern, Ephraim Dothan, Trude

Preziosi, Donald Hitchcock, Louise A. (1999). Aegean Art and

Krakauer (1998). Mediterranean Peoples in Transition: Thirteenth to

Architecture

Early Tenth Centuries BCE

284208-4.

. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society.

.
.

(PDF). Journal of Archaeological Science

. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-

ISBN 978-9-65-221036-4.

Robertson, Martin (1959). Les Grands sicles de la peinture: La

Gterbock, Hans G. (April 1983). "The Hittites and the Aegean

peinture Grecque

World: Part 1. The Ahhiyawa Problem Reconsidered". American

Skeat, T.C. (1934). The Dorians in Archaeology. London: de la More

Journal of Archaeology 87 (2): 133138. doi:10.2307/504928

Press.

. Genve-Paris: Skira.

Gterbock, Hans G. (June 1984). "Hittites and Akhaeans: A New

Taylour, Lord William (1990) [1964]. The Mycenaeans

Look". Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 128 (2):

Thames & Hudson Limited. ISBN 978-0-50-027586-3.

114122.

Vermeule, Emily Karageorghis, Vassos (1982). Mycenaean Pictorial

Hagg, Robin Wells, Berit (1978). Opuscula Atheniensia XII

Vase Painting

. London:

. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Lund: Paul Astroms Forlag. ISBN 978-9-18-508612-2.

ISBN 978-0-67-459650-4.

Hnsel, B. (ed.) Podzuweit, Christian (1982). "Die mykenische

Vermeule, Emily Townsend (March 1960). "The Fall of the

Welt und Troja". Sdosteuropa zwischen 1600 und 1000 V. Chr. (in

Mycenaean Empire". Archaeology (Archaeological Institute of

German). Berlin: Moreland Editions. pp. 6588.

America) 13 (1): 6676. doi:10.2307/41663738

Higgins, Reynold Alleyne (1997). Minoan and Mycenaean Art .

Weiss, Barry (June 1982). "The Decline of Late Bronze Age

London and New York: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-50-020303-3.

Civilization as a Possible Response to Climatic Change". Climatic

Hooker, J.T. (1976). Mycenaean Greece . London: Routledge &

Change 4 (2): 173198. doi:10.1007/bf00140587

Kegan Paul.

0009

External links

. ISSN 0165-

[ edit ]

Godart, Louis (2013) [January 1997]. "Les citadelles mycniennes"

(in French). Clio.

Hemingway, Sen Hemingway, Colette (20002013). "Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History:

Mycenaean Civilization" . The Metropolitan Museum of Art.

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media related to Mycenaean
culture.

Horejs, Barbara Pavk, Peter, eds. (2007). "The Aegeo-Balkan Prehistory Project" . The Aegeo-Balkan Prehistory Team.
Rutter, Jeremy B. "Prehistoric Archeology of the Aegean" . Hanover, NH: Dartmouth College.
Salimbetti, Andrea (September 2015). "The Greek Age of Bronze" .
"The Mycenaeans and Italy: The Archaeological and Archaeometric Ceramic Evidence" . University of Glasgow School of
Humanities.
Wright, James C. (2002). "The Nemea Valley Archaeological Project: Internet Edition" . Bryn Mawr College Department of
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