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c = 0
or
f (x) = lim
EXAMPLES:
1 = 0,
5 = 0,
0 = 0,
(7/9) = 0,
!
1+ 5
= 0,
2
= 0,
(x 3 x + 1 x4/3 ) = 0
or
(xn ) = nxn1
f (a) = lim
If n = 3, then
x 3 a3
(x a)(x2 + xa + a2 )
f (x) f (a)
= lim
= lim
xa x a
xa
xa
xa
xa
f (a) = lim
If n = 4, then
f (x) f (a)
x 4 a4
(x a)(x3 + x2 a + xa2 + a3 )
= lim
= lim
xa
xa x a
xa
xa
xa
f (a) = lim
In general, we have
f (x) f (a)
x n an
(x a)(xn1 + xn2 a + . . . + xan2 + an1 )
= lim
= lim
xa
xa x a
xa
xa
xa
f (a) = lim
EXAMPLES:
(a) If f (x) = x2 , then f (x) = (x2 ) = [n = 2] = 2x21 = 2x1 = 2x.
(b) If f (x) = x9 , then f (x) = (x9 ) = [n = 9] = 9x91 = 9x8 .
(c) If f (x) = x, then f (x) = (x1 ) = [n = 1] = 1 x11 = 1 x0 = 1 1 = 1.
THE POWER RULE (GENERAL VERSION): If n is any real number, then
d n
(x ) = nxn1
dx
(xn ) = nxn1
or
EXAMPLES:
(a) If f (x) = x4 , then f (x) = (x4 ) = [n = 4] = (4)x41 = 4x5 .
1
1
(b) If f (x) = , then f (x) = (x1 ) = [n = 1] = (1)x11 = x2 = 2 .
x
x
1
1
1
(c) If f (x) = x, then f (x) = (x1/2 ) = [n = 1/2] = x1/21 = x1/2 = .
2
2
2 x
3
3
3
3
7 4/3
7 x4
7 x3+1
7 x3 x
7 x3 3 x
7x 3 x
= x =
=
=
=
=
3
3
3
3
3
3
or
=
3+1
7x 3
7x 3 + 3
7x 3 x 3
7x 3
=
=
=
3
3
3
3
7x 3 x
=
3
1
(e) If f (x) =
, then
3
x2
2
2
1
=
=
=
=
= 5/3 =
3
3
3
3
3
3
3x
3 x5
3 x3+2
3 x3 x2
3 x3 x2
3x x2
or
2
2
2
2
2
= 5 = 3+2 = 3 + 2 = 3
=
2
3
3x x2
3x 3
3x 3 3
3x 3 x 3
3x 3
4
x
.
(f) Find f (x) if f (x) =
x1 x5
2
4
x
, then
(f) If f (x) =
x1 x5
1/4
x
x1/4
=
= x1/4(1+5/2) = x1/4+15/2 = x5/4 = [n = 5/4]
f (x) =
1
5/2
1+5/2
x x
x
5 5/41
5
5
5
5
5 9/4
5
= x
= 2
=
=
=
= x
=
4
4
4
4
4
9
8+1
8
8
4
4
4x 4 x
4 x
4 x
4 x x
4 x x
or
5
5
5
5
5
= 9 = 8+1 = 8 + 1 = 8 1 = 2
4x 4 x
4x 4
4x 4 4
4x 4 x 4
4x 4
THE CONSTANT MULTIPLE RULE: If c is a constant and f is a differentiable function, then
d
d
[cf (x)] = c f (x)
dx
dx
or
or
(cf ) = cf
Proof: We have
c[f (x + h) f (x)]
f (x + h) f (x)
cf (x + h) cf (x)
= lim
= c lim
= cf (x)
h0
h0
h0
h
h
h
2
, then
EXAMPLE: If f (x) =
35x
2 1/5 2
1
2
2 1/5
x
=
x
=
x1/51 = x6/5
f (x) =
3
3
3
5
15
EXAMPLE: Find equations of the tangent line and normal line to the curve y = 2x3
the point (1, 2).
x at
The normal line is perpendicular to the tangent line, so its slope is the negative reciprocal
1
of 7, that is, . From this it follows that an equation of the normal line is
7
1
y 2 = (x 1)
7
3
or
(f g) = f g
Proof: We have
(f (x + h) g(x + h)) (f (x) g(x))
h0
h
= lim
g(x + h) g(x)
f (x + h) f (x)
lim
h0
h0
h
h
= lim
= f (x) g (x)
3x2 5 x
EXAMPLE: If f (x) =
, then
6x4
2
2
5x1/2
3x
3 24 5 1/24
1 2 5 7/2
3x 5x1/2
=
=
x
x
=
x x
f (x) =
6x4
6x4
6x4
6
6
2
6
1 2 5 7/2
5 7/2
1 2
x
x
x
=
=
2
6
2
6
1
5
7
35
21
= (2)x
x7/21 = x3 + x9/2
2
6
2
12
REMARK: We can combine two previous rules in one. If c1 , c2 are constants and f, g are both
differentiable functions, then
d
d
d
[c1 f (x) c2 g(x)] = c1 f (x) c2 g(x)
dx
dx
dx
or
(c1 f (x) c2 g(x)) = c1 f (x) c2 g (x)
or
(c1 f c2 g) = c1 f c2 g
3x2 5 x
, then
EXAMPLE: If f (x) =
6x4
2
2
3x 5x1/2
5x1/2
3x
3 24 5 1/24
1 2 5 7/2
f (x) =
=
=
x
x
=
x x
6x4
6x4
6x4
6
6
2
6
1 2 5 7/2
x
x
2
6
5
7
35
1
21
x7/21 = x3 + x9/2
= (2)x
2
6
2
12
or
(sin x) = cos x
d
(cos x) = sin x
dx
or
(cos x) = sin x
and
Proof: We have
sin(x + h) sin x
h0
h
(sin x) = lim
f (x) = f (4) (x) = f (8) (x) = f (12) (x) = f (16) (x) = . . . = sin x
f (x) = f (5) (x) = f (9) (x) = f (13) (x) = f (17) (x) = . . . = cos x
f (x) = f (6) (x) = f (10) (x) = f (14) (x) = f (18) (x) = . . . = sin x
f (x) = f (7) (x) = f (11) (x) = f (15) (x) = f (19) (x) = . . . = cos x
Appendix
cos h 1
0 A
(cos h 1)(cos h + 1) A
cos2 h 1
lim
=
= lim
= lim
h0
h0
h0 h(cos h + 1)
h
0
h(cos h + 1)
A
(1 cos2 h)
h0 h(cos h + 1)
= lim
sin2 h
h0 h(cos h + 1)
= lim
= lim
h0
sin h sin h
h
cos h + 1
sin h
sin h
lim
h0 h
h0 cos h + 1
= lim
sin h
h0 cos h + 1
= 1 lim
DSP
sin 0
1 + cos 0
0
1+1
=0