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GENERAL OBJECTIVES:
COURSE OUTLINE:
1. To state the evolution of steel as a
1. Introduction to Structural Steel Design
structural material in order to gain interest
2. Specifications, Loads, and Methods of Design
in the design of steel.
3. Analysis of Tension Members
2. To discuss the many advantages of steel as
4. Design of Tension Members
a structural material in order to use steel in
5. Introduction to Axially Loaded Compression
future buildings especially in Davao City
Members
where soil foundation is weak.
6. Design of Axially Loaded Compression
3. To update students with the 2010 AISC
Members
(American Institute of Steel Construction)
7. Design of Axially Loaded Compression
specifications for structural steel buildings
Members (Continued) and Column Base
and the 14th edition of the AISC steel
Plates
construction manual (published in 2011) in
8. Introduction to Beams
order to conform with these specifications
9. Design of Beams for Moments
for future design activities involving steel
10. Design of Beams-Miscellaneous Topics
materials.
The molten steel is poured into molds, and After 1840, more bridges were constructed
the resulting sections are run into rollers to
replacing cast iron by more malleable
squeezed them into their finals shapes ;
wrought iron.
have better surfaces and fewer residual
1.4 Steel Sections
stresses than newly made steel.
Shapes produced may further processed by The first structural shapes made in the US
were angle irons in 1819.
cold rolling, by applying various coatings,
I- shaped steel sections were first rolled in
and by process called annealing.
the US in 1884.
Annealing is a process of heating steel to
intermediate temperature range (1300 The famous 985-ft tall wrought-iron Eiffel
o
1440 F) for hours and then allowed to
tower constructed in 1889 was the use of
slowly cool down, resulting to steel with
mechanically operated passenger elevators.
less hardness and brittleness, but greater
The famous 985-ft tall wrought-iron Eiffel
ductility.
tower constructed in 1889 was the use of
Wrought-iron has a very low carbon content
mechanically operated passenger elevators.
(0.15%) while cast iron has high carbon
Steel sections are standardized though
content (2%).
there is little differences in geometric
Steel falls in between cast iron and wrought
properties from mill to mill.
iron with carbon content between 0.15% to
Structural steel can be economically rolled
1.7%.
into a wide variety of shapes and sizes
The turning point in engineering history was
without appreciably changing its physical
the construction of the 100-ft (in 1779)
properties; most desirable shapes are I, T,
Coalbrookdale Arch Bridge in England which
and C shapes.
still stands today.
Identification System:
A W 18 x 50 is a W section
approximately 18 in. deep,
weighing 50 lb/ft. This is
designated as W450 x 222 in
Metric system.
An S18 x 70 is an S section
approximately 18 in. deep,
weighing 70 lb/ft. This is
designated as S450 x 311 in
MKS.
A C9 x 20 is a channel section
9 in. deep, weighing 30 lb/ft =
C225 x 133 in MKS.
bf
tf
k1
T
k1
d
tw
k
tf
W: d x kg/m or lb/ft
W 8 x 25 ( English)
W 200 x 98 (Metric)
Necking
P
The stress-strain curved is assumed to be
the same for members in tension or
compression.
The shape of the diagram varies with the
speed of loading, the type of steel, and the
temperature. The upper yield point is for
load applied rapidly while the lower yield
point is for the case of slow loading.
The yield strength of steel is greatly affected
by temperature.
The structure is said to be stressed below
its yield point when its dimensions are
unchanged when the loads are removed.
A typical stress-strain diagram for a brittle Structural steels are generally grouped into
steel is shown below.
several major ASTM classifications:
Increasing the carbon content increases
1. The carbons steels A36, A53, A500, A501,
strength (brittle steel) but reduces ductility
and A529.
and affects weldability.
2. The high strength low-alloy steels A572,
A618, A913, and A992.
3. The corrosion-resistant high-strength lowalloy steels A242, A588, and A847.
Carbon Steels
These steels have as their principal
strengthening agents carefully controlled
quantities of carbon and manganese.
1.8 Modern Structural Steels
The properties of steel can be greatly
changed by varying the quantities of carbon
present and by adding other elements such
as silicon, nickel, manganese, and copper
alloy steel.
The chemistry of steel is extremely
important in its effect on such properties of
the steel as weldability, corrosion
resistance, resistance to brittle failure and
so on.
Bolts to be
installed in the
Bolts installed in the shop field
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES :
1. To be familiar with the codes and
specifications found in the NSCP 2001/2010
and with the AISC and AASHTO in order to
serve as guides and controlling factors for the
design practices in the future.
2. To discuss the different types of loads that a
structure may carry in order to determine the
design loads computed from load
combinations.
3. To distinguish between the Load and
Resistance Factor Design(LRFD) and the
Allowable Strength Design(ASD) in order to
apply the appropriate design method in
analyzing a particular problem.
4. To define the term nominal strength in order
to compute the design strength.
5. To calculate loads using the LRFD and ASD
expressions in order to find differences.
6. To discuss load factors and safety factors
from the two approaches of design in order to
determine which one has better economy in
terms of results.
2.2 Loads
The most difficult task faced by the structural
engineer is the accurate estimation of the
loads that may be applied to a structure
during its life.
The next problem is the determination of the
worst possible combinations of the loads.
2.3 Dead Loads
Dead Loads are those permanently attached
to the structure and therefore of constant
magnitude.
Specific weights of common building
materials are given on the next slide.
2.4 Live Loads
Loads that change both in position and
magnitude.
These are: 1. floor loads ; 2. traffic loads for
bridges; 3. Impact loads; 4. Longitudinal
Loads; 5. Other live loads caused by soil
and water pressure; centrifugal forces;
thermal; blast loads.
23.60 kN/m3
77.00 kN/m3
22.80 kN/m3
0.2 kPa
0.24 kPa
0.10 kPa
0.30 kPa
0.20 kPa
0.34 kPa
0.39 kPa
1.9 kPa
1.92 kPa
4.79 kPa
4.79 kPa
1.92 kPa
4.79 kPa
4.79 kPa
2.4 kPa
1.92 kPa
4.79 kPa
3.83 kPa
6 kPa
12 kPa
4.79 kPa
3.6 kPa
4.45 kN
8.90 kN
13.35 kN
8.90 kN
4.45 kN
4.45 kN
4.45 kN
4.45 kN
The impact factor specified by the
AASHTO specification is:
15
=
0.30 (. . )
+ 38.1
L is the length in meters of the
portion of the span loaded to cause
the maximum stress in the member
under consideration.
(Rn) Ru
Rn = nominal strength of a member
,
2.10 Computing Combined Loads with LRFD
Expressions
1. U = 1.4D
2. U = 1.2D + 1.6L +0.5(Lr or S or R)
3. U = 1.2D + 1.6(Lr or S or R) + (L* or 0.5W)
4. U = 1.2D + 1.0W + L* + 0.5(Lr, or S, or R)
5. U = 1.2D + 1.0E + L* + 0.2S
6. U = 0.90D + 1.0W
7. U = 0.90D + 1.0E
*
Problem EXAMPLE 3:
Structural steel beams are to be placed at
2.40 m on center under a reinforced concrete
floor slab. If they are to support a service
dead load D=3kPa of floor area and a service
live load of 4.79 kPa of floor area, determine
the factored uniform load per meter which
each beam must support.
Problem EXAMPLE 4:
Determine the maximum combined loads
using the recommended AISC expressions for
LRFD. Express answers in KPa.
D= 1.2 kPa, Lr= 760 Pa and W = 2 kPa.
1. D
2. D+L
3. D+(Lr or S or R)
4. D+0.75L+0.75(Lr or S or R)
5. D + (0.6W or 0.7E)
6. (a) D + 0.75L+ 0.75(0.6W) +0.75(Lr or S or R)
(b) D + 0.75L+ 0.75(0.7E) +0.75S
7. 0.6D + 0.6W
8. 0.6D + 0.7E
Load combinations 7 and 8 do not consider
full dead load because W and E are lateral
components which can cause overturning
and prevented only by gravity load which is
the D.
Problem EXAMPLE 5:
Determine the maximum combined loads
using the recommended AISC expressions for
ASD.
D=5 kPa, L = 4 kPa, R=0.6 kPa, Lr=1.0 kPa and
S=1.5 kPa.
Problem EXAMPLE 6:
Determine the maximum combined loads
using the recommended AISC expressions for
ASD.
D=40 kN, L=22 kN, Lr= 11 kN, E=29 kN.
Problem EXAMPLE 7:
Structural steel beams are to be placed at
2.40 m on center under a reinforced concrete
floor slab. If they are to support a service
dead load D=3kPa of floor area and a service
live load of 4.79 kPa of floor area, determine
the factored uniform load per meter which
each beam must support.
Problem EXAMPLE 8:
Determine the maximum combined loads
using the recommended AISC expressions for
LRFD. Express answers in KPa.
D= 1.2 kPa, Lr= 760 Pa and W = 2 kPa.
.
=
LRFD:
and erection are often severe.
5. There are technological changes that affect
=
the magnitude of live loads.
3.1. Introduction
The simplest starting point to design is the
design of tension members because buckling is
not a problem.
The popular tension member used before was
round bars aside from being used as a cable for
suspending roofs and/or bridges.
The connection handling problems made
round bars not popular as a tension member
nowadays.
(AISC Eqn D2 2)
where t = 0.75
(AISC Eqn D2 1)
where t = 0.9
Allowable tensile
strength for ASD
with = 2.00
Allowable tensile
strength for ASD
5
with = 3=1.667
= .
Where:
Fy and Fu are the specified minimum yield and
tensile stresses, respectively, provided in
Table 1.1 and in Table 2-4 of the AISC manual.
The above expression for ASD is modified as: Ag is the gross area of the member
Where Ft =0.60Fy, the Ae is the effective net area that can be
= . allowable tensile
assumed to resist tension at the section
strength.
through the holes.
W 290 x 51
16
mm
bolts
2
4
Where:
s = is called the pitch, the longitudinal
spacing between adjacent holes.
g = is called the gage, the transverse spacing
between the same mentioned holes
Therefore, the net area involving zigzag or
staggered holes is given by:
= +
Shear lag
100
180
100
All 50 mm
3.5. Effective Net Areas
When a member other than a flat plate or bar
is loaded in axial tension until failure occurs
across its net section, its actual tensile failure
stress will probably be less than the coupon
tensile strength of the steel, unless all of the
various elements which make up the section
are connected so that stress is transferred
uniformly across the section.
AISC Eqn D3 1
C300x37
PL 16x300
Problem EXAMPLE 17: Ans. 4372 mm2
Determine the effective net area of the
L200x100x19. Assume the holes are for 22mm bolts. The relevant properties of angles
are: A=5445 mm2; = 24.1 .
70 mm
90 mm
All 60 mm
Problem EXAMPLE 18: Ans. 18.52 in2
Determine the effective net area of the
W14x82 (W360x122) shown. Assume the
holes are for 7/8 in.-(22 mm) bolts. Express
answers in both sq.in. and sq.mm. Ans. 11983
mm2
W 14x82
All 3 in.
60
70 mm
75 mm
89 mm
50 mm
70 mm
C230x30
75 mm 75 mm
When Lw 2B
When 2B>Lw 1.5B
When 1.5B>Lw B
U=1.0
U=0.87
U=0.75
= . (LRFD)
= . (ASD)
(b) For tensile rupture of connected elements,
= . (LRFD)
= . (ASD)
In part (b), A=An, to be used (may not exceed
0.85Ag).
C150x16
125 mm
PL 9.5x300
W250x67
PL 9.5x300
= . +
. +
= . ; = . ()
Equation J4-5 ;
Or:
Should the
= . + . block shear
strength of a
connection
. + .
be
insufficient,
= . + .
it may be
increased by
. + .
increasing
Agv = gross area subjected to shear, in2 (mm2) the edge
distance
2
2
Anv = net area subjected to shear, in (mm )
and/or bolt
2
2
Ant = net area subjected to tension, in (mm ) spacing.
Ubs = 1
WT150x39
64.3 mm
100 mm
140 mm
25 mm bolts
64.3 mm
50 75
50 mm 75
75 mm
75 mm
20 mm bolts
L 150x150x9.5
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES :
1. To determine the required cross-sectional
area of a tension member in order to select
9.5 mm-PL the lightest section from the AISC manual.
2. To compute for the effective area of a builtup section in order to evaluate its tensile
capacity.
150 mm
C250
C250
275 mm
.
Gross area of rod, AD with =0.75 (LRFD)
275 mm
PL12.7x275
.
Gross area of rod, AD with =2 (ASD)
column.
Other compression members include the top
chords of trusses, bracing elements, and many
others members as long as they are subjected
to compression.
A column may be thought of a straight member
whose length is considerably greater than its
thicknesses. Columns and compression
members are used interchangeably.
The three general modes by which axially
loaded columns can fail:
1. Flexural buckling (also called Euler buckling)
The primary type of buckling considered in the
course after members become unstable
because of flexure or bending.
=
=
The K values provided in the table are probably When one of these elements is folded or
very satisfactory to use for designing isolated
restrained as in the flanges of W shapes that
columns and for preliminary design.
are connected to the webs, its stiffness is
appreciably increased.
For columns in a continuous frames, the more
An unstiffened element is a projecting piece
accurate methods of determining K values are
with one free edge parallel to the direction of
obtained by using alignment charts discussed
the compression force, while a stiffened
in Chapter 7.
element is supported along the two edges in
that direction.
5.7 STIFFENED AND UNSTIFFENED
These two types of elements are shown on the
ELEMENTS
next slide where the width, b, and the
thickness t, of the elements in question are
It is possible that the actual member fails by
shown.
local buckling in compression before the
Depending on the ranges of different widthcalculated buckling strength of the whole
thickness ratios for compression elements, and
member is reached.
depending on whether the elements are
The AISC Specification (Section B4) provides
limiting values for the width-thickness ratios of stiffened or unstiffened, the elements will
the individual parts of compression members buckle at different stress situations.
The AISC Specification divides members into
and for the parts of beams in their
three classifications for establishing widthcompression regions.
One should be aware of the lack of stiffness of thickness ratio limits for elements of
compression members: 1. compact sections,
thin elements because of their very low
2. non-compact sections, and 3. slender
moment of inertia.
compression elements.
Almost all of the W and HP shapes listed in the 5.8 LONG, SHORT, AND INTERMEDIATE
Compression Member Section of the AISC
COLUMNS
Manual are nonslender for 50 ksi (345 MPa)
A column subject to an axial compression load
yield stress.
will shorten in the direction of the load. If the
A few of them are slender (and are so indicated load is increased until the column buckles, the
in the column tables of the Manual).
shortening will stop and the column will
suddenly bend or deform laterally and may at
the same time twist in the direction
perpendicular to its longitudinal axis.
E
4.71
Fy
=
LRFD compression
strength(c=0.9)
E
> 4.71
Fy
ASD allowable
compression
strength(c=1.67)
= .
= .
= .
The following expressions show how Fcr, the
flexural buckling stress of a column, may be
determined for members without slender
elements.
Fy
or 2.25
Fe
(AISC Equation E3-2)
Fy
or > 2.25
Fe
E
4.71
Fy
L75x75x6.35
200 mm
C 225 x 30
PL 9.5 x 200
W 200 x 31
Fy = 345 MPa
kL=2.4 m
L75x75x6.35
KL = 4.85 m
3.05 m
2L 100x75x 9.5
100 mm
7.30 m
4.25 m
75 mm
75 mm
For cases where sections are weaker about the (b) W360x110; cPn=2198 kN > Pu=2108 kN;
x-axis, they are addressed in subsequent
W360x110: Pn/c = 1464 kN > Pa= 1430 kN.
sections.
(c) W310x74; cPn=1418 kN > Pu=1361kN;
W310x79: Pn/c = 1320 kN > Pa= 984 kN.
Problem EXAMPLE 53: Ans. W250x73 for
(d) W360x110; cPn=2427 kN > Pu=2220 kN;
LRFD and ASD; 2002 kN >1670 kN ; 1330
W360x122: Pn/c = 1782 kN > Pa= 1665 kN.
kN>1155 kN.
Repeat Problem 51 using Table 4-1.
(b) PD=450 kN, PL=980 kN, L=7.62 m, fixed at
Select the lightest available W250 section to
bottom, pinned at top, W360.
support the axial compression loads PD=445
(c) PD=534 kN, PL=450 kN, L=7.62m, fixed end
kN and PL=710 kN if KL=4.57 m and A992,
supports, W310.
Grade 50 steel is used.
(d) PD=1110 kN, PL=555 kN, L=5.64 m, pinned
end supports, W360.
Problem EXAMPLE 54: Ans. (a) W200x71;
Problem EXAMPLE 55: Ans. (a) W250x101;
cPn=1513 kN > Pu=1476 kN; W200x86: Pn/c
cPn=1619 kN > Pu=1450 kN; W250x101: Pn/c
= 1237 kN > Pa= 1111 kN.
= 1077 kN > Pa= 1001 kN.
Several building columns are to be designed,
A W250 section is to be selected to support the
using A992 steel and the AISC specification.
loads PD=378 kN and PL=623 kN. The member,
Select the lightest W sections and state the
which is to be 6.10 m, is fixed at the bottom
LRFD design strength cPn, and the ASD
and fixed against rotation but free to translate
allowable strength, Pn/c, for these columns
at the top. Use A992 steel.
that are described as follows:
(a) PD = 755 kN, PL=356 kN, L=4.88 m, pinned
end supports, W200.
There is a big difference between splices of tension members and splices of compression
members. In tension members, the forces are fully transferred to the splices while for
compression members, only the remaining loads are to be carried by the splices.
Problem EXAMPLE 59: Ans. W250x58 for columns BC and CD; W250x101 for column AB.
Assuming axial loads only, select W250 sections for the interior column of the laterally braced
frame shown in the accompanying illustration. Use Fy=345 MPa and the LRFD method only. A
column splice will be provided just above point B; therefore, select a column section for
column AB and a second different column section for column BC and CD. Miscellaneous data:
Concrete weighs 23.56 kN/m3. LL on roof=1.44 kPa. Roofing DL= 0.48 kPa. LL on floors= 3.6
kPa. Superimposed DL on floors= 0.576 kPa. Partition load on floors=0.72 kPa. All joints are
assumed to be pinned. Frames are 10.67 m on center.
7.620 m
4.270 m
4.270 m
5.490 m
7.620 m
Should the two plates be connected together Should the plates be connected in a few places,
sufficiently to prevent slippage on each other, it would appear that the strength of the
as shown below, they will act as a unit. The
resulting column would be somewhere
moment of inertia is the moment of inertia of between the two situations just described.
the entire section and will be four times the
The greatest displacement between the two
moment of inertia of the section in the
plates tend to occur at the ends and the least
preceding slide. The deformation is different as displacement tends to occur at the mid-depth.
the column bends laterally.
As a result, connections placed at column ends
1 3
3
4
spacing is(AISC Specification E6.2.):
6
6
2
2
1. smax0.75to
2. smax12 in.
6.6 CONNECTION REQUIREMENTS FOR
BUILT-UP COLUMNS WHOSE COMPONENTS to = the thinner outside plate thickness.
For staggered connections,
ARE IN CONTACT WITH EACH OTHER.
Slip-critical bolts are tightened much more firmly than are snug-tight bolts that the shanks of
bolts have very high tensile stresses approaching near the lower bound of their yield stress.
Therefore, slippage is prevented due to friction.
289.6 mm
W250x75 (A=21226
mm2, d=289.6 mm,
bf=264.2 mm, Ix=298x106
mm4, Iy=98.23x106 mm4)
15.70 mm
109.3 mm
7.315 m
250 mm
250 mm
There are four steps involved in solving capacities of tees and double angles:
300 mm
7.1. Introduction
In this chapter we confine our focus to the
available axial strength that columns in an
unbraced frame ( moment frame) are
considered.
There are two methods in the AISC manual
that are discussed:
1. DM the Direct Analysis Method in which
certain factors are used and eliminates the
requirement for calculating the effective length
factors, K.
2. ELM The Effective Length Factor which is
one method discussed in this chapter.
Both methods are discussed in more detail in
chapter 11.
Both methods are discussed in more detail in
chapter 11.
Our focus in this chapter is the determination
of the available strength of compression
member Pn using the ELM.
The charts were developed from slopedeflection analysis of the frames that included
the effect of column loads.
The only way these charts can be used is to
have preliminary design so that starting
sections can be used.
When we say sidesway is inhibited, we mean
there is something present other than just
columns and girders to prevent sidesway or
the horizontal translation of the joints. That
means, we have a definite system of lateral
bracing, or we have shear walls.
7.30 m
W610x92
W250x58
3.6 m
W610x92
W250x58
3.6 m
W250x73
W530x66
W530x74
W530x66
W250x67
W250x49.1 W250x49.1
W460x52
4.25 m
9.15 m
6.10 m
W200x35.9 W200x35.9
W200x46.1 W200x35.9
W460x52
W460x60
W530x66
W310x107
W610x82
4.572 m
4.572 m
7.315 m
8.535 m
W530x150
4.572 m
7.62 m
2225 kN
3560 kN
1110 kN
1780 kN
W690x170
8.535 m
W360x134
3.962 m
W460x74
5.486 m
8.535 m
W460x82
W360x162
7.620 m
4.572 m
P = 0.85fcA1
Where:
fc = is the 28-day compressive strength of the
concrete and A1 is the area of the base plate.
2
1
is limited to a maximum
value of 2.
A1min = bfd