Running Head : EVOLUTION OF BRAIN PATHWAYS

Evolution of the Brain Pathways for Vocalization

Benjamin A. Lerario

Temple University

Introduction
This review of research will briefly describe my view of the evolution of brain

structures involved with learning, memory & speech. The main arguement of this paper is
to hypothize possibilties of how humans became vocal or why vocalization makes us
different from other animals. This paper will also entail what has been researched by
scientists on genetic components along with complex behaviors of human & animals with
developed vocal learning . Research will be taken from journals and academic articles
that pertain to studies on brain evolution, animal behavior and new research on
behavioral genetics. Research suggests that understanding mechanisms of evolution of
the brain pathways for complex behaviors are still in developmental stages of research.
However, the main goal of this paper is trying to understand how adaptive genetic
modifications lead to reconstructing of the brain for vocal learning.
Mankind has always been apart of a struggle to communicate with his own world
whether it be tool making, hunting, and mating. Learning could be best described as early
man's behavior while he was evolving in a primitive enviroment. Learning behavior is
also apart of modern human development and a growth process throughout childhood and
into adult aging. This complex behavior has not only influenced outside of the human
body but also the structures within the human brain. Some leading researchers believe
most of our motor abilities and cortex parts have been descendant from apes, however,
primates cannot vocalize to the capacity of a human which leads scientists to unanswered
questions as to when humans arrived at vocalization. According to new research birds
may have a similar genetic key that explains origins of vocalization due to a gene,
ARGAP11, idenitfied in humans as the gene which produces motor ability for
vocalization. Research indicated that this gene also separates us from the
chimpanzee lineage. (Chacaborty & Jarvis 2016)
But according to American neuroscientist, Linden, there are three scoops of the
evolved brain sections. Two important "scoops" Linden says which involve language &
reasoning are the limbic system and the neocortex. Parts of the limbic system includes:
hippocampus & amygdala which specialize in coding affective qualities of stimuli and
particulars of learning. (Lindien 2016) Linden believes that language and social

reasoning as higher function genome and has been modified through natural selection.
Since newly formed information on neurons and genetics, I have to agree with Linden's
analogy: the brain does what the genome does for a species.
The scientists from Cornell University and Mcknight Brain Institute found that the
limbic system evolved primarily when early primates became visual and the use of
olofactory (or the sense of smell) diminished. ( Reep, Finlay, & Darlington, 2006)
Unfortunately, according to this research journal there is no proof yet that olofactory
system became a diminished structure in evolution of the modern human brain.
Conversely, scientists, Charaborty & Jarvis from Duke Medical Center, state that several
hypothesis have been proposed to explain the evolution of brain structures including
increases in brain region, size-to-relation to body-size, increases in total number of
neuron or neuron density, and presense versus neural network that control certain
behaviors. One hypothesis described, significant changes in the human brain can be
generated by novel gene functions owing to gene duplications or expansion of gene
regulatory networks. (Charaborty & Jarvis, 2016)
For instance, duplication genes may then aquire a mutation in coding or regulatory
sequences which enables it to aquire a new function that undergoes selection, a process
known as "neofunctualization". (Charaborty & Jarvis, 2016) It appears that in the action
of neofunctualization the genes themselves have an interactive role in human behavior
while we function in the present world! Charaborty & Jarvis continue to examine the
ancestral state of brain development via brain cells, regions and pathways which diverge
towards lineage or species-specific states. Well known is the three basic division of the
vertebrate brain: hindbrain, midbrain and thalamus, these sections have more conserved
organization and the telencephalon more divergent organization. Charaborty & Jarvis
tackle the subject matter of the telencephalon with major subdivisions: pallidium &
striatum.
The scientists, Charaborty & Jarvis, go on to explain that the pallidium is large
layered in mammals, nuclear in birds, reptiles and other vertebrates. The divergence

from the pallidium argue that divergence may occur in many forms which lead to more
behavioral complexities including large brain-to-body size ratios which can endowed
animals with more advanced abilities. In otherwords, brain circuitry enhances particulars
in the actual circuitry, hence more advanced vocal ability is possible. Charaborty &
Jarvis research go further on to explain that genetic mutations that migrated could have
caused cortical expansion or increase intelligence abilities in early humans. So there are
likely reasons for vocalization of song in bird brains and spoken language in human
brains and this is what the scientists say the result of ancestral motor pathways. These
neural pathways of spoken language in the human brain are specialized by direct
projection from forbrain to brain stem in vocal learners. (Charaborty & Jarvis, 2006)
And in birds musical vocal abilities take place as a result of tightly packed neuron
inside of their pallial telencephalons, a brain region in birds for higher learning. (Shastri
2016) Some researchers found that an ancient parrort species found in New Zealand the
shell is a unique structure for speech in parrots formed in their brain about 29 million
years ago. (Bates 2016) According to a study performed by National Academy of
Science, parrots and song birds have a large amount of neurons in a small sized brain

which range from 227 million to 3.14 billion neurons. This is twice as many neurons
when comparing brain size to neuron size in primates brains versus bird brain. (Shastri
2016) This large bundle of 3.14 billion neurons have given birds better vocal mimicry
over primates who seemed to have poor vocal mimicry with a mere 6.3 billion neurons.
In one research study from the United Kingdom, primate brains were being actived
by voice cells which are neurons located in the temporal lobe. Voice cells were activated
in monkeys temporal lobe as they associated faces with repetitive interaction. (Petkov ,
et. al. 2011) These voice cells found by scientists may be an analogous genetic
precursor for neurons linked to the human temporal lobes which entail early language
processing. But when comparing vocal abilities between birds, humans and primates
recent research says that humans have more genetic commonalities with birds than

primates and this is due to the similarities between neurons in the learning areas of the
bird brain and human brain. Conversely, behavioral genetics is a newer area of research
and has many complex hypothesis that could change they areas in neuroscience we
study .
For one thing, genes, are involved with cell morphology which is now
considered by some researchers a clue in the evolution of the brain. Modern
neuroscientists like Linden are still trying to figure out how the brain evolved by studying
humans and animal behaviors. Studying genes are one way to find out how humans
arrived at vocalization. I believe selective breeding is one way humans and some animals
arrived at vocalization. For example, most lower animals like amphibians or fish use
their vocal ability for mainly mating or pair bonding. An extrodinary lower vertebrate,
known as the midshipmen fish, carries a humming noise only during mating seasons.

By studying the process of vocalizing within the fish's hindbrain, scientist

discovered serrotonin was being created at intervals in the brain which plays a major role
in the mating behaviors. (Bass et.al 2011) The midshipmen fish may be immediate clue
in helping explain Linden's theory on evolution of the human brain structures and the
origins of vocal abilties in humans. However, the ability of this primitive fish's vocalizing
comes from the hindbrain auditory nuclei and not a evolved structure like human parietal
lobes. In the the auditory nuclei of the midshipmen, androgens are produced when
mating and these hormones trigger the muscles in the larynx to hum. This is primitive
mating call or ritual attracts a mate selection which continues a life cycle for the fish. In
comparision, human hindbrain is used for basic body functions like heart rate and is
considered a lower brain structure.
In conclusion, the example that Linden gives us on the three brain structures in
humans, temporal and parietal lobes, represent our higher functions in the form of
vocalization in the areas of the broca & wernicki's. One remaining possiblity on how
humans became vocal may have been what Linden proposed originally through selective

breeding behaviors, genetic heritbility and genetic mutation. And these examples can be
seen through differences between evolved states of vocalization in some of the lower
animals like the midshipmen fish, amphibians, birds and humans. Research shows that
the major differences in neural pathways for vocalization in human and fish vocalization
mainly keys on genetic ability, neuron capacity and brain structure. It appears that lower
animals like fish or amphibians who also have neural pathways for vocalizing rely more
on hormone functioning in the hindbrain and vocalizing only for mating.
Human's are known for their ability to vocally communicate with other
humans and the need for higher brain function relies heavily on the function of the
temporal and parital lobe. Several areas of the parietal lobe are important in language processing.
Mankinds developed vocalization pathways of the brain may have been
advanced genetically over generations by simply communicating his abilities through
learning, mating and commincating with other humans.
One thing well known between humans, primates, and birds is the need to
communicate through vocalization. The reasons for those genetically enhance
neuroanatomincal parts are working for survival. The arguement which linden
proposed makes sense in that the reason for the layer a parts of the brain from hindbrain
to cortex are engineered as a result of past & present sensory experiences. Newer brain
structures could readily be as result of past sensory experiences of primative man.
Certain questions of the future revelance comes to mind, like will human brains become
more evolved somewhat down the line? My answer, if the enviroment changes, genes
will have to change also. The new study in genetics seemed to reveal that genes are
everchanging and interactive with our current behaviors and enviroment. Coincidently, it
may take another million years of changes in our enviroment for humans to evolve again.
Linden's theories on early brain structures as scoops could be framed from the
example of the midshipmen fish. The fish example being a true picture of an old hindbrain structure still functioning that was once a primary function in early humans. In my
final argument, I believe early human vocalization could have relied heavily on androgen
or hormones used by the brain as basic functions of the larynx muscle like the

midshipmen fish but the need for communications increased with human populations
increasing hence the need for a higher functioning brain.

Bibliography
Bates, Kelly., Parrot Brain Structures Has Unique Structure for Speech.
extracted 7/17/2016 @ www.duke.edu/parrot-brain.
Chagnaud, B.P., Baker R., Bass A.H., (2011) Vocalization frequency and duration
are coded in separate hind brain nuclei. Nature Communications 2,
article: 346 6/14/2011
Chakraborty, M. & Jarvis, J., D. (2015) Brain Evolution by Brain Pathway
Duplication. Royal Society of Publishing 7/17/2016

Petkov C.I., logothetis N.K., Kayser C., Perrodin C. (2011) Voice Cells in the
Primate Temporal Lobe. Curr Biol 2011 Aug 23; Vol. 21 No. (16), 14081415.

Linden, D. J. (2007) The Accidental Mind. The First Harvard University Press.
Cambridge, MA.

R .L. Reep a

B.L. Finlay b

R.B. Darlington b, "The Limbic System in

Mammalian Brain Evolution".(2006) Department of Physiological Sciences and

McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, G ainesville, Fla., b
Department of Psychology, Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y., USA

Shastri Devi (2016) , Parrots, Songbirds pack more neurons into their fore brains

than most animals. www.sciencemag.org/news. 2016/06