1

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1

GENERAL
In recent years there has been a growing interest in moving away from

large centralized power generation toward distributed energy resources. Solar

energy generation presents several benefits for use as a distributed energy
resource, especially as a peaking power source.
Utilities are presently facing a major challenge of connecting
renewable energy based Distributed Generators (DGs) while ensuring
stability, voltage regulation and power quality. During the night time, feeder
loads are usually much lower compared to daytime, while the Wind Farms
(WFs) produce more power due to increased wind speeds. This potentially
causes reverse power to flow from the Point of Common Coupling (PCC)
toward the main grid resulting in feeder voltages to rise above allowable
limits, typically 5%. To allow further DG connections, utilities need to
install expensive voltage regulating devices (e.g., Static Var Compensator
(SVC), Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM), voltage regulators,
etc.). Voltage-source inverters are essential components of PV Solar Farms
(SFs), which provide solar power conversion during day time.
With the present growth rate of energy consumption the worlds
energy consumption is doubling every 10 years, which will lead to the
depletion of the fossil fuel supply in a few hundred years [31]. This will lead
to the necessity to begin relying on other forms of energy in the near future.
Recently there has been a growing interest in expanding electric generating
capacities through the use of Distributed Energy Generation (DEG). DEG
consists of placing small (up to tens of megawatts) generation assets around
communities and industrial facilities at the distribution level. These

generation assets include natural gas micro-turbines, fuel cells, wind and solar
energy sources. DEG offers many advantages to the generation companies
and customers alike. The generation company will benefit by not having to
sink large sums of capital into a generation facility that will not produce any
return on investment for several years. Another advantage to the utility
company is the reduced load on the Transmission & Distribution (T&D)
network. By moving the energy source closer to the end user, losses in T&D
lines are reduced. All of the benefits above can be passed on to the end user in
the form of lower utility costs. Another benefit to the user would be improved
power quality and reliability [41].
PV generation provides a good solution for DEG. PV systems provide
the highest power level in the middle of the day, which coincides with the
peak power requirements on the utility grid, especially during the summer
[38]. Even though PV systems are intermittent resources due to their reliance
on the sun shining, the times when the energy available from the sun is at its
highest corresponds to the highest demands on the utility grid. This
correlation makes PV generation highly suitable as a peaking source.
The motivation for the development of PV based STATCOM is to
enhance the stability of the system as well as to make maximal use of
available resources within power grids with increased renewable penetration.
For maximal use of available resources within the grid, the existing solar farm
in the grid is utilized as PV based STATCOM and it can be used for
enhancing the stability of the distributed generation system in which it is
connected.
The research work reported in this thesis is focused on the utilization of an
existing solar farm asset both during night and day time to improve voltage
stability, Fault tolerance and harmonic suppression, which would have

otherwise required expensive additional equipment such as, series/shunt

capacitors, or separate Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTS) devices.
1.2

VOLTAGE STABILITY
Voltage stability is the ability of the power systems to maintain steady

voltage within permissible ranges at all buses in normal conditions and after
having been subjected to a severe system perturbation. Voltage instability
may result in significant rise or fall of voltages on some buses. The key
contributing factor to voltage instability is voltage drop that occurs when
active and reactive power flows through inductive reactance in transmission
lines. Consequently, it limits the capability of the transmission system for
voltage support and power transfer. In addition, dynamic loads also contribute
to the voltage instability when disturbance occurs. The load tends to respond
by restoring the consumed power, which can increase reactive power
consumption and the stress of high voltage network causes more voltage
reduction.
Voltage stability can be classified into two distinct sub-system
categories based on its ability to maintain and control voltage after
perturbations as large disturbance or small disturbance voltage stability.
Meanwhile, the duration time for voltage stability problems may vary
from a few seconds to tens of minutes. Therefore, the extent of voltage
stability can be a short-term or long-term phenomenon.
Various FACTS devices are modeled for power flow study and tested
using a five bus system. A comparison study for voltage stability for different
FACTS devices is reported.
In this work, Voltage stability analysis is carried out by using modal
analysis technique to identify the weak bus. Further an additional load is

connected in the weak bus and the ability of PV based STATCOM in

improving the voltage stability of the system is reported here.
1.3

FAULT ANALYSIS
Electrical power systems have a dynamic and complex behaviour.

Different types of faults can interrupt the healthy operation of the power
system. Some of the major electrical faults are phase faults include phase to
phase faults, phase to ground faults and three phase faults. Open circuit faults
occurs due to the parting of the over head line or failure operation of the
circuit breaker. Inter turn fault occurs due to the over voltage or insulation
breakdown. Overload Electrical Faults are due to the passing of current
through the conductor which is above the permissible value.
A Distributed generation system is considered as a test system to
perform the fault analysis here. A DFIG based WECS and a solar farm is
connected to a grid. A fault is created at the Point of Common Coupling
(PCC) and the effectiveness of utilising the existing solar farm as a PV based
STATCOM in increasing the system stability is presented.
1.4

HARMONIC ANALYSIS
Within the last several decades, the vast improvements in

semiconductor based devices has led to a number of new power electronic

applications including high voltage DC systems, computer power supplies and
adjustable speed motor drives [87]. While these systems improved existing
applications and created new applications, their mode of operation also began
to create problems with the power distribution system as their use are
proliferated. These systems employ diode and thyristor rectifiers on the front
end, which draw non-linear currents from the sinusoidal distribution system.
The non-linear currents drawn by the rectifiers consist of harmonics of the

line frequency and reactive components that distort the line voltage of the
distribution system due to the impedance of the distribution lines.
The same test system explained in the previous section is utilized for
performing harmonic analysis also. A non linear load is connected to inject
harmonic currents. The existing solar farm acts as a PV based STATCOM to
reduce the harmonic content within the prescribed limits.
1.5

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

This section reviews the technical literature related to the topic

modelling of PV based STATCOM for distributed system studies are dealt in

this research work.
1.5.1 FACTS devices
Mehrdad Ahmadi Kamarposhti and Hamid Lesani, (2011) studied the
effects of four FACTS controllers: STATCOM, TCSC, SSSC and UPFC on
static voltage stability in power systems. Continuation power flow was used
to evaluate the effects of these devices on system loadability. Applying saddle
node bifurcation theory with the use of PSAT, effects of these devices
controllers on maximum loading point were determined. Static voltage
stability margin enhancement using STATCOM, TCSC, SSSC and UPFC was
compared in the modified IEEE 14-bus test system.
Wessels, et. al

(2012) investigated

a FSIG based wind farm in

combination with a STATCOM under unbalanced grid voltage fault , carried

out by means of theory, simulations and measurements. A STATCOM control
structure with the capability to coordinate the control between the positive
and the negative sequence of the grid voltage was proposed. The results
clarified the effect of positive and negative sequence voltage compensation by
a STATCOM on the operation of the FSIG based wind farm.

Nguyen and Lee, (2012) proposed a hybrid control scheme for

Energy Storage Systems (ESS) and Braking Choppers (BC) for Fault Ride
Through (FRT) capability and a suppression of the output power fluctuation is
proposed for Permanent-Magnet Synchronous Generator (PMSG) wind
turbine systems. During grid faults, the DC-link voltage is controlled by the
ESS instead of the Line-Side Converter (LSC), whereas the LSC is exploited
as a STATCOM to inject reactive current into the grid for assisting in the grid
voltage recovery. The validity of the proposed system is verified by
experimental results for a reduced-scale wind turbine simulator as well as
simulation results for a 2-MW PMSG wind turbine system.
1.5.2 PV Systems
C. Boonmee, et.al (2009) analysed the system performance of a PVgrid-connected system installed in Thailand with the help of a monitoring
system. The monitored data are installed by acquisition software into a
computer. This paper has given all details about system components,
monitoring system and monitored data.
Michael E. Ropp and Sigifredo Gonzalez (2009) developed and
experimentally tested a MATLAB/Simulink model of a single-phase gridconnected PV inverter. The development of the PV array model, the
integration of the MPPT with an averaged model of the power electronics and
the Simulink implementation were described. It was experimentally
demonstrated that the model works well in predicting the general behaviours
of single-phase grid-connected PV systems. This paper has concluded with a
discussion for a full gradient-based MPPT model, as opposed to a commonly
used simplified MPPT model.
Marcelo Gradella Villalva, et. al (2009) proposed a method of
modelling and simulation of photovoltaic arrays. The main objective was to

find the parameters of the nonlinear IV equation by adjusting the curve at

three points: open circuit, maximum power and short circuit. With the
parameters of the adjusted IV equation, one can build a PV circuit model
with any circuit simulator by using basic math blocks. In the first pages, the
reader will find a tutorial on PV devices and will understand the parameters
that compose the single-diode PV model. The modelling method was then
introduced and presented in details. The model is validated with experimental
data of commercial PV arrays.
Amirnaser Yazdani and Prajna Paramita Dash (2009) proposed a
control strategy for a single-stage, three-phase, PV system that was connected
to a distribution network. A modal/sensitivity analysis had been conducted on
a linearized model of the overall system, to characterize dynamic properties of
the system, to evaluate robustness of the controllers and to identify the nature
of interactions between the PV system and the network/loads. The results of
the modal analysis confirm that under the proposed control strategy, dynamics
of the PV system were decoupled from those of the distribution network and
therefore, the PV system did not destabilize the distribution network. It was
also shown that the PV system dynamics were not influenced by those of the
network.
H. Valizadeh Haghi, et. al (2010) described an integration study of
photovoltaics and wind turbines, distributed in a distribution network, based
on the stochastic modelling and Archimedean copulas as a new efficient tool.
A comprehensive case study for Davarzan area in Iran was presented after
reviewing Irans renewable energy status. This study has shown an
application of the presented technique when large datasets, assuming 10-min
interval between data points of PV, wind and load profiles, were involved
where a deterministic study is not trivial.

A. Coronado-Mendoza, et. al (2011) described the usage of the

dynamic phasors methodology to develop an extended model for the boost
converter as a device to be integrated with a PV array and transfer the energy
produced to the load. This method has needed less computational effort than
other methodologies.
R. Sharma (2012) investigated the performance assessment of a solar
photovoltaic (PV) array system based on electrical energy output and power
conversion efficiency. For more effective performance assessment of PV
array/sub arrays, on field experimental performance results have been
compared with the rated (max.) results estimated at Standard test conditions
and also with the maximum performance results estimated for actual climatic
conditions as obtained during experimentation.
Moacyr Aureliano Gomes de Brito, et.al (2012) presented evaluations
among the most usual MPPT techniques, doing meaningful comparisons with
respect to the amount of energy extracted from the PV panel in relation to the
available power, PV voltage ripple, dynamic response and use of sensors. The
main experimental results were presented for conventional MPPT algorithms
and improved MPPT algorithms named IC based on proportionalintegral
(PI) and perturb and observe based on PI. Finally, a typical daily insulation
was used in order to verify the experimental results for the main PV MPPT
methods.
Bidyadhar Subudhi and Raseswari Pradhan (2012) provided a
comprehensive review of the maximum power point tracking (MPPT)
techniques applied to photovoltaic (PV) power system available until January,
2012. A good number of publications report on different MPPT techniques for
a PV system together with implementation. In this paper, a detailed
description and then classification of the MPPT techniques have made based
on features, such as number of control variables involved, types of control

strategies employed, types of circuitry used suitably for PV system and

practical/ commercial applications.
Kun Ding, XinGao Bian, et. al (2012) developed

a MATLAB-

Simulink-based PV module model which included a controlled current source

and an S-Function builder. The modeling scheme in S-Function builder was
deduced by some pre-digested functions. Under the conditions of non uniform
irradiance, the model was practically validated by using different array
configurations in testing platform. The experiments show that the proposed
model had good predictability in the general behaviours of MPPT under the
conditions of both nonuniform and uniform irradiance.
Soren Baekhoj Kjaer, (2012) discussed the size of the perturbation of
the operating conditions for hill climbing and incremental conductance
algorithms, based on the single diode model. The result was used to select the
update frequency for the two algorithms, in order not to run away under
certain dynamic conditions. Both algorithms were implemented in an inverter
and tested over 16 days of simultaneous operation. Basic statistical
procedures, the paired t-test, had been applied to the data with the conclusion
that the two algorithms perform equally good.
Diego Issicaba, et. al (2012)

presented an adequacy and security

evaluation of electric power distribution systems with distributed generation.

For this accomplishment, bulk power system adequacy and security
evaluation concepts are adapted to distribution system applications. The
evaluation was supported by a combined discrete-continuous simulation
model which emulates the distribution system operation. Simulation results
are presented for the RBTS-BUS2-F1 as well as an actual feeder from the
South of Brazil. The results emphasize the need to consider adequacy and
security aspects in the distribution system assessments, mainly due to the
ongoing integration of distributed energy resources.

10

Chivite-Zabalza, et.al (2012) developed a novel technique to balance

the voltage of the two split dc capacitors of a 3-Level Neutral- Point-Clamped
inverter using triangular carrier PWM modulation. Subsequently, the paper
presents a comparison with two already known strategies in which a
sinusoidal waveform at two and six times the output frequency are injected.
The current contribution to the midpoint of the dc bus is then analysed for
different modulation indexes and operating conditions. Based on this analysis,
a small-signal averaged model, suitable for control design purposes is
presented. Finally, simulation and experimental results on a 690 V AC, 120
kVA test bench that validate the theory is shown.
1.5.3 Voltage Stability
Mohammad N. Marwali, et.al (2012) analyzed the robust stability of a
voltage and current control solution for a stand-alone distributed generation
(DG) unit using the structured singular value or -frame work based method.
The analysis results presented in this paper demonstrated that the controller
parameters could be tuned and verified to satisfy a certain transient
performance requirement and at the same time guaranteed robust stability
under system parameter uncertainties and load variations.
Aziz, et. al (2012) proposed a methodology of static and dynamic
reactive power compensation to avoid tripping of small DER units due to
slow voltage recovery. A new sensitivity index has been developed for the
placement of STATCOM to ensure fast voltage recovery at all the buses of
interest. The case studies involving two IEEE test systems with varying size
and load compositions validate the proposed methodology and index.
Keane, et. al (2012) focused on the numerous strategies and methods
that have been developed in recent years to address DG integration and
planning. This paper contains a critical review of the work in this field. The

11

barriers to implementation of the advanced techniques are outlined,

highlighting why network operators have been slow to pick up on the research
to date. Furthermore, key challenges ahead which remain to be tackled are
also described, many of which have come into clear focus with the current
drive towards smarter distribution networks.
1.5.4 Fault Analysis
Pedro Rodriguez, et. al (2007) proposed a flexible active power control
based on a fast current controller and a reconfigurable reference current
selector. Several strategies to select the current reference are studied and
compared using experimental results that are obtained during an
unsymmetrical voltage fault. The results of the analysis allow selection of the
best reference current in every condition. The proposed methods facilitate
multiple choices for fault ride through by simply changing the reference
selection criteria.
Sukumar M. Brahma, (2011) described a general method to locate
faults in a wind energy conversion system interfaced to the grid using a dual
inverter type of system. The method used synchronized voltage and current
measurements at the interconnection of DG units and was able to adapt to
changes in the topology of the system. The method had been extensively
tested on a 60-bus distribution system for all types of faults with various fault
resistances on all sections of the system, with very encouraging results.
Prajna Paramita Dash and Mehrdad Kazerani (2011) presented the
modeling, control, steady-state and transient performances of a PV system
based on CSI. The authors had also performed a comparative performance
evaluation of VSI-based and CSI-based PV systems under transient and fault
conditions. Analytical expectations were verified using simulations in the

12

Power System Computer Aided Design/Electromagnetic Transient Including

DC (PSCAD/EMTDC) environment, based on a detailed system model.
Hossain MJ, et. al (2012) designed a decentralized control strategy for
higher penetration of photovoltaic units without violating system operating
constraints. A systematic procedure was developed and a robust controller
was designed to ensure both dynamic voltage and transient stability for a
specific PV integration level. It was found that the designed control scheme
enhanced stability and increased the renewable integration levels.
1.5.5 Harmonic Analysis
Bo Yang, et al (2010) developed a grid-connected photovoltaic (PV)
power system with high voltage gain and the steady-state model analysis and
the control strategy of the system were presented in this paper. Two
compensation units were added to perform in the system control loops to
achieve the low total harmonic distortion and fast dynamic response of the
output current. Furthermore, a simple maximum-power-point-tracking method
based on power balance is applied in the PV system to reduce the system
complexity and cost with a high performance. At last, a 2-kW prototype has
been built and tested to verify the theoretical analysis of the paper.
V. Kamatchi Kannan (2012) discussed the model of photovoltaic
(PV) array or battery operated DC/DC boost converter fed three-leg VSC
(Voltage Source converter) with star delta transformer for power quality
improvement. The PV array or battery operated boost converter was used to
step up the voltage to match the DC link requirement of the three-leg VSC.
The main advantage of this proposed approach was that, it provided
continuous compensation for the whole day.
Tzung-Lin Lee , et. al (2012) presented a control method for
distributed static synchronous compensator (D-STATCOM) to alleviate

13

variation of both positive- and negative-sequence voltages. A proportionalresonant current regulator with selectively harmonic compensation is realized
to control the fundamental current of the D-STATCOM as well as reduce the
harmonic current, which could be an advantage in practical applications due
to high voltage distortion in low-voltage micro grids. Voltage-regulation
performances are discussed for different D-STATCOM locations as well as
different D-STATCOM currents. Computer simulations and laboratory tests
validate effectiveness.
Wang Bo amd Lan Ka (2012) discussed the operating principle of the
distributed generation system and the influence it introduced into the
distributed network. The location and penetration of the distributed generation
system would influence the power loss of the grid. Simulation and analysis
has been done to verify the results. The methods are proposed to properly
design the location and penetration of distributed generation system and
improve the power quality.
Ray, et. al (2012) presented the classification of PQ disturbances
caused not only by change in load but also by environmental characteristics
such as change in solar insolation and wind speed. Various forms of sag and
swell occurrences caused by change in load, variation in wind speed and solar
insolation are considered in the study. The classification study was further
supported by experimental signals obtained on a prototype setup of wind
energy system and PV system. The accuracy and reliability of classification
techniques was also assessed on signals corrupted with noise.
Chen, C. (2012) introduced a synchrophasor estimator based on
combination of harmonic components for the grid synchronization. With the
benchmark and compliance tests in IEEE Std. C37.118-2005, the performance
of proposed solution structure was verified.

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1.6

RESEARCH MOTIVATION
Photo voltaic (PV) solar energy is one of the green energy sources

which can play an important role in the program of reducing greenhouse gas
emissions. Although, the PV technology is expensive, it is receiving strong
encouragement through various incentive programs globally [55]. As a result,
large scale solar farms are being connected to the grid. Transmission grids
worldwide are presently facing challenges in integrating such large scale
renewable systems (wind farms and solar farms) due to their limited power
transmission capacity. To increase the available power transfer limits of
existing transmission line, series compensation and various FACTS devices
are being proposed [10]-[14]. In an extreme situation new lines may need to
be constructed at a very high expense. Cost effective techniques therefore
need to be explored to increase transmission capacity.
Hence a novel method of using a PV solar farm as a compensating
device is proposed. The performance of the proposed PV based STATCOM
in improving voltage stability, reducing the effect of different types of faults
and reducing the total harmonic distortion in a distributed generation system
is analysed.
1.7

OBJECTIVES OF THE THESIS

The need for integrating renewable energy sources to the grid is of

major concern. A novel method by which a renewable energy source itself

will perform both real power generation and reactive power compensation is
proposed. The main objectives of this research work are
(i)

To analyse load flow with various FACTS devices and compare

their performances in improving the voltage stability.

15

(ii)

To model a PV based STATCOM to act as a real power

generator and as a compensating device in the distributed
network.

(iii)

To investigate the performance of PV based STATCOM by

conducting voltage stability analysis on a weak bus system,
identified by modal analysis technique.

(iv)

To verify the operation of PV based STATCOM in reducing the

effect of various types of faults and Total Harmonic distortion
(THD) in a grid interconnected WECS distributed system.

The work reported in the thesis mainly concentrates on the MATLAB /

SIMULINK simulation on design of PV based STATCOM and the
performance has been analysed by conducting voltage stability analysis, fault
analysis and harmonic suppression studies.
1.8

OUTLINE OF THE THESIS

The thesis is organized into six chapters. Chapter-wise summaries of

the thesis stating the development reported therein and results obtained from
investigations are presented in the sections that follow.
Chapter one delibrates on the basic concept of voltage stability, the
overview of the problem, brief literature review, objectives of the work and
organization of the thesis.
Chapter two presents the modelling of various FACTS devices for
power flow studies. A comparison of voltage stability enhancement is
performed for various FACTS devices on a five bus system.

16

The modelling of PV module, PV array and PV based STATCOM is

presented in chapter three. The various MPPT techniques and the modelling
of a controller for STATCOM are also presented.
Chapter four discusses the voltage stability enhancement using PV
based STATCOM for different loading conditions in power systems. The
weakest bus is identified based on the modal analysis technique.
In chapter five the fault analysis and harmonic analysis are carried out
on a Distributed Generation system. Utilising the existing Solar farm as a PV
based STATCOM for both fault suppression and harmonic reduction have
been dealt and the enhancement is proved by simulations.
Finally, the outcome of the present research work has been
summarized in chapter six. It present the important conclusions of the
investigations reported in the previous chapters. Scope for future research is
also outlined.