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This article is about pressure in the physical sciences. For momentum, and on writing style.
other uses, see Pressure (disambiguation).
Pressure (symbol: p or P) is the force applied perpen-
1.1 Formula
p=
F
A
where:
p is the pressure,
F is the normal force,
A is the area of the surface on contact.
Pressure is a scalar quantity. It relates the vector surface element (a vector normal to the surface) with the
normal force acting on it. The pressure is the scalar
proportionality constant that relates the two normal vectors:
Denition
dFn = p dA = p n dA
The minus sign comes from the fact that the force is considered towards the surface element, while the normal
vector points outward. The equation has meaning in that,
for any surface S in contact with the uid, the total force
1
DEFINITION
exerted by the uid on that surface is the surface integral gram-force (or their symbols) as units of force is expressly
over S of the right-hand side of the above equation.
forbidden in SI. The technical atmosphere (symbol: at) is
2
It is incorrect (although rather usual) to say the pressure 1 kgf/cm (98.0665 kPa or 14.223 psi).
is directed in such or such direction. The pressure, as a
scalar, has no direction. The force given by the previous
relationship to the quantity has a direction, but the pressure does not. If we change the orientation of the surface
element, the direction of the normal force changes accordingly, but the pressure remains the same.
Pressure is transmitted to solid boundaries or across arbitrary sections of uid normal to these boundaries or
sections at every point. It is a fundamental parameter in
thermodynamics, and it is conjugate to volume.
1.2
Units
Mercury column
1.3
Examples
1.3 Examples
4
solute pressure, but relative to atmospheric pressure; such
measurements are called gauge pressure. An example of
this is the air pressure in an automobile tire, which might
be said to be 220 kPa (32 psi)", but is actually 220 kPa
(32 psi) above atmospheric pressure. Since atmospheric
pressure at sea level is about 100 kPa (14.7 psi), the absolute pressure in the tire is therefore about 320 kPa (46.7
psi). In technical work, this is written a gauge pressure
of 220 kPa (32 psi)". Where space is limited, such as
on pressure gauges, name plates, graph labels, and table
headings, the use of a modier in parentheses, such as
kPa (gauge)" or kPa (absolute)", is permitted. In nonSI technical work, a gauge pressure of 32 psi is sometimes
written as 32 psig and an absolute pressure as 32 psia,
though the other methods explained above that avoid attaching characters to the unit of pressure are preferred.[6]
Gauge pressure is the relevant measure of pressure wherever one is interested in the stress on storage vessels and
the plumbing components of uidics systems. However,
whenever equation-of-state properties, such as densities
or changes in densities, must be calculated, pressures
must be expressed in terms of their absolute values. For
instance, if the atmospheric pressure is 100 kPa, a gas
(such as helium) at 200 kPa (gauge) (300 kPa [absolute])
is 50% denser than the same gas at 100 kPa (gauge) (200
kPa [absolute]). Focusing on gauge values, one might erroneously conclude the rst sample had twice the density
of the second one.
TYPES
stress tensor minus the hydrostatic pressure. The negative of the stress tensor is sometimes called the pressure
tensor, but in the following, the term pressure will refer
only to the scalar pressure.
According to the theory of general relativity, pressure increases the strength of a gravitational eld (see stress
energy tensor) and so adds to the mass-energy cause of
gravity. This eect is unnoticeable at everyday pressures
but is signicant in neutron stars, although it has not been
experimentally tested.[7]
2 Types
2.1 Fluid pressure
Fluid pressure is the pressure at some point within a
uid, such as water or air (for more information specically about liquid pressure, see section below).
Fluid pressure occurs in one of two situations:
1. an open condition, called open channel ow, e.g.
the ocean, a swimming pool, or the atmosphere.
2. a closed condition, called closed conduit, e.g. a
water line or gas line.
F = A
This tensor may be expressed as the sum of the viscous
2.4
Stagnation pressure
v = velocity of the uid
g = acceleration of gravity
z = elevation
p
= pressure head
v
2g
2.1.1
= velocity head
Applications
Hydraulic brakes
Artesian well
Blood pressure
Hydraulic head
Plant cell turgidity
Pythagorean cup
2.2
2.3
Negative pressures
p0 =
1 2
v + p
2
where
low pressure chamber in Bundesleistungszentrum Kienbaum,
Germany
Surface pressure is denoted by and shares many similar properties with three-dimensional pressure. Properties of surface chemicals can be investigated by measuring pressure/area isotherms, as the two-dimensional analog of Boyles law, A = k, at constant temperature.
F
l
TYPES
p=
nRT
V
where:
p = gh
p is the absolute pressure of the gas
n is the amount of substance
where:
p is liquid pressure
V is the volume
is density of liquid
2.7
Vapor pressure
2.9
3 See also
Atmospheric pressure
Blood pressure
Boyles Law
Combined gas law
6
Conversion of units
Critical point (thermodynamics)
Dynamic pressure
Hydraulics
Internal pressure
Kinetic theory
Microphone
Orders of magnitude (pressure)
Partial pressure
Pressure measurement
Pressure sensor
Sound pressure
Spouting can
EXTERNAL LINKS
Notes
[1] The preferred spelling varies by country and even by industry. Further, both spellings are often used within a particular industry or country. Industries in British Englishspeaking countries typically use the gauge spelling.
References
[1] Giancoli, Douglas G. (2004). Physics: principles with applications. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson Education.
ISBN 0-13-060620-0.
[2] McNaught, A. D.; Wilkinson, A.; Nic, M.; Jirat,
J.; Kosata, B.; Jenkins, A. (2014). IUPAC. Compendium of Chemical Terminology, 2nd ed. (the Gold
Book). 2.3.3. Oxford: Blackwell Scientic Publications.
doi:10.1351/goldbook.P04819. ISBN 0-9678550-9-8.
[3] 14th Conference of the International Bureau of Weights
and Measures. Bipm.fr. Retrieved 2012-03-27.
[4] US Navy (2006). US Navy Diving Manual, 6th revision.
United States: US Naval Sea Systems Command. pp. 2
32. Retrieved 2008-06-15.
[5] Rules and Style Conventions for Expressing Values of
Quantities. NIST. Retrieved 2009-07-07.
6 External links
Introduction to Fluid Statics and Dynamics on
Project PHYSNET
Pressure being a scalar quantity
7.1
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