Volcano

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Avolcanoisaruptureinthecrustofaplanetarymassobject,suchas
Earth,thatallowshotlava,volcanicash,andgasestoescapefroma
magmachamberbelowthesurface.
Earth'svolcanoesoccurbecauseitscrustisbrokeninto17major,rigid
tectonicplatesthatfloatonahotter,softerlayerinitsmantle.[1]
Therefore,onEarth,volcanoesaregenerallyfoundwheretectonic
platesaredivergingorconverging.Forexample,amidoceanicridge,
suchastheMidAtlanticRidge,hasvolcanoescausedbydivergent
tectonicplatespullingapartthePacificRingofFirehasvolcanoes
causedbyconvergenttectonicplatescomingtogether.Volcanoescan
alsoformwherethereisstretchingandthinningofthecrust's interior
plates ,e.g.,intheEastAfricanRiftandtheWellsGrayClearwater
volcanicfieldandRioGrandeRiftinNorthAmerica.Thistypeof
volcanismfallsundertheumbrellaof"platehypothesis"volcanism.[2]
Volcanismawayfromplateboundarieshasalsobeenexplainedas
mantleplumes.Thesesocalled"hotspots",forexampleHawaii,are
postulatedtoarisefromupwellingdiapirswithmagmafromthecore
mantleboundary,3,000kmdeepintheEarth.Volcanoesareusuallynot
createdwheretwotectonicplatesslidepastoneanother.
Eruptingvolcanoescanposemanyhazards,notonlyintheimmediate
vicinityoftheeruption.Onesuchhazardisthatvolcanicashcanbea
threattoaircraft,inparticularthosewithjetengineswhereashparticles
canbemeltedbythehighoperatingtemperaturethemeltedparticles
thenadheretotheturbinebladesandaltertheirshape,disruptingthe
operationoftheturbine.Largeeruptionscanaffecttemperatureasash
anddropletsofsulfuricacidobscurethesunandcooltheEarth'slower
atmosphere(ortroposphere)however,theyalsoabsorbheatradiatedup
fromtheEarth,therebywarmingtheupperatmosphere(or
stratosphere).Historically,socalledvolcanicwintershavecaused
catastrophicfamines.

ClevelandVolcanointheAleutian
IslandsofAlaskaphotographedfrom
theInternationalSpaceStation,May
2006

Ashplumesreachedaheightof19
kilometres(12mi)duringthe
climacticexplosiveeruptionatMount
Pinatubo,Philippinesin1991.

Contents
1 Etymology
2 Platetectonics
2.1 Divergentplateboundaries
2.2 Convergentplateboundaries
2.3 "Hotspots"
3 Volcanicfeatures
3.1 Fissurevents
3.2 Shieldvolcanoes
3.3 Lavadomes
3.4 Cryptodomes
3.5 Volcaniccones(cindercones)
3.6 Stratovolcanoes(compositevolcanoes)
3.7 Supervolcanoes
3.8 Submarinevolcanoes

A2007eruptivecolumnatMount
Etnaproducingvolcanicash,pumice
andlavabombs

3.8 Submarinevolcanoes
3.9 Subglacialvolcanoes
3.10 Mudvolcanoes
4 Eruptedmaterial
4.1 Lavacomposition
4.2 Lavatexture
5 Volcanicactivity
5.1 Popularclassificationofvolcanoes
5.1.1 Active
5.1.2 Extinct
5.1.3 Dormant
5.2 Technicalclassificationofvolcanoes
5.2.1 Volcanicalertlevel
5.2.2 VolcanowarningschemesoftheUnited
States
6 Decadevolcanoes
7 Effectsofvolcanoes
7.1 Volcanicgases
7.2 Significantconsequences
7.3 Acidrain
7.4 Hazards
8 Volcanoesonothercelestialbodies
9 Traditionalbeliefsaboutvolcanoes
10 Seealso
11 References
12 Furtherreading
13 Externallinks

UbinasVolcano

AerialviewoftheBarrenIsland,
AndamanIslands,India,duringan
eruptionin1995.Itistheonlyactive
volcanoinSouthAsia.

Etymology
ThewordvolcanoisderivedfromthenameofVulcano,avolcanic
islandintheAeolianIslandsofItalywhosenameinturncomesfrom
Vulcan,thegodoffireinRomanmythology.[3]Thestudyofvolcanoes
iscalledvolcanology,sometimesspelledvulcanology.

Platetectonics
Divergentplateboundaries
Atthemidoceanicridges,twotectonicplatesdivergefromoneanother
asnewoceaniccrustisformedbythecoolingandsolidifyingofhot
moltenrock.Becausethecrustisverythinattheseridgesduetothepull
ofthetectonicplates,thereleaseofpressureleadstoadiabatic
expansionandthepartialmeltingofthemantle,causingvolcanismand
creatingnewoceaniccrust.Mostdivergentplateboundariesareatthe
bottomoftheoceanstherefore,mostvolcanicactivityissubmarine,
formingnewseafloor.Blacksmokers(alsoknownasdeepseavents)
areevidenceofthiskindofvolcanicactivity.Wherethemidoceanic
ridgeisabovesealevel,volcanicislandsareformed,forexample,
Iceland.

Convergentplateboundaries

MountShasta

SantaAnaVolcano,ElSalvador.A
closeupaerialviewofthenested
summitcalderasandcraters,along
withthecraterlake.

Subductionzonesareplaceswheretwoplates,usuallyan
oceanicplateandacontinentalplate,collide.Inthiscase,
theoceanicplatesubducts,orsubmergesunderthe
continentalplateformingadeepoceantrenchjust
offshore.Inaprocesscalledfluxmelting,waterreleased
fromthesubductingplatelowersthemeltingtemperature
oftheoverlyingmantlewedge,creatingmagma.This
magmatendstobeveryviscousduetoitshighsilica
content,soitoftendoesnotreachthesurfacebutcoolsat
depth.Whenitdoesreachthesurface,avolcanois
formed.Typicalexamplesofthiskindofvolcanoare
MountEtnaandthevolcanoesinthePacificRingofFire.

Mapshowingthedivergentplateboundaries(OSR
OceanicSpreadingRidges)andrecentsubaerial
volcanoes

"Hotspots"
"Hotspots"isthenamegiventovolcanicareasbelievedtobeformedbymantleplumes,whichare
hypothesizedtobecolumnsofhotmaterialrisingfromthecoremantleboundaryinafixedspacethatcauses
largevolumemelting.Becausetectonicplatesmoveacrossthem,eachvolcanobecomesdormantandis
eventuallyreformedastheplateadvancesoverthepostulatedplume.TheHawaiianIslandshavebeen
suggestedtohavebeenformedinsuchamanner,aswellastheSnakeRiverPlain,withtheYellowstone
CalderabeingthepartoftheNorthAmericanplatecurrentlyabovethehotspot.Thistheoryiscurrentlyunder
criticism,however.[2]

Volcanicfeatures
Themostcommonperceptionofavolcanoisofaconicalmountain,
spewinglavaandpoisonousgasesfromacrateratitssummithowever,
thisdescribesjustoneofthemanytypesofvolcano.Thefeaturesof
volcanoesaremuchmorecomplicatedandtheirstructureandbehavior
dependsonanumberoffactors.Somevolcanoeshaveruggedpeaks
formedbylavadomesratherthanasummitcraterwhileothershave
landscapefeaturessuchasmassiveplateaus.Ventsthatissuevolcanic
material(includinglavaandash)andgases(mainlysteamand
magmaticgases)candevelopanywhereonthelandformandmaygive
risetosmallerconessuchasPuuonaflankofHawaii'sKlauea.
Othertypesofvolcanoincludecryovolcanoes(oricevolcanoes),
particularlyonsomemoonsofJupiter,Saturn,andNeptuneandmud
volcanoes,whichareformationsoftennotassociatedwithknown
magmaticactivity.Activemudvolcanoestendtoinvolvetemperatures
muchlowerthanthoseofigneousvolcanoesexceptwhenthemud
volcanoisactuallyaventofanigneousvolcano.

LakagigarfissureventinIceland,
sourceofthemajorworldclimate
alterationof178384

Fissurevents
Volcanicfissureventsareflat,linearfracturesthroughwhichlava
emerges.

Shieldvolcanoes

Skjaldbreiur,ashieldvolcanowhose
namemeans"broadshield"

Shieldvolcanoes,sonamedfortheirbroad,shieldlikeprofiles,are
formedbytheeruptionoflowviscositylavathatcanflowagreatdistancefromavent.Theygenerallydonot
explodecatastrophically.Sincelowviscositymagmaistypicallylowinsilica,shieldvolcanoesaremore

commoninoceanicthancontinentalsettings.TheHawaiianvolcanicchainisaseriesofshieldcones,andthey
arecommoninIceland,aswell.

Lavadomes
Lavadomesarebuiltbysloweruptionsofhighlyviscouslava.Theyaresometimesformedwithinthecraterof
apreviousvolcaniceruption,asinthecaseofMountSaintHelens,butcanalsoformindependently,asinthe
caseofLassenPeak.Likestratovolcanoes,theycanproduceviolent,explosiveeruptions,buttheirlava
generallydoesnotflowfarfromtheoriginatingvent.

Cryptodomes
Cryptodomesareformedwhenviscouslavaisforcedupwardcausingthesurfacetobulge.The1980eruption
ofMountSt.Helenswasanexamplelavabeneaththesurfaceofthemountaincreatedanupwardbulgewhich
sliddownthenorthsideofthemountain.

Volcaniccones(cindercones)
Volcanicconesorcinderconesresultfromeruptionsofmostlysmall
piecesofscoriaandpyroclastics(bothresemblecinders,hencethename
ofthisvolcanotype)thatbuilduparoundthevent.Thesecanbe
relativelyshortlivederuptionsthatproduceaconeshapedhillperhaps
30to400metershigh.Mostcinderconeseruptonlyonce.Cindercones
mayformasflankventsonlargervolcanoes,oroccurontheirown.
ParcutininMexicoandSunsetCraterinArizonaareexamplesof
cindercones.InNewMexico,CajadelRioisavolcanicfieldofover60
cindercones.
Basedonsatelliteimagesitwassuggestedthatcinderconesmightoccur
onotherterrestrialbodiesintheSolarsystemtooonthesurfaceof
MarsandtheMoon.[4][5][6][7]

Stratovolcanoes(compositevolcanoes)

Izalco(volcano),locatedinthe
CordilleradeApanecavolcanicrange
complexinElSalvador.Onlyafew
generationsold,Izalcoistheyoungest
andbestknownconevolcano.Izalco
eruptedalmostcontinuouslyfrom
1770(whenitformed)to1958,
earningitthenicknameof
"LighthouseofthePacific".

Stratovolcanoesorcompositevolcanoesaretallconicalmountains
composedoflavaflowsandotherejectainalternatelayers,thestrata
thatgivesrisetothename.Stratovolcanoesarealsoknownas
compositevolcanoesbecausetheyarecreatedfrommultiplestructuresduringdifferentkindsoferuptions.
Strato/compositevolcanoesaremadeofcinders,ash,andlava.Cindersandashpileontopofeachother,lava
flowsontopoftheash,whereitcoolsandhardens,andthentheprocessrepeats.Classicexamplesinclude
MountFujiinJapan,MayonVolcanointhePhilippines,andMountVesuviusandStromboliinItaly.

Throughoutrecordedhistory,ashproducedbytheexplosiveeruptionofstratovolcanoeshasposedthegreatest
volcanichazardtocivilizations.Notonlydostratovolcanoeshavegreaterpressurebuildupfromtheunderlying
lavaflowthanshieldvolcanoes,buttheirfissureventsandmonogeneticvolcanicfields(volcaniccones)have
morepowerfuleruptions,astheyaremanytimesunderextension.Theyarealsosteeperthanshieldvolcanoes,
withslopesof3035comparedtoslopesofgenerally510,andtheirloosetephraarematerialfordangerous
lahars.[8]Largepiecesoftephraarecalledvolcanicbombs.Bigbombscanmeasuremorethan4feet(1.2
meters)acrossandweighseveraltons.[9]

Supervolcanoes

Asupervolcanousuallyhasalargecalderaandcan
producedevastationonanenormous,sometimes
continental,scale.Suchvolcanoesareabletoseverely
coolglobaltemperaturesformanyyearsaftertheeruption
duetothehugevolumesofsulfurandashreleasedinto
theatmosphere.Theyarethemostdangeroustypeof
volcano.Examplesinclude:YellowstoneCalderain
YellowstoneNationalParkandVallesCalderainNew
Mexico(bothwesternUnitedStates)LakeTaupoinNew
ZealandLakeTobainSumatra,Indonesiaand
NgorongoroCraterinTanzania.Becauseoftheenormous
areatheymaycover,supervolcanoesarehardtoidentify
centuriesafteraneruption.Similarly,largeigneous
provincesarealsoconsideredsupervolcanoesbecauseof
thevastamountofbasaltlavaerupted(eventhoughthe
lavaflowisnonexplosive).

Submarinevolcanoes
Crosssectionthroughastratovolcano(vertical
scaleisexaggerated):

Submarinevolcanoesarecommonfeaturesoftheocean
floor.Inshallowwater,activevolcanoesdisclosetheir
1.Largemagmachamber 9.Layersoflavaemitted
presencebyblastingsteamandrockydebrishighabove
2.Bedrock
bythevolcano
theocean'ssurface.Intheocean'sdeep,thetremendous
3.Conduit(pipe)
10.Throat
weightofthewaterabovepreventstheexplosiverelease
4.Base
11.Parasiticcone
ofsteamandgaseshowever,theycanbedetectedby
5.Sill
12.Lavaflow
hydrophonesanddiscolorationofwaterbecauseof
6.Dike
13.Vent
volcanicgases.Pillowlavaisacommoneruptiveproduct
7.Layersofashemitted 14.Crater
ofsubmarinevolcanoesandischaracterizedbythick
bythevolcano
15.Ashcloud
sequencesofdiscontinuouspillowshapedmasseswhich
8.Flank
formunderwater.Evenlargesubmarineeruptionsmay
notdisturbtheoceansurfaceduetotherapidcooling
effectandincreasedbuoyancyofwater(ascomparedtoair)whichoftencausesvolcanicventstoformsteep
pillarsontheoceanfloor.Hydrothermalventsarecommonnearthesevolcanoes,andsomesupportpeculiar
ecosystemsbasedondissolvedminerals.Overtime,theformationscreatedbysubmarinevolcanoesmay
becomesolargethattheybreaktheoceansurfaceasnewislandsorfloatingpumicerafts.

Subglacialvolcanoes
Subglacialvolcanoesdevelopunderneathicecaps.Theyaremadeupofflatlavawhichflowsatthetopof
extensivepillowlavasandpalagonite.Whentheicecapmelts,thelavaontopcollapses,leavingaflattopped
mountain.Thesevolcanoesarealsocalledtablemountains,tuyas,or(uncommonly)mobergs.Verygood
examplesofthistypeofvolcanocanbeseeninIceland,however,therearealsotuyasinBritishColumbia.The
originofthetermcomesfromTuyaButte,whichisoneoftheseveraltuyasintheareaoftheTuyaRiverand
TuyaRangeinnorthernBritishColumbia.TuyaButtewasthefirstsuchlandformanalyzedandsoitsnamehas
enteredthegeologicalliteratureforthiskindofvolcanicformation.TheTuyaMountainsProvincialParkwas
recentlyestablishedtoprotectthisunusuallandscape,whichliesnorthofTuyaLakeandsouthoftheJennings
RiverneartheboundarywiththeYukonTerritory.

Mudvolcanoes
Mudvolcanoesormuddomesareformationscreatedbygeoexcretedliquidsandgases,althoughthereare
severalprocesseswhichmaycausesuchactivity.Thelargeststructuresare10kilometersindiameterandreach
700metershigh.

Eruptedmaterial
Lavacomposition
Anotherwayofclassifyingvolcanoesisbythecompositionofmaterial
erupted(lava),sincethisaffectstheshapeofthevolcano.Lavacanbe
broadlyclassifiedintofourdifferentcompositions(Cas&Wright,
1987):
Iftheeruptedmagmacontainsahighpercentage(>63%)ofsilica,
thelavaiscalledfelsic.
PhoehoelavaflowonHawaii.The
Felsiclavas(dacitesorrhyolites)tendtobehighlyviscous
pictureshowsoverflowsofamain
(notveryfluid)andareeruptedasdomesorshort,stubby
lavachannel.
flows.Viscouslavastendtoformstratovolcanoesorlava
domes.LassenPeakinCaliforniaisanexampleofa
volcanoformedfromfelsiclavaandisactuallyalargelava
dome.
Becausesiliceousmagmasaresoviscous,theytendtotrap
volatiles(gases)thatarepresent,whichcausethemagmato
eruptcatastrophically,eventuallyformingstratovolcanoes.
Pyroclasticflows(ignimbrites)arehighlyhazardous
productsofsuchvolcanoes,sincetheyarecomposedof
moltenvolcanicashtooheavytogoupintothe
atmosphere,sotheyhugthevolcano'sslopesandtravelfar
TheStrombolistratovolcanooffthe
fromtheirventsduringlargeeruptions.Temperaturesas
coastofSicilyhaserupted
highas1,200Careknowntooccurinpyroclasticflows,
whichwillincinerateeverythingflammableintheirpath
continuouslyforthousandsofyears,
andthicklayersofhotpyroclasticflowdepositscanbelaid
givingrisetothetermstrombolian
down,oftenuptomanymetersthick.Alaska'sValleyof
eruption.
TenThousandSmokes,formedbytheeruptionof
NovaruptanearKatmaiin1912,isanexampleofathick
pyroclasticfloworignimbritedeposit.Volcanicashthatis
lightenoughtobeeruptedhighintotheEarth'satmosphere
maytravelmanykilometresbeforeitfallsbacktoground
asatuff.
Iftheeruptedmagmacontains5263%silica,thelavaisof
intermediatecomposition.
These"andesitic"volcanoesgenerallyonlyoccurabove
subductionzones(e.g.MountMerapiinIndonesia).
Andesiticlavaistypicallyformedatconvergentboundary
SanMiguel(volcano),ElSalvador.
marginsoftectonicplates,byseveralprocesses:
OnDecember29,2013,SanMiguel
Hydrationmeltingofperidotiteandfractional
volcano,alsoknownas
crystallization
"Chaparrastique",eruptedat10:30
Meltingofsubductedslabcontainingsediments
localtime,spewingalargecolumnof
Magmamixingbetweenfelsicrhyoliticandmafic
ashandsmokeintotheskythe
basalticmagmasinanintermediatereservoirpriorto
eruption,thefirstin11years,was
emplacementorlavaflow.
seenfromspaceandpromptedthe
Iftheeruptedmagmacontains<52%and>45%silica,thelavais
evacuationofthousandsofpeople
calledmafic(becauseitcontainshigherpercentagesof
livingina3kmradiusaroundthe
magnesium(Mg)andiron(Fe))orbasaltic.Theselavasare
volcano.
usuallymuchlessviscousthanrhyoliticlavas,dependingontheir
eruptiontemperaturetheyalsotendtobehotterthanfelsiclavas.
Maficlavasoccurinawiderangeofsettings:
Atmidoceanridges,wheretwooceanicplatesarepullingapart,basalticlavaeruptsaspillowsto
fillthegap
Shieldvolcanoes(e.g.theHawaiianIslands,includingMaunaLoaandKilauea),onbothoceanic
andcontinentalcrust

Ascontinentalfloodbasalts.
Someeruptedmagmascontain<=45%silicaandproduce
ultramaficlava.Ultramaficflows,alsoknownaskomatiites,are
veryrareindeed,veryfewhavebeeneruptedattheEarth's
surfacesincetheProterozoic,whentheplanet'sheatflowwas
higher.Theyare(orwere)thehottestlavas,andprobablymore
fluidthancommonmaficlavas.

Lavatexture
Twotypesoflavaarenamedaccordingtothesurfacetexture:Aa
(pronounced[aa])andphoehoe([paho.eho.e]),bothHawaiian
words.Aaischaracterizedbyarough,clinkerysurfaceandisthe
typicaltextureofviscouslavaflows.However,evenbasalticormafic
flowscanbeeruptedasaaflows,particularlyiftheeruptionrateis
highandtheslopeissteep.

AshplumefromSanMiguel
(volcano)"Chaparrastique",seen
fromasatellite,asitheadstowards
thePacificOceanfromtheEl
SalvadorCentralAmericacoast,
December29,2013

Phoehoeischaracterizedbyitssmoothandoftenropeyorwrinkly
surfaceandisgenerallyformedfrommorefluidlavaflows.Usually,
onlymaficflowswilleruptasphoehoe,sincetheyofteneruptathigher
temperaturesorhavetheproperchemicalmakeuptoallowthemto
flowwithgreaterfluidity.

Volcanicactivity
Popularclassificationof
volcanoes
Apopularwayofclassifyingmagmatic
SarychevPeakeruption,Matua
volcanoesisbytheirfrequencyof
Island,obliquesatelliteview
eruption,withthosethateruptregularly
calledactive,thosethathaveeruptedin
historicaltimesbutarenowquietcalleddormantorinactive,andthosethat
havenoteruptedinhistoricaltimescalledextinct.However,thesepopular
classificationsextinctinparticulararepracticallymeaninglesstoscientists.
Theyuseclassificationswhichrefertoaparticularvolcano'sformativeand
eruptiveprocessesandresultingshapes,whichwasexplainedabove.
FrescowithMountVesuvius
behindBacchusand
Agathodaemon,asseenin
Pompeii'sHouseofthe
Centenary

Active

Thereisnoconsensusamongvolcanologistsonhowtodefinean"active"
volcano.Thelifespanofavolcanocanvaryfrommonthstoseveralmillion
years,makingsuchadistinctionsometimesmeaninglesswhencomparedtothe
lifespansofhumansorevencivilizations.Forexample,manyofEarth's
volcanoeshaveerupteddozensoftimesinthepastfewthousandyearsbutarenotcurrentlyshowingsignsof
eruption.Giventhelonglifespanofsuchvolcanoes,theyareveryactive.Byhumanlifespans,however,they
arenot.
Scientistsusuallyconsideravolcanotobeeruptingorlikelytoeruptifitiscurrentlyerupting,orshowingsigns
ofunrestsuchasunusualearthquakeactivityorsignificantnewgasemissions.Mostscientistsconsidera
volcanoactiveifithaseruptedinthelast10,000years(Holocenetimes)theSmithsonianGlobalVolcanism
Programusesthisdefinitionofactive.MostvolcanoesaresituatedonthePacificRingofFire.[10]Anestimated
500millionpeoplelivenearactivevolcanoes.[10]

Historicaltime(orrecordedhistory)isanothertimeframeforactive.[11][12]TheCatalogueoftheActive
VolcanoesoftheWorld,publishedbytheInternationalAssociationofVolcanology,usesthisdefinition,by
whichtherearemorethan500activevolcanoes.[11]However,thespanofrecordedhistorydiffersfromregion
toregion.InChinaandtheMediterranean,itreachesbacknearly3,000years,butinthePacificNorthwestof
theUnitedStatesandCanada,itreachesbacklessthan300years,andinHawaiiandNewZealand,onlyaround
200years.[11]
Asof2013,thefollowingareconsideredEarth'smostactive
volcanoes:[13]
Klauea,thefamousHawaiianvolcano,hasbeenincontinuous,
effusiveeruptionsince1983,andhasthelongestobservedlava
lake.
MountEtnaandnearbyStromboli,twoMediterraneanvolcanoes
in"almostcontinuouseruption"sinceantiquity.
MountYasur,inVanuatu,hasbeenerupting"nearly
continuously"forover800years.

Klauealavaenteringthesea.

Thelongestcurrentlyongoing(butnotnecessarilycontinuous)volcanic
eruptivephasesare:[14]
MountYasur,111years
MountEtna,109years
Stromboli,108years
SantaMara,101years
Sangay,94years
Otherveryactivevolcanoesinclude:
MountNyiragongoanditsneighbor,Nyamuragira,areAfrica's
mostactivevolcanoes.
PitondelaFournaise,inRunion,eruptsfrequentlyenoughtobe
atouristattraction.
ErtaAle,intheAfarTriangle,hasmaintainedalavalakesinceat
least1906.
MountErebus,inAntarctica,hasmaintainedalavalakesinceat
least1972.
MountMerapi
Whakaari/WhiteIsland,hasbeenincontinuousstateofsmoking
sinceitsdiscoveryin1769.
OlDoinyoLengai
Ambrym
ArenalVolcano
Pacaya
KlyuchevskayaSopka
Sheveluch

LavaflowsatHoluhraun,Iceland,
September2014

Nyiragongo'slavalake

Extinct
Extinctvolcanoesarethosethatscientistsconsiderunlikelytoeruptagainbecausethevolcanonolongerhasa
magmasupply.ExamplesofextinctvolcanoesaremanyvolcanoesontheHawaiianEmperorseamountchain
inthePacificOcean,Hohentwiel,ShiprockandtheZuidwalvolcanointheNetherlands.EdinburghCastlein
Scotlandisfamouslylocatedatopanextinctvolcano.Otherwise,whetheravolcanoistrulyextinctisoften
difficulttodetermine.Since"supervolcano"calderascanhaveeruptivelifespanssometimesmeasuredin
millionsofyears,acalderathathasnotproducedaneruptionintensofthousandsofyearsislikelytobe

considereddormantinsteadofextinct.Somevolcanologistsreferto
extinctvolcanoesasinactive,thoughthetermisnowmorecommonly
usedfordormantvolcanoesoncethoughttobeextinct.
Dormant
Itisdifficulttodistinguishanextinctvolcanofromadormant(inactive)
one.Volcanoesareoftenconsideredtobeextinctiftherearenowritten
recordsofitsactivity.Nevertheless,volcanoesmayremaindormantfor
alongperiodoftime.Forexample,Yellowstonehasarepose/recharge
periodofaround700,000years,andTobaofaround380,000years.[15]
VesuviuswasdescribedbyRomanwritersashavingbeencoveredwith
gardensandvineyardsbeforeitseruptionofAD79,whichdestroyed
thetownsofHerculaneumandPompeii.Beforeitscatastrophiceruption
of1991,Pinatubowasaninconspicuousvolcano,unknowntomost
peopleinthesurroundingareas.Twootherexamplesarethelong
dormantSoufrireHillsvolcanoontheislandofMontserrat,thoughtto
beextinctbeforeactivityresumedin1995andFourpeakedMountainin
Alaska,which,beforeitsSeptember2006eruption,hadnoterupted
sincebefore8000BCandhadlongbeenthoughttobeextinct.

Technicalclassificationofvolcanoes

Fourpeakedvolcano,Alaska,in
September2006afterbeingthought
extinctforover10,000years

MountRinjanieruptionin1994,in
Lombok,Indonesia

Volcanicalertlevel
Thethreecommonpopularclassificationsofvolcanoescanbe
subjectiveandsomevolcanoesthoughttohavebeenextincthave
eruptedagain.Tohelppreventpeoplefromfalselybelievingtheyare
notatriskwhenlivingonornearavolcano,countrieshaveadopted
newclassificationstodescribethevariouslevelsandstagesofvolcanic
activity.[16]Somealertsystemsusedifferentnumbersorcolorsto
designatethedifferentstages.Othersystemsusecolorsandwords.
Somesystemsuseacombinationofboth.
VolcanowarningschemesoftheUnitedStates

NarcondamIsland,India,isclassified
asadormantvolcanobythe
GeologicalSurveyofIndia

TheUnitedStatesGeologicalSurvey(USGS)hasadoptedacommonsystemnationwideforcharacterizingthe
levelofunrestanderuptiveactivityatvolcanoes.Thenewvolcanoalertlevelsystemclassifiesvolcanoesnow
asbeinginanormal,advisory,watchorwarningstage.Additionally,colorsareusedtodenotetheamountof
ashproduced.DetailsoftheU.S.systemcanbefoundatVolcanowarningschemesoftheUnitedStates.

Decadevolcanoes
TheDecadeVolcanoesare17volcanoesidentifiedbytheInternationalAssociationofVolcanologyand
ChemistryoftheEarth'sInterior(IAVCEI)asbeingworthyofparticularstudyinlightoftheirhistoryoflarge,
destructiveeruptionsandproximitytopopulatedareas.TheyarenamedDecadeVolcanoesbecausetheproject
wasinitiatedaspartoftheUnitedNationssponsoredInternationalDecadeforNaturalDisasterReduction.The
17currentDecadeVolcanoesare

Koryakskyvolcanotoweringover
PetropavlovskKamchatskyon
KamchatkaPeninsula,FarEastern
Russia

AvachinskyKoryaksky(groupedtogether),
Kamchatka,Russia
NevadodeColima,JaliscoandColima,
Mexico
MountEtna,Sicily,Italy
Galeras,Nario,Colombia
MaunaLoa,Hawaii,USA
MountMerapi,CentralJava,Indonesia
MountNyiragongo,DemocraticRepublicof
theCongo
MountRainier,Washington,USA

Sakurajima,KagoshimaPrefecture,Japan
SantaMaria/Santiaguito,Guatemala
Santorini,Cyclades,Greece
TaalVolcano,Luzon,Philippines
Teide,CanaryIslands,Spain
Ulawun,NewBritain,PapuaNewGuinea
MountUnzen,NagasakiPrefecture,Japan
Vesuvius,Naples,Italy

TheDeepEarthCarbonDegassingProject,aninitiativeoftheDeepCarbonObservatory,monitorsnine
volcanoes,twoofwhichareDecadevolcanoes.ThefocusoftheDeepEarthCarbonDegassingProjectistouse
MultiComponentGasAnalyzerSysteminstrumentstomeasureCO2/SO2ratiosinrealtimeandinhigh
resolutiontoallowdetectionofthepreeruptivedegassingofrisingmagmas,improvingpredictionofvolcanic
activity.[17]

Effectsofvolcanoes
Therearemanydifferenttypes
ofvolcaniceruptionsand
associatedactivity:phreatic
eruptions(steamgenerated
eruptions),explosiveeruptionof
highsilicalava(e.g.,rhyolite),
effusiveeruptionoflowsilica
lava(e.g.,basalt),pyroclastic
flows,lahars(debrisflow)and
carbondioxideemission.Allof
Schematicofvolcanoinjectionof
theseactivitiescanposeahazard
aerosolsandgases
tohumans.Earthquakes,hot
springs,fumaroles,mudpots
andgeysersoftenaccompanyvolcanicactivity.

Volcanicgases

Solarradiationgraph19582008,
showinghowtheradiationisreduced
aftermajorvolcaniceruptions

Theconcentrationsofdifferentvolcanicgasescanvaryconsiderably
fromonevolcanotothenext.Watervaporistypicallythemost
abundantvolcanicgas,followedbycarbondioxide[18]andsulfur
dioxide.Otherprincipalvolcanicgasesincludehydrogensulfide,
hydrogenchloride,andhydrogenfluoride.Alargenumberofminorand
tracegasesarealsofoundinvolcanicemissions,forexamplehydrogen,
carbonmonoxide,halocarbons,organiccompounds,andvolatilemetal
chlorides.
Large,explosivevolcaniceruptionsinjectwatervapor(H2O),carbon
dioxide(CO2),sulfurdioxide(SO2),hydrogenchloride(HCl),hydrogen
fluoride(HF)andash(pulverizedrockandpumice)intothe
stratospheretoheightsof1632kilometres(1020mi)abovethe
Earth'ssurface.Themostsignificantimpactsfromtheseinjectionscome
fromtheconversionofsulfurdioxidetosulfuricacid(H2SO4),which

Sulfurdioxideconcentrationoverthe
SierraNegraVolcano,Galapagos
Islands,duringaneruptioninOctober
2005

condensesrapidlyinthestratospheretoformfinesulfateaerosols.The
SO2emissionsaloneoftwodifferenteruptionsaresufficienttocompare
theirpotentialclimaticimpact.[19]TheaerosolsincreasetheEarth'salbedoitsreflectionofradiationfromthe
SunbackintospaceandthuscooltheEarth'sloweratmosphereortropospherehowever,theyalsoabsorb
heatradiatedupfromtheEarth,therebywarmingthestratosphere.Severaleruptionsduringthepastcentury
havecausedadeclineintheaveragetemperatureattheEarth'ssurfaceofuptohalfadegree(Fahrenheitscale)
forperiodsofonetothreeyearssulfurdioxidefromtheeruptionofHuaynaputinaprobablycausedtheRussian
famineof16011603.[20]

Significantconsequences
Oneproposedvolcanicwinterhappenedc.70,000yearsagofollowingthesupereruptionofLakeTobaon
SumatraislandinIndonesia.[21]AccordingtotheTobacatastrophetheorytowhichsomeanthropologistsand
archeologistssubscribe,ithadglobalconsequences,[22]killingmosthumansthenaliveandcreatinga
populationbottleneckthataffectedthegeneticinheritanceofallhumanstoday.[23]The1815eruptionofMount
Tamboracreatedglobalclimateanomaliesthatbecameknownasthe"YearWithoutaSummer"becauseofthe
effectonNorthAmericanandEuropeanweather.[24]Agriculturalcropsfailedandlivestockdiedinmuchofthe
NorthernHemisphere,resultinginoneoftheworstfaminesofthe19thcentury.[25]Thefreezingwinterof
174041,whichledtowidespreadfamineinnorthernEurope,mayalsooweitsoriginstoavolcanic
eruption.[26]
IthasbeensuggestedthatvolcanicactivitycausedorcontributedtotheEndOrdovician,PermianTriassic,Late
Devonianmassextinctions,andpossiblyothers.ThemassiveeruptiveeventwhichformedtheSiberianTraps,
oneofthelargestknownvolcaniceventsofthelast500millionyearsofEarth'sgeologicalhistory,continued
foramillionyearsandisconsideredtobethelikelycauseofthe"GreatDying"about250millionyearsago,[27]
whichisestimatedtohavekilled90%ofspeciesexistingatthetime.[28]

Acidrain
Sulfateaerosolspromotecomplexchemicalreactionsontheirsurfacesthatalterchlorineandnitrogenchemical
speciesinthestratosphere.Thiseffect,togetherwithincreasedstratosphericchlorinelevelsfrom
chlorofluorocarbonpollution,generateschlorinemonoxide(ClO),whichdestroysozone(O3).Astheaerosols
growandcoagulate,theysettledownintotheuppertropospherewheretheyserveasnucleiforcirrusclouds
andfurthermodifytheEarth'sradiationbalance.Mostofthehydrogenchloride(HCl)andhydrogenfluoride
(HF)aredissolvedinwaterdropletsintheeruptioncloudandquicklyfalltothegroundasacidrain.The
injectedashalsofallsrapidlyfromthestratospheremostofitisremovedwithinseveraldaystoafewweeks.

Finally,explosivevolcaniceruptionsreleasethegreenhousegascarbon
dioxideandthusprovideadeepsourceofcarbonforbiogeochemical
cycles.[29]
Gasemissionsfromvolcanoesareanaturalcontributortoacidrain.
Volcanicactivityreleasesabout130to230teragrams(145millionto
255millionshorttons)ofcarbondioxideeachyear.[30]Volcanic
eruptionsmayinjectaerosolsintotheEarth'satmosphere.Large
injectionsmaycausevisualeffectssuchasunusuallycolorfulsunsets
andaffectglobalclimatemainlybycoolingit.Volcaniceruptionsalso
providethebenefitofaddingnutrientstosoilthroughtheweathering
processofvolcanicrocks.Thesefertilesoilsassistthegrowthofplants
andvariouscrops.Volcaniceruptionscanalsocreatenewislands,asthe
magmacoolsandsolidifiesuponcontactwiththewater.

Ashplumerisingfrom
EyjafjallajkullonApril17,2010

Hazards
Ashthrownintotheairbyeruptionscanpresentahazardtoaircraft,especiallyjetaircraftwheretheparticles
canbemeltedbythehighoperatingtemperaturethemeltedparticlesthenadheretotheturbinebladesandalter
theirshape,disruptingtheoperationoftheturbine.Dangerousencountersin1982aftertheeruptionof
GalunggunginIndonesia,and1989aftertheeruptionofMountRedoubtinAlaskaraisedawarenessofthis
phenomenon.NineVolcanicAshAdvisoryCenterswereestablishedbytheInternationalCivilAviation
Organizationtomonitorashcloudsandadvisepilotsaccordingly.The2010eruptionsofEyjafjallajkullcaused
majordisruptionstoairtravelinEurope.

Volcanoesonothercelestialbodies
TheEarth'sMoonhasnolargevolcanoesandnocurrentvolcanic
activity,althoughrecentevidencesuggestsitmaystillpossessa
partiallymoltencore.[31]However,theMoondoeshavemanyvolcanic
featuressuchasmaria(thedarkerpatchesseenonthemoon),rillesand
domes.

TheTvashtarvolcanoeruptsaplume
330km(205mi)abovethesurfaceof
Jupiter'smoonIo.

TheplanetVenushasasurfacethatis90%basalt,indicatingthat
volcanismplayedamajorroleinshapingitssurface.Theplanetmay
havehadamajorglobalresurfacingeventabout500millionyears
ago,[32]fromwhatscientistscantellfromthedensityofimpactcraters
onthesurface.Lavaflowsarewidespreadandformsofvolcanismnot
presentonEarthoccuraswell.Changesintheplanet'satmosphereand
observationsoflightninghavebeenattributedtoongoingvolcanic
eruptions,althoughthereisnoconfirmationofwhetherornotVenusis
stillvolcanicallyactive.However,radarsoundingbytheMagellan
proberevealedevidenceforcomparativelyrecentvolcanicactivityat
Venus'shighestvolcanoMaatMons,intheformofashflowsnearthe

summitandonthenorthernflank.
ThereareseveralextinctvolcanoesonMars,fourofwhicharevastshieldvolcanoesfarbiggerthananyon
Earth.TheyincludeArsiaMons,AscraeusMons,HecatesTholus,OlympusMons,andPavonisMons.These
volcanoeshavebeenextinctformanymillionsofyears,[33]buttheEuropeanMarsExpressspacecrafthas
foundevidencethatvolcanicactivitymayhaveoccurredonMarsintherecentpastaswell.[33]

Jupiter'smoonIoisthemostvolcanicallyactiveobjectinthesolarsystem
becauseoftidalinteractionwithJupiter.Itiscoveredwithvolcanoesthaterupt
sulfur,sulfurdioxideandsilicaterock,andasaresult,Ioisconstantlybeing
resurfaced.Itslavasarethehottestknownanywhereinthesolarsystem,with
temperaturesexceeding1,800K(1,500C).InFebruary2001,thelargest
recordedvolcaniceruptionsinthesolarsystemoccurredonIo.[34]Europa,the
smallestofJupiter'sGalileanmoons,alsoappearstohaveanactivevolcanic
system,exceptthatitsvolcanicactivityisentirelyintheformofwater,which
freezesintoiceonthefrigidsurface.Thisprocessisknownascryovolcanism,
andisapparentlymostcommononthemoonsoftheouterplanetsofthesolar
system.
In1989theVoyager2spacecraftobservedcryovolcanoes(icevolcanoes)on
Triton,amoonofNeptune,andin2005theCassiniHuygensprobe
photographedfountainsoffrozenparticleseruptingfromEnceladus,amoonof
Saturn.[35][36]Theejectamaybecomposedofwater,liquidnitrogen,dust,or
methanecompounds.CassiniHuygensalsofoundevidenceofamethane
spewingcryovolcanoontheSaturnianmoonTitan,whichisbelievedtobea
significantsourceofthemethanefoundinitsatmosphere.[37]Itistheorizedthat
cryovolcanismmayalsobepresentontheKuiperBeltObjectQuaoar.
A2010studyoftheexoplanetCOROT7b,whichwasdetectedbytransitin
2009,suggestedthattidalheatingfromthehoststarveryclosetotheplanetand
neighboringplanetscouldgenerateintensevolcanicactivitysimilartothat
foundonIo.[38]

OlympusMons(Latin,
"MountOlympus"),located
ontheplanetMars,isthe
tallestknownmountainin
theSolarSystem.

Traditionalbeliefsaboutvolcanoes
Manyancientaccountsascribevolcaniceruptionstosupernaturalcauses,suchastheactionsofgodsor
demigods.TotheancientGreeks,volcanoes'capriciouspowercouldonlybeexplainedasactsofthegods,
while16th/17thcenturyGermanastronomerJohannesKeplerbelievedtheywereductsfortheEarth'stears.[39]
OneearlyideacountertothiswasproposedbyJesuitAthanasiusKircher(16021680),whowitnessed
eruptionsofMountEtnaandStromboli,thenvisitedthecraterofVesuviusandpublishedhisviewofanEarth
withacentralfireconnectedtonumerousotherscausedbytheburningofsulfur,bitumenandcoal.
VariousexplanationswereproposedforvolcanobehaviorbeforethemodernunderstandingoftheEarth's
mantlestructureasasemisolidmaterialwasdeveloped.Fordecadesafterawarenessthatcompressionand
radioactivematerialsmaybeheatsources,theircontributionswerespecificallydiscounted.Volcanicactionwas
oftenattributedtochemicalreactionsandathinlayerofmoltenrocknearthesurface.

Seealso
GlobalVolcanismProgram
Listofextraterrestrialvolcanoes
Maritimeimpactsofvolcaniceruptions
Predictionofvolcanicactivity
TimelineofvolcanismonEarth
Volcanicexplosivityindex
VolcanoNumber
Volcanoobservatory

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Furtherreading
Cas,R.A.F.andJ.V.Wright,1987.VolcanicSuccessions.UnwinHymanInc.528p.ISBN0045520224
Macdonald,GordonandAgatinT.Abbott.(1970).VolcanoesintheSea.UniversityofHawaiiPress,Honolulu.441
p.
Marti,Joan&Ernst,Gerald.(2005).VolcanoesandtheEnvironment.CambridgeUniversityPress.ISBN0521
592542.
Ollier,Cliff.(1988).Volcanoes.BasilBlackwell,Oxford,UK,ISBN063115664X(hardback),ISBN063115977
0(paperback).
Sigursson,Haraldur,ed.(1999).EncyclopediaofVolcanoes.AcademicPress.ISBN012643140X.Thisisa
referenceaimedatgeologists,butmanyarticlesareaccessibletononprofessionals.

Externallinks
Volcanoes(https://www.dmoz.org/Science/Earth_Sciences/Geolo
gy/Volcanoes)atDMOZ
Volcano(http://www.fema.gov/hazard/volcano/index.shtm),U.S.
FederalEmergencyManagementAgencyFEMA
VolcanoWorld(http://volcano.oregonstate.edu/)
Volcanos(http://www.worsleyschool.net/science/files/volcano/pa
ge.html)(WorsleySchool)

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