PAGE |1

Chapter 1-Rotating Equipments

Air Compressor
Bearing
Belt tensioning
Centrifugal Pump
Gear
Mechanical seal
Pump Basics
Shaft alignment
Vacuum pump
Vibration Analysis

2
8
29
33
50
54
67
77
92
97
Chapter 2 - Static Equipments

Boiler
Fired Heater
Heat Exchanger
Heat Exchanger Maintenance
Pressure Test of Piping System

111
126
141
156
172

Chapter 3 General Topics

5S
Work Permit
Distillation
NDT
Welding

182
194
230
283
301

PAGE |2

Air Compressor

PAGE |3

The most common types of compressors in use today are

Reciprocating or piston Compressors

Rotary Screw Compressors
Rotary Sliding Vane Compressors
Centrifugal compressors
Integrally geared centrifugal compressor

Reciprocating or Piston compressors are the most common machines available on

the market. They are positive displacement compressors and can be found in
ranges from fractional to very high horsepower. Positive displacement air
compressors work by filling an air chamber with air and then reducing the
chambers volume (Reciprocating, Rotary Screw and Rotary Sliding Vane are all
positive displacement compressors). Reciprocating compressors work in a very
similar manner as does as internal combustion engine but basically in a reverse
process. They have cylinders, pistons, crankshafts, valves and housing blocks.

Advantages
Simple design
Lower initial cost
Easy to install
Two Stage Model offer High
Efficiency
No Oil Carry over
Large range of horse powers
Special machines can reach
extremely high pressures

Disadvantages
Higher maintenance cost
Many moving parts
Potential for vibration
problems
Foundation may be required
depending on size.
Many are not designed to run
at full capacity 100% of the
time.

Rotary Screw Compressors work on the principle of air filling the void between
two helical mated screws and their housing. As the two helical screws are turned,
the volume is reduced resulting in an increase of air pressure. Most rotary screw
compressors inject oil into the bearing and compression area. The reasons are for
cooling, lubrication and creating a seal between screws and the housing wall to
reduce internal leakage. After the compression cycle, the oil and air must be
separated before the air can be used by the air system. The screw element is the
most important part of any screw-type compressor. Its that part of the machine
where the actual compression takes place. It is the heart of the rotary screw air
compressor. Often, the compressor screw element is also called air-end.

PAGE |4

Oil-free vs. oil-flooded Rotary Screw Compressors models

Rotary screw compressors are available in oil-free or oil flooded construction.
Technically speaking, oil-free refers to not having oil in the compression space, but
bearings still require lubrication by a clean medium. This lubricant is typically
clean oil. While oil-free twin-screw compressors are widely called dry screw
machines, at least one prominent manufacturer defines and designates as dry
screw any screw compressor equipped with timing gears. Therefore, whether the
compression space is dry, oil-flooded or water-injected makes no difference: With
timing gears keeping the two screws synchronized, it should be labeled a dry screw
machine. Without timing gears, it cannot function as a dry screw machine, because
the resulting contact of mating rotors would destroy the machine. If there are no
timing gears, a separating liquid must be used. Any separating liquid circulating in
the compression space will make it a wet screw machine.

Wet Screw Compressor

Advantages
Simple Design
Low to medium initial cost
Low to medium maintenance
cost
Tow stage design provide
good efficiency
Easy to install
Few moving parts
Most popular compressor
design in plants

Dry Screw Compressor

Disadvantages
Limited air end life
Air ends are not field serviceable
High rotational speeds
Shorter life expectancy than other
designs
Oil injected design have oil carry over
Single stage design have lower
efficiency
Two stage oil free designs have high
initial cost
Difficulty with dirty environment

PAGE |5

Rotary Sliding Vane Compressors like Reciprocating and Rotary Screw

compressors are positive displacement compressors. The compressor pump
consists primarily of a rotor, stator, and 8 blades. The slotted rotor is eccentrically
arranged within the stator providing a crescent shaped (resembling the new moon
in shape) swept area between the intake and exhaust ports. As the rotor turns a
single revolution, compression is achieved as the volume goes from a maximum at
the intake ports to a minimum at the exhaust port. The vanes are forced outward
From within the rotor slots and
held against the stator wall by
rotational acceleration. Oil is
injected into the air intake and
along the stator walls to cool the
air, lubricate the bearings and
vanes, and provide a seal between
the vanes and the stator wall. After
the compression cycle, the oil and
air must be separated before the air
can be transferred to the air system.

Advantages
Simple Design
Easy Installation
Low to medium cost
Low maintanence cost
Field serviceble airend
Long life airend
Very few moving parts
Usable at dirty enviornments.

Disadvantages
Oil injected design have oil
carry over
Single stage design have lower
efficiency
Difficult with high
pressure(over 200 psi)
Oil free designs are unavailable

Centrifugal Compressors are not positive displacement compressors like the

Reciprocating, Screw or Vane Compressors. They use very high speed spinning
impellers (up to 60,000 rpm) to accelerate the air then diffuser to decelerate the air.
This process, called dynamic compression, uses velocity to cause an increase in
pressure. In most Centrifugal compressors, there are several of these
impeller/diffuser combinations. Typically, these machines have intercoolers

PAGE |6

between each stage to cool the air as well as remove 100% of the condensate to
avoid impeller damage due to erosion.

Advantages
High efficiency compared to
two stage reciprocating
compressor
Pressure up to 1200 psi
Does not require special
foundation

Disadvantages
High initial cost
Complicated monitoring and
control system
High rotational speed require
special bearings and
sophisticated vibration and
clearance monitoring.

PAGE |7

Integrally geared centrifugal compressor

What is the difference between a vacuum pump and a compressor?

A vacuum pump basically works the reverse of an air compressor. A vacuum pump
evacuates air or other gases to create a negative pressure (something less than
atmospheric pressure).An air compressor increases the air pressure in a given
storage device. This raises the pressure to something greater than atmospheric
pressure. The reason this is significant is because by raising or lowering the
pressure you create a flow. The flow translates to energy. In the case of vacuum,
by lowering the pressure on one side of an object you greatly increase the pressure
on the other side of the object. This is the principle behind holding a sheet of
wood, metal or plastic on a CNC table while cutting it with a laser or saw. A
compressor needs to increase the pressure in a line to usually drive a mechanical
device like an impact wrench. If the compressed air could not escape via a valve to
a place of less pressure like the garage, the tool would not work.

PAGE |8

Bearing

PAGE |9

Bearings
Generally speaking, a bearing is a device that is used to enable rotational or linear
movement, while reducing friction and handling stress. Resembling wheels,
bearings literally enable devices to roll, which reduces the friction between the
surface of the bearing and the surface its rolling over. Its significantly easier to
move, both in a rotary or linear fashion, when friction is reducedthis also
enhances speed and efficiency.
Types
Plain or sliding contact bearing: -In which the rotating shaft has a sliding contact
with the bearing which is held stationary. Due to large contact area friction
between mating parts is high requiring greater lubrication.
Rolling or anti-friction bearing: -Due to less contact area rolling friction is much
lesser than the sliding friction, hence these bearings are also known as antifriction
bearing.
Frictional resistance considerably less than in plain bearings
Rotating non-rotating pairs separated by balls or rollers
Ball or rollers has rolling contact and sliding friction is eliminated and
replaced by much lower rolling friction.
In plain bearing the starting resistance is much larger than the running
resistance due to absence of oil film.
In ball and rolling bearings the initial resistance to motion is only slightly
more than their resistance to continuous running.
Hence ball and rolling bearing are more suitable to drives subject to frequent
starting and stopping as they save power.
Owing to the low starting torque, a low power motor can be used for a line
shaft running in ball bearing.
Main Types of Rolling or anti-friction bearing
Ball Bearing
Roller Bearing
Thrust Bearing

P A G E | 10

Races and balls are high carbon

chrome steel (to provide resistance
to wear) machined and ground to
fine limits of 0.0025 mm, highly
polished and hardened. The cages
are made of low-carbon steel,
bronzes or brasses, though for high
temperature application casehardened and stainless steels are
used.
The ball and roller bearing consists of following parts
Inner ring or race which fits on the shaft.
Outer ring or race which fits inside the housing.
Ball and roller arranged between the surfaces of two races. These provide
rolling action between the races.
The radius of the track for balls is slightly greater 5 to 10 % than that of the
ball themselves.
Note that the rotating surfaces rotate in opposite directions.
Cage which separates the balls or rollers from one another.

P A G E | 11

Ball Bearing Main Types

1] Deep Groove Ball Bearing are the
most common type of rolling bearings.
Their use is very widespread. The
raceway grooves on both the inner and
outer rings have circular arcs of
slightly larger radius than that of the
balls. In addition to radial loads, axial
loads can be imposed in either
direction. Because of their low torque,
they are highly suitable for
applications where high speeds and
low power loss are required. In
addition to open type bearings, these
bearings often have steel shields or
rubber seals installed on one or both
sides and are prelubricated with
grease. Also, snap rings are sometimes
used on the periphery.
2] Angular Contact Ball Bearing
Individual bearings of this type are capable of taking radial loads and also axial
loads in one direction. Four contact angles of 15, 25, 30, and 40 are available.
The larger the contact angle, the higher the axial load capacity. For high speed
operation, however, the smaller contact angles are preferred. Usually, two bearings
are used in duplex pairs, and the clearance between them must be adjusted
properly. Pressed-steel cages are commonly used, however, for high precision
bearings with a contact angle less than 30, polyamide resin cages are often used.

P A G E | 12

3] Self-Aligning Ball Bearings

The inner ring of this type of bearing has two raceways and the outer ring has a
single spherical raceway with its center of curvature coincident with the bearing
axis. Therefore, the axis of the inner ring, balls, and cage can deflect to some
extent around the bearing center. Consequently, minor angular misalignment of the
shaft and housing caused by machining or mounting error is automatically
corrected. This type of bearing often has a tapered bore for mounting using an
adapter sleeve.

Roller Bearing
Roller bearing have a greater load-carrying capacity than ball bearing of equivalent
size as they make line contact rather than point contact with their rings. Not
suitable for axial loading, cheaper to manufacture, used for heavy and sudden
loading, high speed and continuous service.

P A G E | 13

Main Types
1] Cylindrical Roller Bearing
In bearings of this type, the cylindrical rollers are in linear contact with the
raceways. They have a high radial load capacity and are suitable for high speeds.
There are different types designated NU, NJ, NUP, N, NF for single-row bearings,
and NNU, NN for double-row bearings depending on the design or absence of side
ribs. The outer and inner rings of all types are separable. Some cylindrical roller
bearings have no ribs on either the inner or outer ring, so the rings can move
axially relative to each other. These can be used as free-end bearings. Cylindrical
roller bearings, in which either the inner or outer rings has two ribs and the other
ring has one, are capable of taking some axial load in one direction. Double-row
cylindrical roller bearings have high radial rigidity and are used primarily for
precision machine tools. Pressed steel or machined brass cages are generally used,
but sometimes molded polyamide cages are also used.

2] Tapered Roller Bearing

Bearings of this type use conical rollers guided by a back-face rib on the cone.
These bearings are capable of taking high radial loads and also axial loads in one
direction. In the HR series, the rollers are increased in both size and number giving
it an even higher load capacity. They are generally mounted in pairs in a manner
similar to single-row angular contact ball bearings. In this case, the proper internal
clearance can be obtained by adjusting the axial distance between the cones or cups
of the two opposed bearings. Since they are separable, the cone assemblies and

P A G E | 14

cups can be mounted independently. Depending upon the contact angle, tapered
roller bearings are divided into three types called the normal angle, medium angle,
and steep angle. Double-row and four-row tapered roller bearings are also
available. Pressed steel cages are generally used.

3] Needle Roller Bearing

Needle roller bearings contain many slender rollers with a length 3 to 10 times
their diameter. As a result, the ratio of the bearing outside diameter to the inscribed
circle diameter is small, and they have a rather high radial load capacity. There are
numerous types available, and many have no inner rings. The drawn-cup type has a
pressed steel outer ring and the solid type has a machined outer ring. There are also
cage and roller assemblies without rings. Most bearings have pressed steel cages,
but some are without cages.

P A G E | 15

Trust Bearing
A thrust bearing is a particular type of rotary rolling-element bearing. Like other
bearings they permit rotation between parts, but they are designed to support a
predominately axial load. Single-direction thrust ball bearings are composed of
washer-like bearing rings with raceway grooves. The ring attached to the shaft is
called the shaft washer (or inner ring) while that attached to the housing is called
the housing washer (or outer ring).In double-direction thrust ball bearings, there
are three rings with the middle one (center ring) being fixed to the shaft. There are
also thrust ball bearings with an aligning seat washer beneath the housing washer
in order to compensate for shaft misalignment or mounting error. Pressed steel
cages are usually used in the smaller bearings and machined cages in the larger.

P A G E | 16

Pillow Block Bearing

Pillow blocks are usually referred to
the housings which have a bearing
fitted into them and thus the user
need not purchase the bearings
separately. Pillow blocks are usually
mounted in cleaner environments and
generally are meant for lesser loads of
general industry. These differ from
"plummer blocks" which are bearing
housings supplied without any
bearings and are usually meant for
higher load ratings and corrosive
industrial environments. However the
terms pillow block and plummer
block are used interchangeably in
certain parts of the world.
The fundamental application of both types is the same which is to mount bearings
safely enabling their outer ring to be stationary while allowing rotation of the inner
ring. The housing is bolted to a foundation through the holes in the base. Bearing
housings are either split type or unsplit type. Split type housings are usually two
piece housings where the cap and base can be detached, while certain series are
one single piece housings. Various seals are provided to prevent dust and other
contaminants from entering the housing. Thus the housing provides a clean
environment for the expensive bearings to freely rotate, hence increasing their
performance and duty cycle. Bearing housings are usually made of grey cast iron.
However various grades of metals can be used to manufacture the same.ISO 113
specifies internationally accepted dimensions for plummer blocks.
APPLICATIONS OF ROLLER BEARINGS
Tapered roller bearing (TRB): TRB can take both radial and axial loads and used
for gear boxes for heavy trucks, bevel-gear transmission, lathe spindles, etc.
Thrust ball bearing: It can take only thrust loads. Thrust ball bearing are used for
heavy axial loads and low speeds.

P A G E | 17

Needle roller bearing: It use small diameter of rollers. They are used for radial load
at slow speed and oscillating motion. They have the advantage of light weight and
occupy small space. They are used in aircraft industry, live tail stock centers,
bench-drill spindles, etc.
Bearing Arrangement
l Shafts are generally supported by two bearings in the radial and axial
directions.
l The side that fixes relative movement of the shaft and housing in the axial
direction is called the fixed side bearing," and the side that allows
movement is called the "floating side bearing."
l The floating side bearing is needed to absorb mounting error and avoid
stress caused by expansion and contraction of the shaft due to
temperature change.
l In the case of bearings with detachable inner and outer rings such as
cylindrical and needle roller bearings, relative movement is accomplished by
the raceway surface.
l Bearings with non-detachable inner and outer rings, such as deep groove ball
bearings and self-aligning roller bearings, are designed so that the fitting
surface moves in the axial direction.
l If bearing clearance is short, the bearings can be used without differentiating
between the fixed and floating sides. In this case, the method of having the
bearings face each other, such as with angular contact ball bearings and
tapered roller bearings, is frequently used.
Bearing fits
l Extreme fits, whether loose or tight, are not recommended. The effect of
press fits on contact angle or radial play must be considered. As a rule of
thumb, mounted radial play (and hence contact angle) will be reduced by
approximately 75% of the press fit. This is important where precise control
on deflection rates is required or where low-radial-play bearings are used.
l Size tolerance of the shaft and housing should be equal to those of the
bearing bore and OD. Roundness and taper should be held to one-half of size
tolerance. Surface finish should be held as close as possible.
l Extreme fits will depend upon tolerances on the bearings, shaft, and housing.
Upon request, the bearing manufacturer will code the bearing bores and OD
into increments within the size tolerance. These increments are normally
0.0001 in., but can be supplied as low as 0.00005 in.

P A G E | 18

l When operating at a temperature considerably different from room

temperature, material expansion differences must be considered.

P A G E | 19

Installation
Do not remove the bearing from its packaging until you are ready to mount it. The
packaging provides protection from contamination. Bearings should be installed in
a clean environment, free from dust, debris, moisture and other contaminants. Also
determine what tools will be required, including adjustment tools if appropriate,
and have them on hand. If the bearing needs to be lubricated as part of the
installation process, have the appropriate lubricants and tools available.
Thoroughly clean all machine components near where the bearing will be installed,
giving special attention to the mounting surfaces and housings. Housings should be
cleaned, including blowing out the oil holes. If there is not a press fit on the shaft, a
weld overlay and re-grind process is recommended to bring the shaft back to
specification.
Axial adjustment
Removal of excess bearing end play (The amount of axial or end-to-end
movement in a shaft due to clearance in the bearings.), when required, may
involve preloading of the bearings. However, the most common requirement
is to establish an allowable range of end play under a given reversing thrust
load.
Shims: Best material is stainless steel. Brass shims can also be used;
however, they wear more easily and produce abrasive particles that could
contaminate the bearing. Shims, particularly brass or other soft materials,
should be used only against the nonrotating ring.
Spring washers: Belleville and wave washers are the two most common
types used. The washer should exert a very light load on the bearings. If
extreme rigidity under external load is required, preloaded bearings should
be used.
The use of a spring washer usually involves a loose fit between the bearing
ring and its mounting surface. Therefore, the washer should apply its force
against the nonrotating ring.
Threads: Generally, threads are not recommended to remove end play. They
are too easily over tightened and can cause brinelling in the bearings.
If threads must be used, the bearings should be locked against a solid
shoulder or spacer. It is important to achieve a solid locking force without
overloading the bearing rings. A Class 2 fit is normally recommended
because it provides for slight misalignment of the nut, enabling the nut face
to be flush with the bearing. The nut-face squareness to the thread pitch
circle should be held to 0.0005-in. max wherever possible.

P A G E | 20

Heating bearings
In applications that require a tight fit of the inner ring on the shaft, it can be easier
to install the bearing if it is first heated to expand slightly. For applications that
require a tight fit of the outer ring in a housing, it may also be possible to heat the
housing to expand it, allowing the bearing to install more easily. They can be
heated in a pan or metal container filled with oil. A screen or platform should be
used to keep the bearing from resting on the bottom of the pan where heat is
applied. As the bearing cools, the locknut or clamping plate should be tightened.
Pressing on bearings
Smaller bearings may be pressed onto the shaft or into a housing with an arbor
press and mounting tube. Between the press ram and the bearing, use a mounting
tube of mild steel (Take care to use no other material) with an inside diameter
slightly larger than the shaft. The outside diameter of the tube should not exceed
the maximum shoulder height for the bearings. The tube should be square at both
ends, thoroughly clean inside and out, and long enough to clear the end of the shaft
after the bearing is mounted. Never attempt to make a press fit on a shaft by
applying pressure to the outer ring of an assembled bearing. However, because
they have a separable outer ring, the outer ring of tapered roller bearings can be
pressed into a housing.
Removing bearings from equipment
For bearings installed with a tight or press fit, or that have become locked in place
on a shaft and cannot be removed with a mechanical puller, the inner ring of the
bearing can be heated to ease removal. Heat lamps or other heating devices can be
used. If a torch is used, it will change the properties of the bearing steel and the
Bearing must be discarded.
WARNING Failure to observe the following
Warnings could create a risk of serious bodily harm.
Tensile stresses can be very high in tightly fitted bearing
Components. Attempting to remove such components by cutting
The cone (inner race) may result in a sudden shattering of the
Component causing fragments of metal to be forcefully expelled.
Always use properly guarded presses or bearing pullers to
Remove bearings from shafts, and always use suitable personal
Protective equipment, including safety glasses.

P A G E | 21

Cleaning
Smaller bearings can be cleaned in a wash tank that circulates a cleaning solution
such as kerosene, mineral spirits or a commercial solvent through the bearing. Use
the cleaning solution to remove all lubricant and contamination, making sure that
the internal rolling elements are completely clean. Alkali cleaners, such as
trisodium phosphate (TSP) mixed two or three ounces per gallon of hot water, may
also be used. For large bearings, large tank containing appropriate cleaning
solution is required. Tanks are typically heated with electrical coils, and a pump is
used to agitate the cleaning solution. Final cleaning is done by suspending the
bearing and using a hose to flush away any contamination.
Bearing repair
Small areas of damage on bearing races, and on the contact surface of the rolling
elements, can sometimes be repaired by grinding out the loose metal. Any raised or
rough areas should be smoothed flat with grinding and polishing tools. Light rust
or corrosion should be removed with emery paper. As much of the damage should
be removed as possible to prevent it from contaminating the bearing when it is
returned to service.
Adjusting bearing clearance
The space between the rolling elements and the races of an anti-friction bearing is
known as the bearing clearance, referred to in tapered roller bearings as the lateral,
lateral clearance or end play. In other types of anti-friction bearings such as
spherical, cylindrical, or ball bearings, the radial internal clearance or RIC, is
specified. Clearance is desirable in applications where allowance must be provided
for thermal growth of components, to accommodate for slight misalignment or
other application requirements. Bearings may also have zero clearance, with the
contact surfaces of the rolling elements brought into contact with the races in lineto-line contact. Finally, bearings may have the rolling elements and races brought
into contact with a defined initial force, a condition known as pre-load. This
enables precise control over the internal geometry of the mating parts, and is
desirable where run out must be held with-in critical limits, such as high precision
applications. Bearings with separable races, such as tapered roller bearings,
allow the clearance (preload) to be adjusted to meet application requirements.
End play - An axial clearance between rollers and races producing a measurable
axial shaft movement when a small axial force is applied - first in one direction,
then in the other, while oscillating or rotating the shaft.

P A G E | 22

Preload - An axial interference between rollers and races such that there is no
measurable axial shaft movement when a small axial force is applied - in both
directions, while oscillating or rotating the shaft.
Line-to-line - A zero setting condition; the transitional point between end play and
preload
Plain or sliding contact bearing
Advantages and disadvantages of the plain (or) sliding contact bearing
l Plain bearing are cheap to produce and have noiseless operation. They can
be easily machined, occupy small radial space and have vibration damping
properties. Also they can cope with tapped foreign matter.
l Disadvantages are they require large supply of lubricating oil, they are
suitable only for relative low temperature and speed; and starting resistance
is much greater than running resistance due to slow buildup of lubricant film
around the bearing surface.
Classification of the sliding contact bearing.
Journal bearing in this
the bearing pressure is
exerted at right angles to
the axis of the axis of the
shaft. The portion of the
shaft lying within the
bearing in known as
journal. Shaft are
generally made of mild
steel.

P A G E | 23

Thrust bearing (Collar

Bearing) in this bearing
supporting pressure is parallel
to the axis of the shaft having
end thrust. Thrust bearing are
used in bevel mountings,
propeller drives, turbines, etc.
note here the shaft, unlike footstrep bearing passes through
and beyond the bearing.

Foot step or pivot bearing in

this bearing the bearing
pressure is exerted parallel to
the shaft whose axis is
vertical. Note that in this case
the end of the shaft rests
within the bearing.

P A G E | 24

Bush bearing: In this the bush

of soft material like brass or
gun metal is provided and the
body or main block is made of
cast iron. Bush is hollow
cylindrical piece which is
fitted in a housing to
accommodate the mating part.
When the bush gets worn out
it can be easily replaced.
l The outside of the bush is a driving fit (interference fit) in the hole of the
casting where as the inside is a running fit for the shaft.
l The bearing material used may be white metal (Babbitttin/Cu/Lead/antimony), copper alloy (brass, gunmetal) or aluminum alloy.
l Solid bushes are entirely made of bearing material and find the general
application. In lined bush as the bearing material is applied as a lining to a
backing material.
l Applications: turbines, large diesel engines etc.

P A G E | 25
Tools for Bearing mounting and removing

Arbor Press

Blind hole Bearing Puller

Bearing Outer Race Installer

Puller

Induction Heater

Pilot Bearing Puller

Heat Gun (For heat Housing)

Mounting tube set

Bearing Splitter Puller

P A G E | 26

Bearing Terms Glossary

AXIAL CLEARANCE: The gap between the toe face of the head section and the
inside surface of the inner case.
AXIAL INTERNAL CLEARANCE: In a ball bearing assembly, the axial internal
clearance is the total maximum possible movement parallel to the bearing axis or
the inner ring, in relation to the outer ring.
AXIAL LOAD: A type of load on a bearing that is parallel to the axis of rotation.
AXIAL RUNOUT: Also called lateral run out, is the measurable irregularity or
wobble parallel to the axis of rotation.
BALL DETENT: A spring-loaded ball mechanism that aligns the needle rollers of
a full complement drawn cup bearing before it is pressed into a housing. The
rollers are aligned when the ball detent forces the rollers apart, gathering
circumferential clearance in one location.
BORE CORNER: The maximum shaft fillet radius that will provide for proper
bearing fit.
BOUNDARY LUBRICATION: A state of lubrication that occurs when, due to
speed, load or lubricant combination, the thick film or hydrodynamic conditions
do not completely separate the rubbing surfaces. Special additives sometimes are
used for bearing protection under these conditions.
CAGE: The separator that spaces and holds rolling elements in their proper
positions along the races.
CAGE DEFORMATION: Improperly installed or dropped bearing.
CAGE POCKET WEAR: Heavy contact between the rollers and cage pocket
surfaces caused by a bearing's operating too loosely.
CLOSED-END BEARING: A drawn cup bearing where one end of the cup has a
solid face, which fully encloses that end of the bearing. This allows the housing to
be through bored (straight housing). The closed end of the installed bearing seals
the housing.
CONE: The bearing's inner ring that is fixed to and/or pressed onto a rotating shaft.
CONE BORE DAMAGE: Fractured cone due to out-of-round or over-sized shaft.

P A G E | 27

CUP: The bearing's outer ring that sits on the housing and remains stationary
during rotation.
DEAD-END HOUSING: A housing that is not through bored. The machining
stops part way through the housing forming a blind hole.
END PLAY: The amount of axial or end-to-end movement in a shaft due to
clearance in the bearings.
FACE: The side surface of a bearing.
FILLET RADIUS: Shaft or housing corner dimension that bearing corner must
clear.
FIXED BEARING: Bearing which positions shaft against axial movement in both
directions.
FLOATING BEARING: Bearing so designed or mounted as to permit axial
displacement between shaft and housing.
HOUSING: A rigid structure that supports and locates the seal assembly with
respect to the shaft.
HOUSING FIT: Amount of interference or clearance between bearing outside
surface and housing bearing seat.
INNER CASE: A rigid, cup-shaped component of a seal assembly that is placed
inside the outer seal case. It has one or more of the following devices: reinforcing
member, shield, spring retainer or a lip-clamping component.
INTERFERENCE FIT: also known as a press fit or friction fit, is a fastening
between two parts which is achieved by friction after the parts are pushed together,
rather than by any other means of fastening.
INNER RING: Bearing component with the inner raceway on its OD surface.
INNER RING RACE: The surfaces on the cup and cone where the rolling elements
make contact.
INTERNAL CLEARANCE: The internal clearance of a single-row radial contact
ball bearing is the average outer ring race diameter, minus the average inner ring
race diameter, minus twice the ball diameter. It also is known as the radial internal
clearance or end play.

P A G E | 28

METAL (OUTER) CASE: The outer, thin-wall, rigid structure of the lip-seal
assembly that contains the primary sealing ring and, if present, the inner case,
spring and secondary seal.
OPEN-END BEARING: A drawn cup bearing that does not have a closed end.
This allows a shaft to extend through the bearing.
OUTER RING: A bearing component with the outer raceway on its bore surface.
PRELOAD: Thrust
load applied to
bearings (by installing
shims, spring washers
or coil springs) that
support a rotating part;
eliminates axial
endplay or movement.

RACES: The surfaces on the cup and cone where the rolling elements make
contact.
RACEWAY: The functional surfaces in an anti-friction bearing that contact the
rolling elements.
RADIAL LOAD: A load applied perpendicular to the axis of the shaft.
RADIAL RUNOUT: Measurable irregularity or out-of-roundness in a rotating
assembly, at a right angle to an axis.
SHAFT FIT: Amount of interference or clearance between bearing inside diameter
and shaft bearing seat outside diameter.

P A G E | 29

Belt tensioning

P A G E | 30

Measuring Belt Tension

This article discusses several methods for measuring the belt tension for V-belts
commonly used. Tensioning the belt is often done during initial startup and
periodically throughout its life for preventative maintenance. Common belt
tensioning methods is to measure belt tension by deflection. Proper Belt Tension
The proper tension for operating a V-belt drive is the lowest tension at which the
belts will not slip at peak load conditions. For applications without a variable
frequency drive (VFD) or starter, and the motor is ran across the line, the tension
must be able to handle the increased motor torque during startup. For slow start
VFD applications, the belt tension must handle the actual brake horsepower of the
fan at the fan shaft. For V-belts, after initial installation tensioning, a re-tensioning
of the belt is recommended after a period of operation, usually one to two days.
Belt tension should be checked periodically, about every three to six months. A
more frequent inspection for noise or vibration is recommended. Under tensioned
belts can slip, generating heat that often results in cracking and eventual belt
failure. Over-tensioned belts will create excessive stretching in the belt and reduce
both belt and bearing life as the bearing loads will increase. While checking the
belt tension, the belts should also be inspected for any cracks or fraying as these
indicate belt wear.
Measuring Belt Tension by Deflection
Measuring belt tension by deflection evaluates the force needed to achieve a given
belt deflection. The recommended force can be referenced in the table at the end of
the article. A tensiometer is a tool that measures the force required to move the
tensiometer plunger a given distance. This force can be compared to a table of
recommended tension forces to determine the status of the belt.
1. Turn off power to the motor and
follow lock out, tag out procedures.
2. Measure the span length of the
belt. See the desired belt deflection is
1/64 of an inch for every inch of belt
span. For example, if the span length
is 32 inches, the desired belt
deflection is inch.

P A G E | 31

3. Set the small O-ring on the deflection

force scale to zero.
4. Place the tension checker squarely on one
belt at the center of the belt span. Apply a
force on the plunger and perpendicular to
the belt span until the bottom of the large
O-ring is even with the top of the adjacent
(next) belt or with the bottom of a straight
edge laid across the outside diameters of the
v-belt sheaves.
5. Remove the tension checker and read the
force applied from the bottom of the small
O-ring on the deflection force scale.
6. Compare the force you have applied with
the values given in the tables on the back of
this page. The force should be between the
minimum and maximum shown. The
maximum value is shown for New Belt
and new belts should be tensioned at this
value to allow for expected tension loss.
New Belt tensions should be used at
initial installation and after jog start or 1-3
minutes of operation. Used belts
should be maintained at the minimum value
as indicated in the chart. Used Belt
tensions should be used for the 8 hour and
subsequent checks. If the belt span was
measured in inches, then use the pounds of
force values for comparison. If the belt span
was measured in centimeters, then use the
kilograms of force values for comparison.

P A G E | 32

P A G E | 33

Centrifugal
Pump

P A G E | 34

Centrifugal pump duties are usually for the movement of large volumes of liquid at
low pressures, although higher pressures can be achieved with multi-staging. A
centrifugal pump can be further defined as a machine which uses several energy
transformations in order to increase the pressure of a liquid. The energy input into
the pump is typically the fuel source energy used to power the driver. The rotating
pump shaft is attached to the pump impeller, which rotates in a volute housing. The
impeller imposes a centrifugal force, which imparts kinetic energy to the fluid.
Kinetic energy is a function of mass and velocity .Raising a liquids velocity
increases its kinetic energy. This causes the fluid to accelerate out of the impeller
with this increased velocity. The volute casing or diffuser provides gradually
widening passages i.e. an expansion of the flow area, which reduces the fluid
velocity and this energy is converted into pressure. By increasing the size of the
impeller, and/or the speed of pump rotation, we can achieve larger pumping rates.
The fluid flow causes a vacuum to be formed in the pump suction, which will draw
fluid into the impeller suction. Thus fluid flow will occur from the suction to
discharge. The liquid enters the center or 'eye' of the impeller axially, changes
direction and flows radially out between the vanes.
If the pipeline leading to the pump inlet contains a non-condensable gas such as
air, then the pressure reduction at the impeller inlet merely causes the gas to
expand, and suction pressure does not force liquid into the impeller inlet
consequently, no pumping action can occur unless this non-condensable gas is first
eliminated, a process known as priming the pump. Hence we need a fluid flow
through the impeller in order to achieve a vacuum. Thus when these pumps are not
primed, or loose suction during operation they will not self-prime themselves. In
order to prime or re-prime these pumps we can use a priming system. If vapors of
the liquid being pumped are present on the suction side of the pump, this results in
Cavitation, which can cause loss of prime or even serious damage to the pump
Cavitation
When the pressure falls below the vapor pressure of the liquid at a given
temperature, boiling occurs and small bubbles of vapor are formed. These bubbles
will grow in the low-pressure area and implode when they are transported to an
area of pressure above vapor pressure. The term given to this local vaporization of
the fluid is Cavitation.

P A G E | 35

Priming
w Where the liquid to be pumped is at a higher level than the pump, opening
an air release cock near the pump suction will enable the air to be forced out
as the pipeline fills up under the action of gravity. This is often referred to as
"flooding the pump".
w Alternatively, an air-pumping unit can be provided to individual pumps or as
a central priming system connected to several pumps.
w The water ring or liquid ring primer can be arranged as an individual unit
mounted on the pump and driven by it, or as a motor driven unit mounted
separately and serving several pumps, known as a central priming system.
CENTRAL PRIMING SYSTEMS
If there is more than one centrifugal pump to be primed in an installation, one
priming device can be made to serve all the pumps. Such an arrangement is called
a central priming system. If the priming device and the venting of the pumps are
automatically controlled, the system is called a central automatic priming system.

P A G E | 36

Operation of Priming Valve

The Vacuum Priming Valve is
used in conjunction with a
central vacuum priming system
to prime (fill with water) a
centrifugal pump. The valve is
typically mounted on the suction
piping or pump volute. The
purpose of the Vacuum Priming
Valve is to automatically allow
air to be drawn out of the
pumping system until the pump
fills with water. Then, when the
water reaches the priming valve,
the float rises and closes the
priming valve to prevent fluid
from flowing to the vacuum
priming system. The priming
valve will continue to release air
while the pump is running. The
valve can be equipped with
optional water level control
switch to signal when the water
level has reached the pump or
provide a warning that the pump
has lost its prime (wet well is
empty of suction line is
blocked). The switch is
packaged separately for field
installation
w Where several pumps require a priming aid, for example a cargo pumping
system or a number of engine room pumps, a central priming system is often
used
w This reduces the number of priming pumps, saving spares, maintenance and
cost.

P A G E | 37

w With this system a central priming unit consisting of two or more liquid ring
primer pumps is arranged to pull a vacuum on a central tank. The tank has
connections to float chambers in each of the suction lines for the system
pumps isolated by either manually operated or solenoid operated valves.
w The priming pumps are controlled by the vacuum of central tank, cutting in
and out as required according to demand. As a system pump is required the
priming connection is opened manually or automatically until good suction
is achieved.
Centrifugal pumps Types
1. End suction: End-suction pumps are
used in five main fields of
applications: Water supply, industrial
pressure boosting, industrial liquid
transfer, HVAC (heating, ventilation
and air-conditioning), and irrigation.

2. Split case: A type of centrifugal pump,

in which the casing is split into two
separate chambers. When the casing is
split along a vertical plane in relation
to the impeller, its known as a
vertical split case pump; when its on
a horizontal plane, its known as a
horizontal split case pump. This type
of casing design is more economical
for higher flow applications, and the
impeller can be supported by bearings
on both sides, an advantage for larger,
higher flow pumps. The pump has the
suction and discharge connections in
the lower half of the casing, opposed
to each other. The impeller is mounted
on a shaft which is supported by
bearings on both sides.

P A G E | 38

3. In-line: Suction and discharge nozzles

are located 180 apart on the same
centerline for mounting directly in a
pipe line. This eliminates critical pipe
alignment for ease of assembly and
minimum pipe strain. The need for
costly foundations is eliminated,
which guarantees minimum space
requirements. The motor and bracket
assembly can be removed from the
casing without disturbing the piping.
The impeller, mechanical seal, bronze
shaft sleeve, and bronze wear rings are
therefore accessible for easy
maintenance
4. Double suction: "Double-suction
pump" is a horizontal, split-casing,
centrifugal pump that receives suction
liquid in both sides of the rotating
impeller. This is a much desired type
of mechanical design because it
effectively balances the thrust effect of
the rotating impeller and reduces the
thrust bearing need and wear.
5. Vertical multistage: The in-line design
enables installation of the pump in
horizontal one pipe systems. The
suction and discharge ports are of
same dimension and are in the same
horizontal plane. This arrangement
insures a compact design and calls for
a simpler piping systems.

P A G E | 39

6. Horizontal multistage: Pump shaft is

supported in anti-friction bearings.
Enclosed impellers are of radial flow
type provided with balancing holes.
These pumps have standard
lubrication of grease and are suitable
for coupling with electric motors.
Impellers mounted back-to-back: this
arrangement maintains axial balance
without resorting to complicated
balancing devices. This pump is
designed for high-pressure services
including: boiler feed, reverse
osmosis, shower service, pressure
boosting, plus much more.
7. Submersible: A submersible
pump (or sub pump, electric
submersible pump (ESP)) is a device
which has a hermetically
sealed motor close-coupled to the
pump body. The whole assembly is
submerged in the fluid to be pumped.
The main advantage of this type of
pump is that it prevents pump
cavitation, a problem associated with a
high elevation difference between
pump and the fluid surface.
8. Self-priming: The term "self-priming
pump" describes a centrifugal pump
that can use an air-water mixture to
reach a fully-primed pumping
condition. A "self-priming"
centrifugal pump overcomes the
problem of air binding by mixing air
with water to create a fluid with
pumping properties much like those of
regular water. The pump then gets rid
of the air and moves water only, just
like a standard centrifugal pump.

P A G E | 40

9. Axial-flow: An axial flow pump is a

type of centrifugal pump that uses an
impeller with vanes that direct the
flow axially. In this way, they differ
from most other centrifugal pumps,
which direct the flow more radially. In
general, axial flow pumps create less
pressure (head) than radial flow
centrifugal pumps, but they can
produce much higher flow rates.
10.Regenerative: A typical impeller and
housing of a regenerative turbine
pump are shown in Figure 1. The fluid
is in contact with the fluted portion of
the impeller. The impeller, through
centrifugal forces, propels the fluid
radially outward. The enclosing
chambers conduct the fluid into twin
vortices around the impeller blades, as
shown in Figures A small pressure rise
occurs in the vicinity of each impeller
blade. V or-spring, form it into a
circle, and lay it on the impeller blade.
As you follow the coiled spring, you
would see the progression of
movement from one blade to the
trailing blade.

P A G E | 41

Reading a Pump Performance Curve

Let's take a look at a pump curve, the common way of showing a centrifugal
pump's performance.

Pump Size Number

The size of the pump, 1-1/2 x 3 - 6 is shown in the upper part of the pump curve
illustration. Note that the size number 1-1/2 x 3 - 6 indicates that the pump has a 11/2 inch discharge port, a 3 inch suction port, and a maximum nominal impeller
size of 6 inches. This type of nomenclature is common, with some companies
putting the 3 in the first position instead of the 1-1/2. In either case, standard
procedure is that the suction port is the larger of the first two numbers shown and
the largest of the three numbers is the nominal maximum impeller size.
Pump Speed in RPMs
Also in the upper right hand corner notice that the curve indicates performance at
the speed of 3450 RPM (a common electric motor speed in 60 hz countries). All
the information given in the curve is valid only for 3450 RPM. Generally speaking,
curves which indicate RPM to be between 3400 and 3600 RPM are used for all two
pole (3600 RPM nominal speed) motors applications.

P A G E | 42

Flow
The pump's flow range is shown along the bottom of the performance curve. Note
that the pump, when operating at one speed, 3450 RPM, can provide various flows.
The amount of flow varies with the amount of head generated. As a general rule
with centrifugal pumps, an increase in flow causes a decrease in head.
Head
The left side of the performance curve indicates the amount of head a pump is
capable of generating.
Trimmed Impeller Curves
Notice that there are several curves which slope generally downward as they move
from left to right on the curve. These curves show that actual performance of the
pump at various impeller diameters. For this pump the maximum impeller diameter
is shown as 6 inches and minimum is 3 inches. Impellers are trimmed in a machine
shop to match the impeller to the head and flow needed in the application.
Impeller trimming: Impeller trimming saves costs and energy without any input
from your side. Pumps with an optimized flow passage and a speed control system
make system operation efficient. Apart from using a speed control system with the
pump, offering impeller trimming as a standard is another cost-effective option of
saving customers energy. Impeller trimming involves reducing the outside
diameter of the impeller until the pump output exactly matches customer needs.
Just a small drop in efficiency enables a significant reduction in pump input power.
Reducing the outside diameter by 10 per cent reduces the head by about 20 per
cent and the power input by a total of 35 per cent. This small adjustment saves up
to 10 per cent in energy continuously and without any additional operating costs.

Duty Point
The point on the curve where the flow and head match the application's
requirement is known as the duty point. A centrifugal pump always operates at the
point on its performance curve where its head matches the resistance in the
pipeline. For example, if the pump shown above was fitted with a 6 inch impeller
and encountered 100 feet of resistance in the pipeline, then it would operate at a
flow of approximately 240 gallons per minute and 100 feet of head. It is important
to understand that a centrifugal pump is not limited to a single flow at a given
speed. Its flow depends on the amount of resistance it encounters in the pipeline.

P A G E | 43

To control the flow of a centrifugal pump it is normally necessary to restrict the

discharge pipeline, usually with a valve, and thus set the flow at the desired rate.
Note: Generally speaking, do not restrict a pump's flow by putting a valve on the
suction line. This can cause damage to the pump!
Brake Horsepower (BHP)
Along the bottom of this performance curve are brake horsepower lines sloping
upward from left to right. These lines correspond to the performance curves above
them (the top performance curve corresponds to the top BHP line, and so on).
These lines indicate the amount of driver horsepower which is required at different
points of the performance curve. The lines correspond to a BHP horsepower scale
on the lower right hand corner of the page. In our example operating point at 120
gpm and 150 feet of head we observe that the corresponding BHP line equals about
6.8 horsepower. See the chart below.

End of Curve Horsepower

When sizing a motor driver to fit an application it is necessary to consider whether
the pump will ever be required to operate at a flow higher than the duty point. The
motor will need to be sized accordingly. If the pump may flow out to the end of the
curve (if someone opens the restriction valve all the way, for example) it is

P A G E | 44

important that the motor does not become overloaded as a result. Therefore it is
normal practice to size the motor not for the duty point, but for the end of curve
(EOC) horsepower requirements. In the example shown below, a 7-1/2 hp motor
would adequately power the pump at a duty point of 120 gpm at 150 feet. But
notice that the end of curve brake horsepower requires that a 10 hp motor be used.

Centrifugal Pump FAQ

What is cavitation?
The increase velocity of the water entering a pump will cause a reduction in
pressure within a unit. If this pressure falls too low, some of the water will
vaporize, forming bubbles entrained in the liquid. These bubbles collapse violently
as they move to areas of higher pressure creating the noise and vibration from the
pump.
How do you know if the pump is cavitating?
The pump is cavitating if knocking noises and vibrations (like pumping gravel) can
be heard when it is operating. Other signs may be erratic power consumption and
fluctuations or reductions in pump output.

P A G E | 45

Will a centrifugal pump work if it is running backwards?

A centrifugal pump accelerates water off the tips of the impeller vanes. When an
impeller is running backward, the centrifugal forces will still accelerate the
wateralthough far less efficiently. A backward running pump will deliver less
water, at a lower pressure, and will typically consume less electricity. If the
impeller is threaded to the shaft, it may unscrew when running backwards.
My pump starts and stops a lot. Will this hurt the motor?
Yes it will... If you start the motor too many times, a buildup of heat can cause
damage to the motor. Every time the motor starts, the inrush current of up to 10
times the nameplate amps (locked rotor code M). The motor dissipates the inrush
of energy as heat.
What does water hammer sound like?
It sounds like somebody is hitting the pipe with a sledge hammer.
If I put a bigger motor on my pump, will it pump more?
No. The amount of water and the pressure (head) that a centrifugal pump produces
is related to the rotational speed, impeller diameter and size of the impeller vanes.

What is the relationship between flow low and pressure?

When the flow increases, the discharge pressure of the pump decreases, and when
the flow decreases the discharge pressure increases
Can a pump be run at zero flow for an extended period of time?
Do not let a centrifugal pump operate for long periods of time at zero flow. The
friction of the impeller will make water will boil, the mechanical seal will burn,
all plastic components will melt and water will possibly leak into the motor
windings In residential systems, the pressure switch shuts the pump down when the
pressure is high which means there is low or no flow.
What is a centrifugal pumps minimum flow rate?
There is no standard which establishes precise limits for minimum flow in pumps.
Most centrifugal pumps should not be used at a flow rate less than 50% of the best
efficiency point. If the system requires a flow rate of 50% or less then use a

P A G E | 46

recirculation line to increase the flow through the pump keeping the flow low in
the system. If a pump operates at at very low flows, it could overheat badly and
cause noise, vibration, cavitation and mechanical damage.
Should an install pressure gauges in the system?
Make sure your pump has a pressure gauge on the discharge side close to the outlet
of the pump this will help you diagnose pump system problems. It is also useful to
have a pressure/ vacuum gauge on the suction side; the difference in pressure is
proportional to the total head. The pressure gauge reading will have to be corrected
for elevation since the reference plane for total head calculation is the suction
flange of the pump.
Can a centrifugal pump run dry?
Make sure that the pump is always full of liquid; most centrifugal pumps cannot
run dry. In residential systems, to make sure that the pump stays full of the liquid
use a check valve in line or a foot valve at the end of the suction line. Use of check
valves to isolate pumps installed in parallel.
What kind of isolation valves should I use?
Gate valves or full flow ball valves should be used as these offer no resistance to
flow and can provide a tight shut-off. Butterfly valves are often used but they do
provide some resistance and their presence in the flow stream can potentially be a
source of hang-ups which would be critical at the suction. Butterfly valves close
faster than gate valves but are not as leak proof.
What kind of reducer should I use on the suction side?
Always use an eccentric reducer at the pump suction when a pipe size transition is
required. Put the flat on top when the fluid is coming from below or straight and
the flat on the bottom when the fluid is coming from the top. This will avoid an air
pocket at the pump suction and allow air to be evacuated.
Where do I install the isolation valve to control the pump flow?
If you need to control the flow, use a valve on the discharge side of the pump;
never use a valve on the suction side for this purpose.
Why is there air in my system?

P A G E | 47

Avoid pockets or high point where air can accumulate in the piping. An ideal pipe
run is one where the piping gradually slopes to the suction of the pump and up
from the pump discharge. This will ensure that any air in the the pump can be
evacuated.
What is Water hammer?
Water hammer or hydraulic shock is a pressure surge resulting when water in
motion is forced to stop or change direction suddenly. Water hammer commonly
happens when a valve is closed suddenly at an end of a pipeline system, and a
pressure wave if formed in the pipe. This pressure wave can cause major problems,
from noise and vibration to pipe collapse. It is possible to reduce the effects of the
water hammer pulses with accumulators and other features. For pumps 500 GPM
or larger use valves at the discharge that is controlled to open gradually when
starting the pump. This will avoid water hammer during the initial start and
damage to the piping system.
What pipe size should I use?
The right pipe size is a compromise between cost and excessive friction loss that
will affect the pump performance. As a rule of thumb the discharge pipe size
should not be smaller than the pump discharge connection. For the suction side,
you can also use the same size pipe as the pump suction connection and increase it
by one pipe size for every 50 feet of suction pipe. A typical velocity range used for
sizing pipes on the discharge side of the pump is 8-12 ft/s and for the suction side
3-6 ft/s. The actual pipe sizes should be determined by calculating the friction loss
of the whole system.
What happens when centrifugal pumps are run in parallel?
When two or more pumps are arranged in parallel their resulting performance
curve is obtained by adding their individual capacities at the same head.
Centrifugal pumps in parallel are used to deliver larger flows than one pump can
handle alone. Parallel operation adds pump capacity while the head stays the same.
What happens when centrifugal pumps are run in series?
When two or more centrifugal pumps are arranged in series their resulting pump
performance curve is obtained by adding their heads at the same flow rate
(capacity). Centrifugal pumps in series are used to deliver more system head than

P A G E | 48

one pump can handle alone. Series operation adds pump head while the capacity
stays the same.
What happens if you do not have enough submergence?
The end of the suction pipe is not submerged deeply enough, a vortex will form at
the surface and cause air to be entrained in the pump reducing the pump capacity.
What centrifugal pump do I need?
A centrifugal pump should be selected based on total head and flow requirements.
Pump selection starts with getting detail information about the system. If you are
just replacing an existing pump with an exact replacement, then there is no
problem. If you are replacing an existing pump with problems or looking for a
pump for a new application then we respectfully suggest that you contact a
qualified and competent specifying engineer.
Will air in pump reduce its capacity?
When air enters a pump it sometimes gets trapped in the volute, this reduces the
capacity, creates vibration and noise. To remedy, shut the pump down and open
top casing plug vent and remove the air. If the pump is excessively noisy do not
automatically assume that the problem is cavitation, air in the pump creates
vibration and noise.
What is the effect of viscosity on pump performance?
Viscosity is the main criteria which determine whether the application requires a
centrifugal pump or a positive displacement pump. Centrifugal pumps can pump
viscous fluids however the performance is adversely affected. If your fluid is over
2000 SSU in viscosity consider using a positive displacement pump.
What is the shut off head in a centrifugal pump?
The shut-off head, this is the maximum head that the pump can achieve and occurs
at zero flow. The pump will be noisy and vibrate excessively at this point. The
pump will consume the least amount of power at this point. Do not let a centrifugal
pump operate for long periods of time at zero flow. The friction of the impeller
will make water will boil, the mechanical seal will burn, all plastic components
will melt and water will possibly leak into the motor windings In residential
systems, the pressure switch shuts the pump down when the pressure is high which
means there is low or no flow.

P A G E | 49

What is the Best Efficiency Point (BEP)?

The best efficiency point B.E.P. this is the point at which the pump is the most
efficient and operates with the least vibration and noise. This is often the point for
which pumps are rated and which is indicated on the nameplate. The pump will
consume the power corresponding to its B.E.P. rating at this point.
What is the maximum flow point?
It is the point, on the right side of the curve, past which the pump may not operate.
The pump will be noisy and vibrate excessively at this point. The pump will
consume the maximum amount of power at this point.
What are the three different types of pump curves?
They are normal curves, flat curves and drooping curves. In a normal curve the
head decreases rapidly as flow increases. Ina flat curve the head decreases very
slowly as flow increases. The drooping curve is similar to the normal curve except
that the head raises then drops as it gets near to the shut-off head point.
Are there any advantages to using a pump with a drooping curve?
The drooping curve shape is to be avoided because it is possible for the pump to
hunt between two operating points which both satisfy the head requirement of the
system. This is known to happen when two pumps are in parallel, when the second
pump is started it may fail to get to the operating point or hunt between two points
that are at equal head. Thankfully not to many pumps have this characteristic.
When is a flat curve desirable?
A flat curve is sometimes desirable since a change in flow only causes a small
change in head as in a sprinkler systems. As more sprinklers are turned on the head
will tend to decrease but because the curve is flat the head will decrease only a
small amount which means that the pressure at the sprinkler will drop only a small
amount, thereby keeping the water velocity high at the sprinkler outlet.
Are normal curves steep?
The normal curve can be more or less steep. A steep curve can be desirable from a
control point of view since a small change in flow will result in a large pressure
drop. The steepness of the curve depends on the number of vanes and the specific
speed.

P A G E | 50

Gear

P A G E | 51

TYPES OF GEARS
1. Spur Gear
2. Helical Gear
3. Herringbone Gear
4. Bevel Gear
5. Worm Gear
6. Rack and Pinion
7. Internal and External Gear
8. Face Gear
9. Sprockets
1) Spur Gear-Parallel and co-planer shafts connected by gears are called spur gears.
The arrangement is called spur gearing. Spur gears have straight teeth and are
parallel to the axis of the wheel. Spur gears are the most common type of gears. The
advantages of spur gears are their simplicity in design, economy of manufacture and
maintenance, and absence of end thrust. They impose only radial loads on the
bearings. Spur gears are known as slow speed gears. If noise is not a serious design
problem, spur gears can be used at almost any speed.

Helical Gear-Helical gears have their teeth inclined to the axis of the shafts in
the form of a helix, hence the name helical gears. These gears are usually thought
of as high speed gears. Helical gears can take higher loads than similarly sized spur
gears. The motion of helical gears is smoother and quieter than the motion of spur
gears. Single helical gears impose both radial loads and thrust loads on their
bearings and so require the use of thrust bearings. The angle of the helix on both
the gear and the must be same in magnitude but opposite in direction, i.e., a right
hand pinion meshes with a left hand gear.
2)

3) Herringbone Gear - Herringbone gears resemble two helical gears that have been
placed side by side. They are often referred to as "double helical". In the double
helical gears arrangement, the thrusts are counter-balanced. In such double helical
gears there is no thrust loading on the bearings.

P A G E | 52

4) Bevel/Miter Gear-Intersecting but coplanar shafts connected by gears are

called bevel gears. This arrangement is known as bevel gearing. Straight bevel
gears can be used on shafts at any angle, but right angle is the most common.
Bevel Gears have conical blanks. The teeth of straight bevel gears are tapered in
both thickness and tooth height.
Spiral Bevel gears: In these Spiral Bevel gears, the teeth are oblique. Spiral Bevel
gears are quieter and can take up more load as compared to straight bevel gears.
Zero Bevel gear: Zero Bevel gears are similar to straight bevel gears, but their teeth
are curved lengthwise. These curved teeth of zero bevel gears are arranged in a
manner that the effective spiral angle is zero.
5) Worm Gear- Worm gears are used to transmit power at 90 and where high
reductions are required. The axes of worm gears shafts cross in space. The shafts of
worm gears lie in parallel planes and may be skewed at any angle between zero and
a right angle. In worm gears, one gear has screw threads. Due to this, worm gears
are quiet, vibration free and give a smooth output. Worm gears and worm gear shafts
are almost invariably at right angles.
6) Rack and Pinion- A rack is a toothed bar or rod that can be thought of as a sector
gear with an infinitely large radius of curvature. Torque can be converted to linear
force by meshing a rack with a pinion: the pinion turns; the rack moves in a straight
line. Such a mechanism is used in automobiles to convert the rotation of
the steering wheel into the left-to-right motion of the tie rod(s). Racks also feature
in the theory of gear geometry, where, for instance, the tooth shape of an
interchangeable set of gears may be specified for the rack (infinite radius), and the
tooth shapes for gears of particular actual radii then derived from that. The rack and
pinion gear type is employed in a rack railway.
7) Internal & External Gear- An external gear is one with the teeth formed on
the outer surface of a cylinder or cone. Conversely, an internal gear is one with the
teeth formed on the inner surface of a cylinder or cone. For bevel gears, an internal
gear is one with the pitch angle exceeding 90 degrees. Internal gears do not cause
direction reversal.
8) Face Gears- Face gears transmit power at (usually) right angles in a circular
motion. Face gears are not very common in industrial application.
9) Sprockets-Sprockets are used to run chains or belts. They are typically used in
conveyor systems.

P A G E | 53

Mechanical seal

P A G E | 54

Mechanical Seal Piping Plans

A primary factor in achieving highly reliable, effective sealing performance is to create the best
fluid environment around the seal. Selection of the right piping plan and associated fluid control
equipment requires a knowledge and understanding of the seal design and arrangement, fluids in
which they operate, and of the rotating equipment. Providing clean, cool face lubrication,
effective heat removal, personnel and environmental safety, leakage management and controlling
system costs are among the specific factors that must be considered. API has established
standardized piping plans for seals that provide industry guidelines for various seal
arrangements, fluids and control equipment. The following pages illustrate and describe features
of these plans as an aid to help you determine what support system requirements will maximize
the performance reliability of your fluid handling rotating equipment application. API 682/ISO
21049 standards have default (required) connections and connection symbols for seal chamber
and gland plate connections based upon the seal configuration. It is recommended that the latest
edition of these standards be reviewed for up-to-date requirements, when these standards are
mandated for a piece of rotating equipment. The intent of this booklet is to illustrate the common
connections that are utilized for the various piping plans, regardless of the equipment type, and
therefore use generic names for connections. The end user and/or equipment manufacturer may
have specific requirements that dictate what connections are to be supplied and how they are to
be labeled. In the piping plans illustrated, the Flush connection noted for the inboard seal of a
dual seal may originate from a number of suitable sources. For example, the Flush for piping
plans 11/75 or 32/75 may be the product (Plan 11) or an external source (Plan 32).
Plan 01
Description: Plan 01 is an internal recirculation from the pump discharge area of the pump into
the seal chamber, similar to a Plan 11 but with no exposed piping.
Advantages: No product contamination and no external piping. Advantageous on highly viscous
fluids at lower temperatures to minimize the risk of freezing that can occur with exposed piping
arrangements.
General: This flush plan should only be used for clean products as dirty products can clog the
internal line. Not recommended on vertical pumps.

P A G E | 55

Plan 02
Description: Plan 02 is a non-circulating flush plan recommended only where adequate vapor
suppression can be assured.
Advantages: Solids are not continually introduced into the seal chamber, no external hardware is
required, and natural venting occurs when used with a tapered bore seal chamber.
General: Ideal with large bore/tapered bore ANSI/ASME B73.1 or ISO 3069 Type C seal
chambers or with hot process pumps utilizing a cooling jacket. On the latter services, a Plan 62
with steam quench can also provide some additional cooling.

Plan 11
Description: Plan 11 is the most common flush plan in use today. This plan takes fluid from the
pump discharge (or from an intermediate stage) through an orifice(s) and directs it to the seal
chamber to provide cooling and lubrication to the seal faces.
Advantages: No product contamination and piping is simple.
General: If the seal is setup with a distributed or extended flush, the effectiveness of the system
will be improved.

P A G E | 56

Plan 12
Description: Plan 12 is similar to Plan 11, except that a strainer or filter is added to the flush line.
Advantages: No product contamination and solids are removed from the flush stream keeping the
seal clean.
General: If the seal is setup with a distributed or extended flush, the effectiveness of the system
will be improved. This plan should be equipped with a differential pressure indicator or alarm to
alert the user that the filter or strainer is clogged.

Plan 13
Description: In a Plan 13, the flow exits the seal chamber through an orifice and is routed back to
pump suction.
Advantages: With a Plan 13, it is possible to increase or decrease seal chamber pressure with
proper sizing of the orifice and throat bushing clearance.
General: Typically Plan 13 is used on vertical turbine pumps since they have the discharge at the
top of the pump
where the seal is located. Because of the difference in flow patterns, Plan 13 is not as efficient in
removing heat as a Plan 11 and thus requires a higher flow rate.

P A G E | 57

Plan 14
Description: Plan 14 is a combination of Plans 11 and 13. Flush is taken off of pump discharge,
sent to the seal chamber, and piped back to pump suction.
Advantages: Cooling can be optimized with the flush directed at the seal faces. Plan allows for
automatic venting of the seal chamber.
General: Often used on vertical pumps to provide adequate flow and vapor pressure margin
independent of throat bushing design.

Plan 21
Description: Plan 21 is a cooled version of Plan 11. The product from pump discharge is directed
through an orifice, then to a heat exchanger to lower the temperature before being introduced
into the seal chamber.
Advantages: Process fluid cools and lubricates the seal, therefore no dilution of process stream.
Cooling improves lubricity and reduces the possibility of vaporization in the seal chamber.
General: Plan 21 is not a preferred plan, either by API or many users, due to the high heat load
put on the heat exchanger.

P A G E | 58

Plan 23
Description: Plan 23 is a closed loop system using a pumping ring to circulate product through a
heat exchanger and back to the seal chamber.
Advantages: More efficient than a Plan 21 and less chance of heat exchanger fouling. Reduced
temperature improves lubricity and improves vapor pressure margin.
General: Preferred plan for hot applications. Close clearance throat bushing is recommended to
reduce mixing of hot product with cooler closed loop system fluid.

Plan 31
Description: Plan 31 is a variation of Plan 11, where an abrasive separator is added to the flush
line. In this plan, the product is introduced to the abrasive separator from the discharge of the
pump, clean flush is piped from the separator to the seal chamber and solids are returned to the
pump suction.
Advantages: Unlike a strainer or filter, the abrasive separator does not require cleaning. Solids
are removed from the flush stream keeping the seal clean.
General: This plan should be used for services containing solids that have a specific gravity at
least twice that of the process fluid. Typically the separator requires a minimum pressure
differential of 15 psi to operate properly.
Note: An abrasive separator is subject to wear and must be maintained regularly to ensure
efficient operation.

P A G E | 59

Plan 32
Description: Plan 32 uses a flush stream brought in from an external source to the seal. This plan
is almost always used in conjunction with a close clearance throat bushing.
Advantages: The external flush fluid, when selected properly, can result in vastly extended seal
life.
General: When an outside flush source is used, concerns regarding product dilution and/or
economics must be considered by the user. Source pressure must be maintained a minimum of 15
psig above maximum seal chamber pressure.

Plan 41
Description: Plan 41 is a combination of Plan 21 and Plan 31. In Plan 41, product from pump
discharge is first put through an abrasive separator and then to the heat exchanger before being
introduced to the seal chamber.
Advantages: Solids are removed and product temperature is reduced to enhance the seals
environment.
General: Plan 41 is typically used on hot services with solids; however, depending on the
temperature of the process, operating costs can be high. This plan should be used for services
containing solids that have a specific gravity at least twice that of the process fluid. Typically the
separator requires a minimum pressure differential of 15 psi to operate properly.

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Plan 52
Description: Plan 52 uses an external reservoir to provide buffer fluid for the outer seal of an
unpressurized dual seal arrangement.
Advantages: In comparison to single seals, dual unpressurized seals can provide reduced net
leakage rates as well as redundancy in the event of a primary seal failure.
General: Cooling coils in the reservoir are available for removing heat from the buffer fluid. Plan
52 is often used where process fluid contamination cannot be tolerated.

Plan 53A
Description: Plan 53A uses an external reservoir to provide barrier fluid for a pressurized dual
seal arrangement. Reservoir pressure is produced by a gas, usually nitrogen. Flow is induced by a
pumping ring.
Advantages: Reservoir size can be optimized dependent on flow rate. Wear particles settle to
bottom of reservoir and dont get recirculated.
General: Heat is dissipated by reservoir cooling coils. Barrier fluid is subject to gas entrainment
at pressures/temperatures above 300 psi/2500F

P A G E | 61

Plan 53B
Description: Plan 53B, previously termed 53 Modified, uses an accumulator to isolate the
pressurizing gas from the barrier fluid. A heat exchanger is included in the circulation loop to
cool the barrier fluid. Flow is induced by a pumping ring.
Advantages: Should the loop be contaminated for any reason, the contamination is contained
within the closed circuit. The make-up system can supply barrier fluid to multiple dual_
pressurized sealing systems.
General: The bladder accumulator isolates the pressurizing gas from the barrier fluid to prevent
gas entrainment. The heat exchanger can be a water-cooled unit, an air-cooled unit, or utilize
finned tubing based upon the system heat load.

Plan 53C
Description: Plan 53C uses a piston accumulator to provide pressure to the system. It uses a
reference line from the seal chamber to provide a constant pressure differential over the
chambers pressure. A water- or air-cooled heat exchanger provides for barrier fluid cooling.
Flow is induced by a pumping ring.
Advantages: Provides a tracking system to maintain barrier pressure above seal chamber
pressure.
General: The heat exchanger can be a water-cooled unit, an air-cooled unit, or utilize finned
tubing based upon the system heat load. The reference line to the accumulator must be tolerant of
process contamination without plugging.

P A G E | 62

Plan 54
Description: Plan 54 utilizes an external source to provide a clean pressurized barrier fluid to a
dual seal.
Advantages: Can provide pressurized flow to multiple seal installations to reduce costs.
Positively eliminates fugitive emissions to atmosphere.
General: Plan 54 systems can be custom engineered to suit application or specific plant
requirements. Systems can range from the direct connection from other process streams to
complex lubrication systems.

Plan 62
Description: Plan 62 is a common plan to improve the environment on the atmospheric side of
single seals by quenching with steam, nitrogen or water.
Advantages: Plan 62 is a low cost alternative to tandem seals. The quench prevents or retards
product crystallization or coking. Quenches can also provide some cooling.
General: Typical applications include; steam quenches on hot services to retard coking; nitrogen
quenches on cold or cryogenic service to prevent icing; or water quench to prevent crystallization
or accumulation of product on the atmospheric side of the seal.

P A G E | 63

Plan 65
Description: Plan 65 is a liquid leakage detection plan normally used for single seals. It utilizes a
level switch on a reservoir to set off an alarm when excess leakage is detected.
Advantages: Provides an alarmed indication of excessive seal leakage that can shutdown
equipment if necessary.
General: The system includes a loop to by-pass the orifice to prevent high pressure on the
atmospheric side of the seal. The gland throttle bushing design should be consistent with the
fluids properties. Gland throttle bushing designs can vary from fixed designs to segmented
bushings.

Plan 72
Description: Plan 72 for secondary containment uses an external low pressure buffer gas, usually
nitrogen, regulated by a control panel that injects it into the outer seal cavity.
Advantages: Introduction of a buffer gas like nitrogen reduces fugitive emissions, prevents icing
on cold applications, and provides for some cooling to the outboard seal.
General: Plan 72 is normally used with Plan 75 for primary seal leakage that is condensing, or
with Plan 76 for non-condensing leakage.

P A G E | 64

Plan 74
Description: Plan 74 provides a pressurized gas, typically nitrogen, to dual gas seals through the
use of a control panel that removes moisture, filters the gas, and regulates the barrier pressure.
Advantages: Lower costs and maintenance than systems used on dual pressurized liquid systems.
Leakage to atmosphere is an inert gas.
General: The barrier gas is usually a pressurized nitrogen line. For higher pressure applications
the system pressure can be supplemented with a gas pressure booster/amplifier. Typically dryrunning, on-contacting, gas lubricated seals are used with this plan.

Plan 75
Description: Plan 75 is a collection system used with secondary containment seals for process
fluid that will condense at lower temperatures or is always in a liquid state.
Advantages: The collection reservoir contains a pressure gauge and a high pressure switch to
indicate a buildup in pressure from excessive primary seal leakage or failure.
General: Plan 75 can be used in conjunction with a gas purge from Plan 72.Typically dryrunning, contacting secondary containment seals are used with this plan.

P A G E | 65

Plan 76
Description: Plan 76 is a system to divert non-condensing primary seal leakage to a flare or
vapor recovery system.
Advantages: Lower initial and maintenance costs than dual unpressurized seals using a Plan 52.
General: Plan 76 can be used in conjunction with a gas purge from Plan 72. Can be used with
dry-running, contacting or non-contacting secondary containment seals.

Best Piping Practices

Minimize piping line losses.
Minimum 1/2 piping or 5/8 tubing.
Use large radius bends.
Tangential outlet ports.
Verify shaft rotation direction.
Slope horizontal runs upward.
Install drain at lowest piping point.
Flush is recommended whenever possible.
Use forced circulation where possible.
Cooling is recommended for buffer/ barrier fluid.
Always properly vent the system prior to start-up.
Always verify pressure and/or level switch set points.
Check system for leaks.
Contact John Crane for buffer/barrier fluid recommendation.
Plan 74 Dual Gas Seals

P A G E | 66

P A G E | 67

Pump Basics

P A G E | 68

The pump is mechanical device which conveys liquid from one place to another
place. It can be defined as a hydraulic machines which converts the mechanical
energy into hydraulic energy. The pump is power absorbing machine. The power
can be supplied to the pump by a prime mover like an electric motor, an internal
combustion engine or turbine.
Types of Pumps
Positive displacement pumps
Roto-dynamic Pump
Positive displacement pumps

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Roto-Dynamic Pumps

P A G E | 70

Positive displacement pump Types

Positive displacement pumps are sub divided into Reciprocating pumps and
rotatory pumps. In that Rotary pumps are further subdivided into single rotor
pumps and multi rotor pumps.
Multi rotor Pumps
Gear Pump
Lobe Pump
Circumferential piston pump
Screw Pump
Gear Pump
A gear pump uses the meshing of gears to pump fluid by displacement. Gear
pumps are also widely used in chemical installations to pump high viscosity fluids.
There are two main variations; external gear pumps which use two external spur
gears, and internal gear pumps which use an external and an internal spur gears
(internal spur gear teeth face inwards).

External Gear Pump

Internal Gear Pump

As the gears rotate they separate on the intake side of the pump, creating a void
and suction which is filled by fluid. The fluid is carried by the gears to the
discharge side of the pump, where the meshing of the gears displaces the fluid. The
mechanical clearances are small in the order of 10 m. The tight clearances,
along with the speed of rotation, effectively prevent the fluid from leaking
backwards.

P A G E | 71

Lobe Pump
Lobe pumps are used in a
variety of industries including
pulp and paper, chemical, food,
beverage, pharmaceutical, and
biotechnology. They are popular
in these diverse industries
because they offer superb
sanitary qualities, high
efficiency, reliability, corrosion
resistance and good clean-inplace and steam-in-place
(CIP/SIP) characteristics.
Rotary pumps can handle solids
(e.g., cherries and olives),
slurries, pastes, and a variety of
liquids. If wetted, they offer
self-priming performance. A
gentle pumping action
minimizes product degradation.
They also offer continuous and
intermittent reversible flows and
can operate dry for brief periods
of time. Flow is relatively
independent of changes in
process pressure, too, so output
is relatively constant and
continuous.
Circumferential piston pump
The Circumferential piston
pump is ideally suited for
transporting very low
viscosity products at higher
discharge pressures for
food, beverage and other
hygienic applications.

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Screw Pump
A screw pump is a positive displacement pump that use one or several screws to
move fluids or solids along the screw(s) axis. In its simplest form (the Archimedes'
screw pump), a single screw rotates in a cylindrical cavity, thereby moving the
material along the screw's spindle. Three-Spindle screw pumps are used for
transport of viscous fluids with lubricating properties. They are suited for a variety
of applications such as fuel-injection, oil burners, boosting, hydraulics,
fuel, lubrication, circulating, feed and so on. Compared to centrifugal pumps,
positive displacements (PD) pumps have several advantages. The pumped fluid is
moving axially without turbulence which eliminates foaming that would otherwise
occur in viscous fluids. They are also able to pump fluids of higher viscosity
without losing flow rate. Also, changes in the pressure difference have little impact
on PD pumps compared to centrifugal pumps.

Single rotor pumps

Vane pump
Piston Pump
Progressing Cavity
Screw Pump
Peristaltic Pump

P A G E | 73

Vane pump
A rotary vane pump is a positive-displacement
pump that consists of vanes mounted to a rotor
that rotates inside of a cavity. In some cases
these vanes can be variable length and/or
tensioned to maintain contact with the walls as
the pump rotates.
Progressive cavity pump
A progressive cavity pump is a type of positive displacement pump and is also
known as a progg cavity pump, eccentric screw pump or cavity pump. It transfers
fluid by means of the progress, through the pump, of a sequence of small, fixed
shape, discrete cavities, as its rotor is turned. This leads to the volumetric flow rate
being proportional to the rotation rate (bidirectional) and to low levels of shearing
being applied to the pumped fluid. Hence these pumps have application in fluid
metering and pumping of viscous or shear-sensitive materials. The cavities taper
down toward their ends and overlap with their neighbors, so that, in general, no
flow pulsing is caused by the arrival of cavities at the outlet, other than that caused
by compression of the fluid or pump components.

Peristaltic pump
A peristaltic pump is a type of positive displacement pump used for pumping a
variety of fluids. The fluid is contained within a flexible tube fitted inside a circular
pump casing (though linear peristaltic pumps have been made). A rotor with a
number of "rollers", "shoes", "wipers", or "lobes" attached to the external
circumference of the rotor compresses the flexible tube. As the rotor turns, the part
of the tube under compression is pinched closed (or "occludes") thus forcing the

P A G E | 74

fluid to be pumped to move through the tube. Additionally, as the tube opens to its
natural state after the passing of the cam ("restitution" or "resilience") fluid flow is
induced to the pump. This process is called peristalsis and is used in many
biological systems such as the gastrointestinal tract. Typically, there will be two or
more rollers, or wipers, occluding the tube, trapping between them a body of fluid.
The body of fluid is then transported, at ambient pressure, toward the pump outlet.
Peristaltic pumps may run continuously, or they may be indexed through partial
revolutions to deliver smaller amounts of fluid.

Reciprocating Pumps
Reciprocating Pumps are sub divided into diaphram Pump and piston or plunger
pump
Piston Pump
A piston pump is a type of
positive displacement pump
where the high-pressure
seal reciprocates with the
piston. Piston pumps can be
used to move liquids or
compress gases.

P A G E | 75

Diaphram Pump
A diaphragm pump (also known as a Membrane pump, Air Operated Double
Diaphragm Pump (AODD) or Pneumatic Diaphragm Pump) is a positive
displacement pump that uses a combination of the reciprocating action of
a rubber, thermoplastic or Teflon diaphragm and suitable valves either side of the
diaphragm (check valve, butterfly valves, flap valves, or any other form of shut-off
valves) to pump a fluid.
There are three main types of diaphragm pumps:

Those in which the diaphragm is sealed with one side in the fluid to be pumped,
and the other in air or hydraulic fluid. The diaphragm is flexed, causing the
volume of the pump chamber to increase and decrease. A pair of non-return
check valves prevent reverse flow of the fluid.
Those employing volumetric positive displacement where the prime mover of
the diaphragm is electro-mechanical, working through a crank or geared motor
drive, or purely mechanical, such as with a lever or handle. This method flexes
the diaphragm through simple mechanical action, and one side of the
diaphragm is open to air.
Those employing one or more unsealed diaphragms with the fluid to be pumped
on both sides. The diaphragm(s) again are flexed, causing the volume to
change.

When the volume of a chamber of either type of pump is increased (the diaphragm
moving up), the pressure decreases, and fluid is drawn into the chamber. When the
chamber pressure later increases from decreased volume (the diaphragm moving
down), the fluid previously drawn in is forced out.[3] Finally, the diaphragm
moving up once again draws fluid into the chamber, completing the cycle. This
action is similar to that of the cylinder in an internal combustion engine.

P A G E | 76

Roto-Dynamic pumps
Centrifugal Pump
Peripheral Pump
Centrifugal Pump
Centrifugal pumps are a sub-class of dynamic axisymmetric work-absorbing turbo
machinery. Centrifugal pumps are used to transport fluids by the conversion of
rotational kinetic energy to the hydrodynamic energy of the fluid flow. The
rotational energy typically comes from an engine or electric motor. The fluid enters
the pump impeller along or near to the rotating axis and is accelerated by the
impeller, flowing radially outward into a diffuser or volute chamber (casing), from
where it exits. Common uses include water, sewage, petroleum and petrochemical
pumping. The reverse function of the centrifugal pump is a water
turbine converting potential energy of water pressure into mechanical rotational
energy.
How it works
General explanation: Like most
pumps, a centrifugal pump
converts mechanical energy from a
motor to energy of a moving fluid.
A portion of the energy goes into
kinetic energy of the fluid. Fluid
enters axially through eye of the
casing, is caught up in the impeller
blades, and is whirled tangentially
and radially outward until it leaves
through all circumferential parts of
the impeller into the diffuser part
of the casing. The fluid gains both
velocity and pressure while
passing through the impeller. The
doughnut-shaped diffuser, or
scroll, section of the casing
decelerates the flow and further
increase the pressure.

P A G E | 77

Shaft alignment

P A G E | 78

What is shaft alignment?

Shaft alignment is the process whereby two or more machines (typically motor and
pump) are positioned such that at the point of power transfer from one shaft to
another, the axes of rotation of both shafts should be collinear when the machine is
running under normal conditions.
The alignment condition can change when the machine is running. This can be for
a number of reasons including thermal growth. Piping strain, Machine torque, and
foundation movement and bearing play. Since shaft alignment is usually measured
with the machines cold, the alignment condition as measured is not necessarily the
zero alignment condition of the machines. Alignment condition should be
measured while turning the shafts in the normal direction of rotation. Most pumps.
Fans and motors etc. have arrows on the end casing showing direction of rotation.
Alignment parameters
Since shaft alignment needs to be measured and subsequently corrected, a method
of quantifying and describing alignment condition is necessary. A modern and
easily understandable approach is to describe machine alignment condition in
terms of angularity and offset in the horizontal (plan view) and vertical (side view).
Using this method four values can then be used to express alignment condition as
shown in the following diagram.

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Couplings can take misalignment?

An often quoted comment is ...why bother to align the machine when it is fitted
with a flexible coupling designed to take misalignment? Experience and coupling
manufacturers maximum misalignment recommendations would suggest
otherwise. Based on personal accounts rather than facts or research. Evidence
suggests that as much as 50% of machine breakdowns can be directly attributed to
incorrect shaft alignment.

It is true that flexible couplings are designed to take misalignment, typically up to

400 mils or more radial offset of the shafts. But the load imposed on shafts, and
thus the bearings and seals increase dramatically due to the reaction forces created
within the coupling when misaligned.
The installation of machinery such as a pump, gearbox or compressor etc. require
some general rules to be followed.
The driven unit is normally installed first, and the prime mover or motor is
then aligned to the shaft of the driven unit.
If the driven unit is driven through a gearbox, then the gearbox should be
aligned to the driven unit and the driver aligned to the gear box.
Basic checks should be carried out to determine the accuracy of the machine
couplings, i.e. check for run-out (concentricity and squareness to the shaft
centerlines) of coupling halves using a dial indicator, if possible (out of
true coupling halves can cause out of balance problems!).
Preparation of the machinery baseplate and machine mounting surfaces, feet,
pedestals etc. is of paramount importance! Successful alignment cannot be
easily achieved otherwise!
Clean, dress up and file any burrs from mounting faces and anchor bolt holes
etc.

P A G E | 80

Have quality precut shims available to align precisely and effectively.

Before assembling the shaft alignment system/ instrumentation to the
machines, take a few minutes to look at the coupling/shaft alignment.
Remember, your eyes are your first measuring system!
Check that the pump/motor etc. is sitting square to the base plate.(Soft foot
check) and correct as required - see following pages.
Keep shims to a minimum i.e. no more than 3 shims maximum if possible
under machinery feet/mounts.
Correct alignment as required to ensure that, when the machinery is running,
the machinery shafts are centered in their bearings and are aligned to
manufacturers tolerances.
Always check manufacturers alignment figures prior to commencing work!
Temperature growth may require specific cold alignment offsets.
Ensure that any pipework attached to machines is correctly supported but
free to move with thermal expansion.
Measurement and correction of soft foot
An essential component of any successful alignment procedure is the
determination and correction of soft foot. Just as a wobbly chair or table is an
annoyance, a wobbly machine mount causes alignment frustration. The machine
stands differently each time an alignment is attempted, and each set of readings
indicate that the machine is still misaligned. Additionally when the machine is
bolted down, strain is placed upon the machine casing and bearing housings.
Essentially, there are three types of soft foot, two of which are illustrated in the
sketch below.

Parallel soft foot indicates that the baseplate and machine foot are parallel to each
other allowing correction by simply adding shims of the correct thickness. Angular
soft foot is caused by the machine feet forming an angle between each other. This
situation is more complex to diagnose and to correct. One solution is to use tapered
shims to fill the angular space between the baseplate and the foot; a more drastic
but long term solution is to remove the machine and grind the machine feet flat (or
correct the angle of the baseplate)

P A G E | 81

When eliminating soft foot follow these steps:

1) Check all four machine feet, any foot showing over 3.0 mils correct as
appropriate.
2) Examine the largest (or two largest if the same) soft foot with feeler gauges to
determine the type of soft foot. It never hurts to examine the other feet as well, but
concentrate on finding and fixing the largest problem first.
3) Correct the condition diagnosed by shimming only one foot if any.
4) If all feet are within tolerance commence the alignment.
Sag
When we are Align two shafts there will be a sag due to the weights of Dial
Indicator, Attachments and the rod itself in the 12 oclock and 6 oclock positions.
Measurement of Sag
Asses where you will mount the fixtures and measure the distance from
fixture to the dial
Mount the bracket arrangement which you made for the alignment on a
piece of pipe as same as on the machine.
Zero the dial at 12 oclock position.
Rotate to 6 oclock position.
Indicator will show a negative number this is the amount of road sag.
So when you mount the setup on the machine on the 12 oclock position and
set the dial to zero then add the road sag
Then you can continue like the following steps.
Mounting the dial indicator fixtures
1. With the coupling broken, mount the fixture to the stationary shaft or coupling
hub.
2. Span the coupling with a rod.
3. Rotate the fixture to 12:00.
4. Attach the face dial indicator. The dial indicator plunger must be centered for
equal positive and negative travel.
5. Attach the rim dial indicator. The dial indicator plunger must be centered for
equal positive and negative travel.

P A G E | 82

Fixture Mounting Precautions

Regardless of the specific hardware being used, the following precautions should
be observed.

Never attach the fixture to the flexible portion of the coupling.

Maximize the sweep distance of the face dial indicator for the geometry of the
machine being aligned. If the face dial contacts the coupling face directly,
ensure the plunger of indicator contacts the coupling near its outer edge.
Ensure fixtures are mounted at a position where rotation is possible. It is
desirable to have 360 degrees of rotation.

Before obtaining alignment measurements, determine dial indicator bar sag of the
rim dial indicator and ensure dial indicator readings are valid and repeatable.
Importance of The Validity Rule
(Dial Indicator Reading at 12.00+ Dial Indicator Reading at 6.00)
=
(Dial Indicator Reading at 3.00+ Dial Indicator Reading at 9.00)
This means (Top+Bottom) = (Side+Side), it will be helpful when it is difficult to
take the bottom reading due to the any obstruction. In this case we can apply the
validity rule equation if we know 3 values we can easily find the 4th value. The
allowable difference should not exceed 0.001 .This way we can find if there is any
error in readings taken.
Reverse Rim (Dial) Alignment
Reverse rim (dial) alignment is the process of determining the misalignment of two
adjacent rotating machinery elements by radial dial indicator readings taken on the
coupling hub rim or shafts of two machines while they are rotated at the same time.
The key aspect is that the dial indicators are rotated about the machinery shaft's
center of rotation. The process is normally done while turning both shafts together
and taking readings as close as possible to vertical and horizontal planes.

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The A Dimension
The A dimension is the distance between indicator plungers. TheA dimension
is measured parallel to the shafts. This is the most critical dimension and should be
measured very carefully. As mentioned earlier, when setting up fixtures for reverse
rim alignment, care should be exercised to maximize the distance between the
indicator plungers based on the machine geometry and space available.
The B Dimension
The B Dimension is the distance from the movable side indicator to the front
foot bolt center. This dimension is measured parallel to the shafts. Especially on
larger machines, it is sometimes helpful to use a string or straight edge to transfer
the position of the movable dial plunger to the machine base prior to measuring
this dimension.
The C Dimension
The C Dimension is the distance between front and rear foot bolt centers. This
dimension is measured parallel to the shaft.
To obtain a complete set of as-found readings, perform the steps below:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Rotate the dial indicators to 12:00.

Set both dials to the positive sag value.
Record the setting of both dials at 12:00.
Rotate the dial indicators to 3:00.
Determine and record the reading on both dials.

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6. Rotate the dial indicators to 6:00.

7. Determine and record the reading on both dials.
8. Rotate the dial indicators to 9:00.
9. Determine and record the reading on both dials.
10.Rotate the dials to 12:00 and ensure that both dials return to their original
setting.
To measure vertical misalignment, perform the following steps:
1. Rotate the dial indicators to 12:00.
2. Set both dial indicators to the positive sag value.
NOTE: For example, if the amount of sag for a fixture is determined to be -10 mils
(-0.254 mm), the dial would be set to read + 10 mils (+0.254 mm) at the 12:00
position.

3. Rotate both shafts (if possible) to 6:00.

4. Record the DIS and DIM dial indicator TIR values.
To determine vertical offset from 6:00 TIRs, use the following rules:

Stationary Side Offset = DIS TIR / 2

Movable Side Offset = DIM TIR/2 & reverse the sign (+ to -) or (- to +)
Coupling Centerline Offset = (Stationary Side Offset + Movable Side Offset) /
2
To determine vertical angularity from the two reverse rim offsets, use the
following rule:

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Shaft Angularity = ( Movable Side Offset - Stationary Side Offset)

A dimension

Consider the following reverse rim 6:00 total indicator readings (TIRs).

1. The Stationary Dial TIR is +24 mils (0.610 mm). The stationary side offset is
+12 mils, or 12 mils high (0.305 mm).
2. The Movable Dial TIR is -35 mils (-0.889 mm). The stationary offset is +17.5
mils, or 17.5 mils high (0.444 mm). (Remember, you have to change the sign
of the DIM reading to determine offset.)
3. Vertical offset at the coupling centerline is (+ 12 + 17.5) / 2 = +14.75 mils, or
14.75 mils high (0.375 mm).
4. Given an A dimension of 8 inches (203.2 mm), the vertical angularity would
be (17.5-12)/8 = +0.69 mils per inch ((0.444-0.305) / 203.2=0.069 mm / 100
mm)
A major precaution for the measurement and interpretation of horizontal
misalignment data is the establishment of the direction of view. For this training,
all clock positions are referenced from the viewpoint shown below...standing
behind the movable machine facing the stationary machine.

P A G E | 86

To measure horizontal misalignment, perform the following steps:

Rotate the dial indicators to 9:00.
Set both dial indicators to zero.
Rotate both shafts to 3:00.
Record the DIS and DIM dial indicator TIR values.
To determine horizontal offset from 3:00 TIRs, use the following rules

Stationary Side Offset = DIS TIR / 2 & reverse the sign (+ to -) or (- to +)

Movable Side Offset = DIM TIR/2
Coupling Centerline Offset = (Stationary Side Offset + Movable Side Offset) /
2.
To determine horizontal angularity from the two reverse rim offsets, use the
following rule:

Shaft Angularity
= (Movable Side Offset-Stationary Side Offset), (x100 = mm/100mm)
A dimension

P A G E | 87

Consider the following reverse rim 3:00 total indicator readings (TIRs).

1. The Stationary Dial TIR is +34 mils (+0.864 mm). The stationary side offset is
-17 mils (-0.432 mm), or 17 mils to the left. (Remember, you have to change
the sign of the DIS reading to determine offset (see Section 3.3.5).)
2. The Movable Dial TIR is + 8 mils (0.203 mm). The movable side offset is +4
mils (0.101 mm), or 4 mils to the right.
3. Vertical offset at the coupling centerline is (- 17 +-4) / 2 = -6.5 mils ((-0432 +
0.101)/2 =--0.165 mm), or 6.5 mils (0.165 mm) to the left.
4. Given an A dimension of 8 inches (203.2 mm), the horizontal angularity would
be (4 (-17) )/8 = 2.63 mils per inch.((0.101-(-0.432)/ 203.2) = 0.263 mm /100
mm

Calculating the Front Feet and Rear Feet Positions

As shown earlier and illustrated below, the following setup, dimensions, and offset
designations apply.

P A G E | 88

The position of the movable machines front feet is determined using the
following equation.
The position of the movable machines rear feet is determined using the following
equation:

Front feet equation

Rear feet equation.

Where:

M = the offset in the plane of the movable indicator.

S = the offset in the plane of the stationary indicator.
A = the distance between the stationary and movable dial indicator plungers.
B = the distance from the movable dial indicator plunger to the movable
machines front feet bolt center.
C= the distance between the movable machines front and rear feet bolt
centers.
Positive results mean the foot is high (vertical) or to the right (horizontal.)
Negative results mean the foot is low (vertical) or to the left (horizontal.)

P A G E | 89

To ensure perfect alignment, dial readings must be carefully recorded.

Write down Rim readings for Adjustable (i.e. motor) and Stationary (i.e. pump)
machines.
Applying Validity Rule:
Applying validity rule is very important to check your readings, errors in readings
will effect the results of your alignment calculations.
(Dial Indicator Reading at 12.00+ Dial Indicator Reading at 6.00)
=
(Dial Indicator Reading at 3.00+ Dial Indicator Reading at 9.00)
The allowable difference should not exceed 0.001 .This way we can find if there
is any error in readings taken.
Calculations to be done
In these calculations you will cancel the amount of indicator bar sag and zero the
(Top and Left) readings at Stationary machine, and (Bottom and Left) readings at
Adjustable Machine.
Rim & Face Alignment Method
You can use the Rim & Face Method to perform a calculated precision alignment
process. You may use a variety of shaft alignment fixtures. We recommend that
you use a commercial package designed to accommodate a variety of shaft
diameters. The fixtures should include an assortment of rods to span various
coupling lengths. These packages expedite the precision alignment process. Also,
sag values can be pre-determined for the standard rod assortment.

P A G E | 90
Machinery Alignment checklist

Front foot position calculation =

Rear Foot position calculation =

Positive values mean the foot is high, shims must be removed.

Negative values mean the foot is low, shims must be added.

Vertical Misalignment
TIR=(12 O'Clock+6
12 O'Clock 6 O'Clock
O'Clock)
Rim

DIR

Coupling Offset=(DIR/2) =

Face

DIF

Shaft Angularity=(DIF/2) =

Positive values mean that the movable machine is high, therefore you will remove shims.
Negative values mean that the movable machine is low, so you will add shims.
Note:As shim changes are made, check for and take precautions to avoid creating soft
foot conditions.

Horizontal Misalignment
TIR=(3 O'Clock+9
3 O'Clock 9 O'Clock
O'Clock)
Rim

DIR

Coupling Offset=(DIR/2) =

Face
DIF
Shaft Angularity=(DIF/2) =
1. Rotate the dial indicators to 9:00 4. Move the front feet of the movable machine as
and set the dial to zero
you watch the rim indicator move to zero.
2. Rotate both shafts (if possible) 5. Move the rear feet of the movable machine as
you watch the face indicator move to zero.
to 3:00.
3. Adjust the dial indicators to one- 6. Repeat steps 4 & 5 until both dial indicators
half values.
read zero.

P A G E | 91

P A G E | 92

Vacuum pump

P A G E | 93

A vacuum pump is a device that removes gas molecules from a sealed volume in
order to leave behind a partial vacuum.
Types of vacuum Pumps
Positive displacement pumps
Momentum transfer pumps
Entrapment Pumps
Positive displacement pumps
A positive displacement pump makes a fluid move by trapping a fixed amount and
forcing (displacing) that trapped volume into the discharge pipe.
Types
Rotary vane pump: A rotary vane pump
is a positive-displacement pump that
consists of vanes mounted to a rotor that
rotates inside of a cavity. In some cases
these vanes can be variable length
and/or tensioned to maintain contact
with the walls as the pump rotates. The
simplest vane pump is a circular rotor
rotating inside of a larger circular
cavity. The centers of these two circles
are offset, causing eccentricity. Vanes
are allowed to slide into and out of the
rotor and seal on all edges, creating
vane chambers that do the pumping
work.

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Liquid ring pump: The liquid ring pump

compresses gas by rotating a vaned
impeller located eccentrically within a
cylindrical casing. Liquid (usually
water) is fed into the pump and, by
centrifugal acceleration, forms a moving
cylindrical ring against the inside of the
casing. This liquid ring creates a series
of seals in the space between the
impeller vanes, which form
compression chambers. The eccentricity
between the impeller's axis of rotation
and the casing geometric axis results in
a cyclic variation of the volume
enclosed by the vanes and the ring. Gas,
often air, is drawn into the pump via an
inlet port in the end of the casing. The
gas is trapped in the compression
chambers formed by the impeller vanes
and the liquid ring. The reduction in
volume caused by the impeller rotation
compresses the gas, which reports to the
discharge port in the end of the casing.
Reciprocating compressor or piston
compressor: is a positive-displacement
compressor that uses pistons driven by a
crankshaft to deliver gases at high
pressure. The intake gas enters the
suction manifold, then flows into the
compression cylinder where it gets
compressed by a piston driven in a
reciprocating motion via a crankshaft,
and is then discharged. Applications
include oil refineries, gas pipelines,
chemical plants, natural gas processing
plants and refrigeration plants. One
specialty application is the blowing of
plastic bottles made of polyethylene
terephthalate (PET).

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Lobe pumps: are similar to external gear

pumps in operation in that fluid flows
around the interior of the casing. Unlike
external gear pumps, however, the lobes
do not make contact. Lobe contact is
prevented by external timing gears
located in the gearbox. Pump shaft
support bearings are located in the
gearbox, and since the bearings are out
of the pumped liquid, pressure is limited
by bearing location and shaft deflection.
As the lobes come out of mesh, they
create expanding volume on the inlet
side of the pump. Liquid flows into the
cavity and is trapped by the lobes as
they rotate. Liquid travels around the
interior of the casing in the pockets
between the lobes and the casingit
does not pass between the lobes.
Finally, the meshing of the lobes forces
liquid through the outlet port under
pressure.

Momentum transfer pumps or Molecular pumps

In a momentum transfer pump, gas molecules are accelerated from the vacuum
side to the exhaust side. Momentum transfer pumping is only possible below
pressures of about 0.1 kPa.This is because at atmospheric pressure and mild
vacuums, molecules interact with each other and push on their neighboring
molecules in what is known as viscous flow. When the distance between the
molecules increases, the molecules interact with the walls of the chamber more
often than with the other molecules, and molecular pumping becomes more
effective than positive displacement pumping. This regime is generally called high
vacuum. Molecular pumps sweep out a larger area than mechanical pumps, and do
so more frequently, making them capable of much higher pumping speeds. They
do this at the expense of the seal between the vacuum and their exhaust. Since
there is no seal, a small pressure at the exhaust can easily cause back streaming
through the pump; this is called stall. The two main types of molecular pumps are

P A G E | 96

the diffusion pump and the turbo molecular pump. Both types of pumps blow out
gas molecules that diffuse into the pump by imparting momentum to the gas
molecules. Diffusion pumps blow out gas molecules with jets of oil or mercury,
while turbo molecular pumps use high speed fans to push the gas. Both of these
pumps will stall and fail to pump if exhausted directly to atmospheric pressure, so
they must be exhausted to a lower grade vacuum created by a mechanical pump.

Entrapment pumps may be cryopumps, which use cold temperatures to condense

gases to a solid or adsorbed state, chemical pumps, which react with gases to
produce a solid residue, or ionization pumps, which use strong electrical fields to
ionize gases and propel the ions into a solid substrate. A cryomodule uses
cryopumping.

P A G E | 97

Vibration
Analysis

P A G E | 98

Industrial vibration analysis is a measurement tool used to identify, predict, and

prevent failures in rotating machinery. Implementing vibration analysis on the
machines will improve the reliability of the machines and lead to better machine
efficiency and reduced down time eliminating mechanical or electrical failures.
Typical machines include motors, pumps, fans, gear boxes, compressors, turbines,
conveyors, rollers, engines, and machine tools that have rotational elements. The
rotating elements of these machines generate vibrations at specific frequencies that
identify the rotating elements. The amplitude of the vibration indicates the
performance or quality of machine. An increase in the vibration amplitude is a
direct result of failing rotational elements such as bearings or gears. Based on the
machine speed, the rotational frequencies can be calculated and compared to the
measurements to identify the failure mode.
Types of vibration Sensors
Accelerometer
Velocity transducer
Proximity probe
Units of vibration
Accelerometers works
Velocity transducer works Proximity Probes works
according to Acceleration according to Velocity It is according to Displacement
It is measured by:
measured by:
It is measured by:

m/sec2, peak
m/sec2, rms
g, peak
g, rms

mm/sec, 0 to peak
mm/sec, rms

Microns, peak to
peak
Microns, 0 to peak
Microns, rms

P A G E | 99

1. Accelerometers
Operating Principle
The most common sensor used in industry is the accelerometer. Accelerometers
are case mounted using a permanent bolt or portable magnet to hold them in place.
Modern accelerometers are often small micro electro-mechanical systems
(MEMS), consisting of little more than a cantilever beam with a proof mass.
Damping results from the residual gas sealed in the device. Under the influence of
external accelerations the proof mass deflects from its neutral position. This
deflection is measured in an analog or digital manner. Most commonly, the
capacitance between a set of fixed beams and a set of beams attached to the proof
mass is measured. Types are:
Piezoresistive accelerometers (Piezoelectricity is the electric charge that
accumulates in certain solid materials in response to applied
mechanical stress) are commonly used to convert the mechanical motion
into an electrical signal. It is preferred in high shock applications.
Integrating piezoresistors in the springs to detect spring deformation, and
thus deflection.
Capacitive accelerometers typically use a silicon micro-machined sensing
element. Their performance is superior in the low frequency range.
2. Velocity Transducers
Operating Principle
A velocity transducer consists of a moving coil suspended in the magnetic field of
a permanent magnet. The velocity is given as the input, which causes the
movement of the coil in the magnetic field. This causes an emf to be generated in
the coil. This induced emf will be proportional to the input velocity. Velocity
transducers measure the vibration of the surface to which they are attached usually a bearing housing. You can use this instrument in turbine hot sections
where high temperatures cause problems with other sensors. The output signal
results from relative movement between the internal coil and magnet when the case
vibrates. This magnetic damped system operates above its natural frequency. The
self-generated sensor output is proportional to velocity.
3. Proximity Probes: They are used in machine vibration monitoring to, measure
shaft vibration, radial and axial shaft position, and differential expansion between
case and rotor and its support bearing. This is common in large steam turbines,
compressors, and motors that use sleeve-type bearings. A proximity sensor can

P A G E | 100

detect metal targets approaching the sensor, without physical contact with the
target. Proximity sensors are roughly classified into the following three types
according to the operating principle:
The high-frequency oscillation type using electromagnetic induction.
The magnetic type using a magnet.
The capacitance type using the change of capacitance.
Operating Principle of High-frequency Oscillation Type Proximity Sensor
A high-frequency magnetic field is
generated by coil L in the oscillation
circuit. When a target approaches the
magnetic field, an induction current
(eddy current) flows in the target due to
electromagnetic induction. As the
target approaches the sensor, the
induction current flow increases, which
causes the load on the oscillation
circuit to increase. Then, oscillation
attenuates or stops. The sensor detects
this change in the oscillation status
with the amplitude detecting circuit,
and outputs a detection signal.

Electrical powering requirements

Most internally amplified vibration sensors require a constant current DC power
source. Generally, the power supply contains an 18 to 30 Volt source with a 2 to 10
mA constant current diode (CCD) (see figure 1).
AC coupling and the DC bias voltage
The sensor output is an AC signal proportional to the vibration applied. This AC
signal is superimposed on a DC bias voltage (also referred to as bias output voltage
(BOV) or rest voltage). The DC component of the signal is blocked by a capacitor
thereby leaving the AC output signal. Most vibration data collectors, monitors, and
sensor power units contain an internal blocking capacitor for AC coupling. If not
included, a blocking capacitor must be field installed.

P A G E | 101

Amplitude range and the supply voltage

The sensor manufacturer usually sets the bias voltage halfway between the lower
and upper cutoff voltages (approximately 2 V above ground and approximately 2
V below the minimum supply voltage). The difference between the bias and cutoff
voltages determines the voltage swing available the output of the sensor. The
output voltage swing determines the peak vibration amplitude range. (See figure
2.) Thus an accelerometer with a sensitivity of 10 mV/g, and a peak output swing
of 5 Volts, will have an amplitude range of 50g peak. If a voltage source lower
than 18 Volts is used, the amplitude range will be lowered accordingly. Custom
bias voltages are available for lower or higher voltage supply applications.

P A G E | 102

Constant current diodes

Virtually all internally amplified vibration sensors require power supplies that are
regulated by constant current diodes (CCD). The CCD limits the current supplied
to the sensor. The use of unlimited power supply current will damage most
internally amplified sensors. For this reason, most commercially available data
collectors and vibration monitors have power supply circuits that include a CCD to
regulate the power supplied to the sensor. The power supplied is almost always in
the 2 - 10 mA range. Most battery power supplies contain a 2 mA CCD to ensure
long battery life. Line powered supplies (where power consumption is not a
concern) should contain 6 to 10 mA CCDs to drive long cables. For operation
above 100C, limit the current to less than 6 mA to reduce self-heating.
If the power supply is not current limited, then a CCD should be placed in series
with the voltage output of the supply. Ensure that proper diode polarity is
observed.
Cabling requirements
Cabling is one of the most important aspects of vibration sensor installation.
Careful attention must be given to four major considerations: cable length and
capacitance, routing, grounding, and anchoring.
Cable length and capacitance
All cables have capacitance across their leads, therefore the capacitance load on the
output of the sensor increases with cable length. Generally this capacitance is about
30 Pico farads (pF) per foot, depending on the cable construction. After the cable
length has been determined, its effect on the sensor operation should be evaluated.
Capacitive loading reduces high level, high frequency vibration signals.
Normal industrial applications are generally measuring frequency ranges of less
than 10,000 Hz and powered with 2 - 10 mA. For these normal industrial
applications, the effect of this capacitive loading is not a problem for cables less
than 250 feet in length between the sensor and the power source. For cables with a
capacitance of more than 30 pF per foot, or for measuring frequencies greater than
10,000 Hz, additional analysis should be performed before installing cables longer
than 250 feet.
Amplitude range versus cable capacitance
When the sensor amplifier drives a long cable, its performance is limited by the
current available from the CCD in the power supply to charge the cable
capacitance at high frequencies. If the cable capacitance cannot be charged fast
enough to follow the vibration signal, it will produce signal distortion and cause

P A G E | 103

false signals to appear at low frequencies. Sources of high frequency overload

could be gear impacts or the broadband hiss of a steam release valve.
Powering versus cable length
Proper powering will reduce signal distortion in long cable applications. For cable
lengths over 100 feet, it is recommended that the constant current source should be
6 to 10 mA. Even when using very short cables, the current source should be
increased if amplifier overload signals are present or suspected.
For most industrial applications, cable lengths of several hundred feet are normally
usable with the current provided by today's monitoring equipment as long as the
sensor is not mounted on a structure with high level vibrations. In environments
with temperatures at or above 100C (212F), the current should be no more than 6
mA to prevent damage to the accelerometer.
Cable routing and electromagnetic interference
Walky-talkies, power lines, or even electrical sparks are sources of signal
interference. The following guidelines will eliminate many measurement errors
due to electromagnetic interference (EMI) and electro-static discharge (ESD).
Assure that high quality, well shielded cables are used. If cable splices are made
then complete shielding must be maintained. Proper cable routing is also
recommended. Avoid routing sensor cables alongside AC power lines; cables
should cross AC power lines at right angles. Where possible, provide a separate
grounded conduit to enclose the sensor cable. In addition, route the cable away
from radio transmission equipment, motors/generators, and transformers. Finally,
avoid routing the cable through areas prone to ESD. Even though the sensor is
protected against ESD failure, temporary signal distortion may occur as the result
of severe ESD.
Cable grounding and ground loops
In order to provide proper shielding and prevent ground loops, cable grounding
should be carefully considered. Ground loops are developed when a common line
(i.e. signal return/shield) is grounded at two points of differing electrical potential
(see figure 3). For sensors with coaxial cable, the center conductor carries the
signal and power, while the outer braid provides shielding and signal return.
Normally, the cable shield is electrically isolated from the sensor housing. This
isolates the shield from the mounting point of the machine and prevents ground
loops. If a non-isolated sensor is used, it is recommended that an isolated mounting
pad be used to break possible ground loops. For sensors using two
conductor/shielded cable, the signal and power are carried on one lead and the

P A G E | 104

signal common on the other. The cable shield serves to protect the signal from EMI
and ESD. The shield should be grounded at only one point, normally to the readout
equipment (see figure 4). In all cases, it is very important that the cable shield

terminations be properly grounded. Failure to do so in high EMI/ESD

environments can result in damage to the sensor electronics.
Cable anchoring
After mounting the sensor, the
cable should be anchored to
reduce stress at the cable
terminations and to prevent
false signals due to cable
vibration and slapping. When
securing the cable, leave
enough slack to allow free
movement of the
accelerometer. (See figure 5.)

P A G E | 105

Mounting
The mounting configuration
depends primarily upon dynamic
measurement requirements such as
frequency and amplitude range.
Other factors to be considered are
mounting location, prohibitions,
accessibility, and temperature. In
general, there are four techniques
for mounting vibration sensors:
threaded studs, adhesives,
magnets, and probe tips. Figure 6
shows the effect on mounting
resonance and typical usable
frequency range associated with
each of these mounting
techniques.
Stud mounting
Threaded stud mounting allows the
widest dynamic measurement range.
It is recommended for permanent
monitoring systems, high frequency
testing, and harsh environments. The
surface should be faced 1.1 times
greater than the diameter of the
mounting surface of the sensor. For
measurements involving frequencies
above 1 kHz, the surface should be
flat within 1 mil and have surface
texture no greater than 32 micro
inches.
The tapped hole must be perpendicular to within 1 of the mounting point and at
least two threads deeper than the stud. This will prevent a gap between the sensor
and the mounting surface. Proper torque on the mounting stud also required.
Under-torquing the sensor reduces the stiffness of the coupling. Over-torquing can
cause permanent thread damage to the sensor. See figure 7 for surface preparation
and torque value that applies to your application. Before stud mounting the
accelerometer, a coupling fluid should be applied to the mating surfaces. The
coupling fluid protects the mounting surface and optimizes the frequency response

P A G E | 106

by increasing the coupling stiffness. Suggested coupling fluids are machine oil or
vacuum grease. It is recommended that a thread adhesive such as Loctite 222
serviceable thread adhesive be used on the mounting stud.
Adhesive mounting
If the machine cannot be drilled as described in the section above, adhesive
mounting would be the next alternative. The accelerometer could be attached to the
machine with adhesive, although, this method will usually damage the
accelerometer if removal is ever required. An adhesive mounting pad is the best
alternative after stud mounting. The adhesive mounting pad is a disk, typically
stainless steel, which is flat on one side and has an integral stud on the other side.
Other mounting pads are available that have a threaded hole to except
accelerometers with a captive screw. For optimum performance, the surface of the
machine should be faced in the same manner described in stud mounting. If this is
not possible, prepare the mounting surface of the machine by removing rust, loose
paint or dirt. Abrade the surface to allow maximum adhesion. Clean the prepared
area with solvent. Attach the mounting pad to the machine with an ample amount
of adhesive (follow manufactures direction for use of adhesive). There are a
variety of different adhesives that may be used. After the adhesive has cured, apply
a thin film of coupling fluid to the accelerometer seating area of the mounting pad.
Thread the accelerometer onto the mounting pad and torque to the recommended
value as noted in figure 7. Typically, when attaching the mounting pad in this
configuration, the mounting pad may not be electrically attached to the machine.
This could potentially be a problem if the application requires the accelerometer
case to be connected to ground. Test the continuity between the mounting pad and
the bare machine surface. If case grounding is required and the mounting pad is
electrically isolated from the machine, you should use a cable assembly that will
allow you to make this connection. Typically, this would be a two conductor
shielded cable, with the shield tied electrically to the housing of the sensors. If the
mounting pad is electrically tied to the machine, it is crucial that case grounding is
not provided by the cable assembly.
Magnetic mounting and probe tips
In walk-around monitoring programs, magnetic mounts and probe tips may be
used. The frequency range of both mounting methods is dramatically reduced
when compared to stud or adhesive mounts. Magnetic mounts are available with
flat surfaces for flat locations or two pole configurations for curved surfaces. Probe
tips should be made of steel and be no longer than six inches.

P A G E | 107

Operation verification
Once installation is complete, it is recommended that the vibration sensor be tested
for proper operation. Measure the DC bias output voltage (BOV) by powering the
sensor and connecting a voltmeter across the sensor's signal and common leads.
The BOV should rest within 2 V of the value note on the specification sheet
(usually 8 to 12 V).
Diagnostic hints
If the BOV equals 0 V and the power supply is properly connected the circuit may
be shorted; test the cable connections and power supply. If the BOV equals the
supply voltage, the circuit may be open; test the cable connections. If the cable and
power supply check as normal, then the sensor amplifier may be defective. To
confirm sensor amplifier operation, temporarily replace the suspect sensor with a
new unit and recheck the BOV. If the BOV is correct, then the sensor must be
checked for vibration sensitivity.
To test for vibration sensitivity, tap the machine surface near the sensor. Observe
the signal on an oscilloscope to ensure that the sensor is picking up vibrations.
Monitor the measurements of a newly installed sensor to determine if its output is
reasonable.

Faults Identified by Vibration Analysis:

There are several faults in rotating machinery that can be identified by measuring
and analyzing the vibration generated by the machine.
Machine out of balance
Machine out of alignment
Resonance
Bent shafts
Gear mesh disturbances
Blade pass disturbances
Vane pass disturbances
Recirculation & Cavitation
Motor faults (rotor & stator)
Bearing failures
Mechanical looseness
Critical machine speeds

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Instruments for Vibration Measurement

Vibrometer
Vibration Analyser
Fft Analyser

Tips for Making Vibration Data More Useful For Analysis

Location Of Vibration Pick Ups To Be Indicated
Location Of Photocell To Be Indicated
Direction Of Rotation Should Be Indicated
Key Phaser Mark On Rotor Position To Be Indicated
Axial Vibration Phase Logging Must Have Direction Indication
Name Of Vibration Analyzer Should Be Indicated
Vibration Units To Be Indicated
While Giving Control Room Values, Specify The Vibration Units And
Location Of The Pickups
Vibration Must Be Measured By Portable Vibration Meter Near Control
Room Pickup For Varying The Correctness Of Control Room Measurement
Pick Up Should Not Be Mounted Loose
Bracket For External Shaft Vibration Pickup Should Be Stiff Enough Not To
Produce Amplification / Resonance
For Correct Trending Of Vibration Readings, Same Location Should Be
Used For All Periodic Measurements
Reasons of Vibration
If The Measurement Is Healthy, Following May Be The Reasons Of Vibration
Problem
Unbalance
Misalignment
Looseness
Pipe Pulls
Shaft Catenary / Bearing Loading
Resonance
Unequal Flow Path Clearances
Rubbing
Shaft Bow
Oil / Steam Whirl
Deviated Operating Parameters
Defective Bearing / Assembly Of Bearing
Vibration Transmission From Other Source

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Gear Inaccuracies
Casing Distortion
Cavitation
Steps for Resolving the Vibration Problem
Accurate Measurement Of Vibration Data
Collection Of Operating Parameters
Study Of History Of Vibration Behavior / Overhauling Reports / Recurring
Problem Faced
Interaction With O&M Personnels
Collection of Detailed Vibration Behavior at Various Conditions of
Operation like No Load Run, Run Up, Run Down, With And Without
Excitation, Part And Full Load Operation Etc.
Vibration Analysis To Narrow Down The Reasons Of High Vibration
Formulation Of Action Plan (Short Term / Long Term)
Implementation Of Action Plan
Response Of Machine After Implementation Of Action Plan
Fresh Vibration Analysis, If The Problem Persists
Implementation Of New Action Plan

P A G E | 110

Terms to Glossary
Damping is an influence within or upon an oscillatory system that has the effect of
reducing, restricting or preventing its oscillations. In physical systems, damping is
produced by processes that dissipate the energy stored in the oscillation. The
damping of a system can be described as being one of the following:
Over damped: The system returns to equilibrium without oscillating.
Critically damped: The system returns to equilibrium as quickly as possible
without oscillating.
Underdamped: The system oscillates with the amplitude gradually
decreasing to zero.
Undamped: The system oscillates at its natural resonant frequency.
For example, consider a door that uses a spring to close the door once open. This
can lead to any of the above types of damping depending on the strength of the
damping. If the door is undamped it will swing back and forth forever at a
particular resonant frequency. If it is underdamped it will swing back and forth
with decreasing size of the swing until it comes to a stop. If it is critically damped
then it will return to closed as quickly as possible without oscillating. Finally, if it
is over damped it will return to closed without oscillating but more slowly
depending on how over damped it is.

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Boiler

P A G E | 112

Classification of Boilers
Boilers may be classified according to the following1. Relative position of Hot gases and Water
a) Fire tube boiler: The hot gases
passes through the tubes that are
surrounded by water. Fire tube boilers
are also known by certain common
names
Horizontal return tubular
Locomotive fire box
Scotch marine
Vertical tubular

b) Water tube Boiler: The water passes

through the tubes and the hot gases
produced by combustion of fuel, flow
outside. This type of Boilers designated
by the following common names
Babcock and Wilcox Boiler
(straight but inclined tubes
which connect the headers).
Stirling Boiler (multi tubular
boiler having bent tubes that
connect boiler drums to
headers).

2. Method of firing
a) Internally fired Boilers: The furnace
is provided inside the boiler shell and is
completely surrounded by water cooled
surfaces. This method of firing is used
in:
Lancashire Boilers
Locomotive Boilers and
Scotch Boilers

b) Externally fired Boilers: The furnace

is provided outside/ under the boiler.
It has an advantage that its furnace is
simple to construct and can easily be
enlarged, as and when required. This
method of firing is used in Babcock
and Wilcox Boiler.

3. Pressure of Steam
a) High pressure Boilers: Boilers
producing steam 80 bar and above are
called High pressure boilers. E.g.
Babcock and Wilcox Boiler
Lamont Boilers
Velox Boilers and
Benson Boilers etc.

b) Low pressure Boilers: Boilers

producing steam Lower than 80 bar are
called Low pressure boilers. E.g.
Cochran Boilers
Cornish Boiler
Lancashire Boiler
Locomotive Boiler

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4. Method of circulation of water

a) Natural circulation method
Circulation set up by convection
current or by gravity.

b) Forced circulation method

Circulation set up for high pressure
steam through pumps.

Boiler Mountings
The necessary devices installed or mounted for the safety of boiler and its control
are called boiler mountings.
Boiler Mountings for safety:
Two water level indicators 2
Two safety valves.
Combined high steam and low
water safety valve.
Fusible plug.

WATER LEVEL INDICATOR

Boiler Mountings for control:

Pressure gauge
Junction or stop valve
Feed check valve
Blow-off cock
Man hole and mud hole

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PRESSURE GAUGE
Records gauge
pressure
Elliptical spring tube is
also called Bourdon
tube and is made up of
special quality Bronze.
Plug (P) is provided
for cleaning the siphon
tube.
Siphon is filled with
cold water to prevent
the hot steam entering
into the bourdon tube
and spring tube
remains comparatively
cool.

SAFETY VALVES

A) LEVER SAFETY VALVE

B) Dead Weight Safety Valve

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Spring Loaded Safety Valve

High steam and Low water Safety Valve

JUNCTION VALVE: The valve placed directly on a boiler in order to regulate the
steam supply from boiler to steam pipe is called the Junction Valve.

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STOP VALVE: The valve used to regulate the steam supply from the steam pipe to
the prime mover (steam engine or steam turbine) is called Stop Valve.
FEED CHECK VALVE
Feed Check Valve works as Non
Return Valve. Prevents the back
flow of water from the boiler
when the feed water pump is
either not working or in case of
its failure

BLOW-OFF COCK

FUSIBLE PLUG
Plugs P and R are made of gun metal
Plug S is made up of copper
Plug R is screwed to Plug P
Plug S is locked into plug R by a metal like tin
or lead

MANHOLE
This is provided at suitable position on the boiler shell for inspection, maintenance
and repairs. This hole is usually made in elliptical shape of the size convenient for
a man to enter through this hole. The opening is closed by stem tight cover.

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STEAM TRAP
Steam trap is used to collect and automatically drain away the water resulted from
partial condensation of steam without steam to escape with this condensate through
a valve. The valve after draining the condensate is closed. Is presses the leakage of
steam from the trap.
ANTIPRIMING PIPE
It is attached below the stop valve he water particles being carried away along with
steam. It has closed pipe with closed ends of lm and 2m length. The top side of the
pipe has perforations. When the steam passes through it, due to inertia effect, the
moisture of steam falls into the pipe and the steam with reduced moisture passes
into the stop valve.

Boiler Accessories
The devices which are installed in the boiler for their efficient operation and
smooth working are called Boiler Accessories.
Boiler Accessories for efficient operation:
Water heating devices.
Water feeding devices.
Super heater
Economizer
Air preheater
Air preheater
The function of the air pre-heater is to increase the temperature of air before it
enters the furnace. It is generally placed after the economizer.
Economizer
In boilers, economizers are heat exchange devices that heat fluids, usually water,
up to but not normally beyond the boiling point of that fluid. Economizers are so
named because they can make use of the enthalpy in fluid streams that are hot, but
not hot enough to be used in a boiler, thereby recovering more useful enthalpy and
improving the boiler's efficiency. They are a device fitted to a boiler which saves
energy by using the exhaust gases from the boiler to preheat the cold water used to
fill it (the feed water).

P A G E | 118

Injector
The function of an injector is to feed water into the boiler. It is also used where the
space is not available for the installation of a feed pump.
Non-Lifting Injector: The non-lifting injector cold water input is fed by
gravity.
Lifting Injector: The lifting injector uses the Venturi effect of a convergingdiverging nozzle to convert the pressure energy of a motive fluid to velocity
energy which creates a low pressure zone that draws in and entrains a
suction fluid. After passing through the throat of the injector, the mixed fluid
expands and the velocity is reduced which results in recompressing the

P A G E | 119

mixed fluids by converting velocity energy back into pressure energy. The
motive fluid is steam. And the entrained suction fluid is water.

Feed pump
It is a pump which is used to deliver feed water to the boiler.
The appliances in common use for delivering the feed-water into the steam
boilers are:
a) Reciprocating pump
b) Rotary pump
Fuel oil pump
A fuel oil pump consists of two parts:

Gear pump type

This sucks the oil and increases the pressure in the nozzles to 15 bar maximum.
Usually a gear pump of the sickle type is used. This type of pump is a simple and
therefore cheap pump consisting of one or more radical pairs of gears and with a
very small space between the gears and the pump casing. Gear pumps are used
frequently in oil burners because of their simplicity, stability and low price.

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Pressure regulator

To set the heat output of the burner, the rate of fuel delivery via the nozzle must be
adjustable. This is often achieved by an adjustable pressure relief valve between
the pump and the nozzle. When the set pressure is reaches usually 10 - 11 bar, this
valve opens and allows excess oil through a bypass back to the fuel tank or pump
suction.
Electromagnetic Valve
This enables fuel to be shut off from the sprayer by electrical control. This helps
avoid drips when it is inactivated. It also eases the purging of the burner (and any
boiler) of fuel mist, during start up, or while restarting after a misfire. If the burner
were not purged the oil/air mixture could explode dangerously.
Duplex strainer or twin basket strainer is a type of filter built into a fuel, oil or
water piping system and it is used to remove large particles of dirt and debris. The
duplex strainer system usually consists of two separate strainer baskets housed.
The system also contains a valve handle placed between the two baskets to divert
the flow of liquid to one strainer while the other is being cleaned. On some
strainers, the valve will work automatically and the strainer will perform a selfcleaning operation. These types of strainers are installed in the pipeline systems
where flow cannot be stopped.

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Boiler Tube Cleaning

There are two types of tubular boilers
Fire tube: In the fire tube boiler, water surrounds the tubes and hot gasses
travel through the tubes. This results in soot and scale deposits accumulating
within the tubes. No matter what fuel is used (gas, oil, coal or wood) the
tubes need to be cleaned. If the tubes are not cleaned regularly, boiler
efficiency is sacrificed and fuel is wasted. Soot actually has five times the
insulating capacity of asbestos.
Water tube: In the water tube boiler, water is carried in the tubes and heated
to the point that it becomes high pressure steam. In most areas, water tube
boiler plants must have licensed stationary engineers on hand at all times
and maintenance is usually performed by in-house personnel.

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CLEANING METHODS AVAILABLE

There are a wide range of cleaning methods for boiler tubes. Some are listed
below:
(1) Steam Cleaning: Steam cleaning is best suited for the removal of oil and grease.
Chemicals such as trisodium phosphate may be added to the steam to increase its
oil removal effectiveness. Debris such as dirt and rust will also be removed if the
steam velocity is adequate to blow it out of the tube. This is usually not the case in
Field cleaning as the amount of steam required exceeds the capacity of a typical
portable steam jenny.
(2) High Pressure Jetting: High pressure jetting involves cleaning the tube with
high pressure water (up to 10,000 psi).Mechanical cleaning involves the use of airdriven high-speed brushes or cutters which are inserted into the tube and which
clean by abrasive action. The method is fast, economical and safe. Even hard mill
scale is removed. Using an external air-driven motor coupled to a flexible shaft it is
possible to get the brush through 90 degree bends in larger diameter tubes.

P A G E | 123

(3) Alkaline Degreasing with Trisodium Phosphate

(4) Acid Cleaning, usually with Hydrochloric Acid
The last two methods, alkaline degreasing and acid cleaning, are usually done
together. Hard mill scale and oxide films are removed along with oil, grease, dirt
and debris. The process is expensive and requires a high level of expertise. One
problem with chemical cleaning is the rapidly increasing costs of disposal of waste
solvents. Chemical cleaning has been used on boilers for many years and is
periodically needed to clean the waterside of fire tube boilers where calcium and
other mineral based scale has formed. Industrial boiler scale removal chemicals
can effectively remove calcium carbonate and other scales that adhere to heating
surfaces. Chemical cleaning is a viable way to clean the waterside of fire tube and
water tube boilers and should be performed technicians who are trained and
equipped to do the work safely.
Air blowing is sometimes also used for debris removal. The same velocity
problems and limitations apply as for steam cleaning.

Fire tube cleaning machines

1)

2)

3)

Soot blowers consisted of steel tubes fitted with blowing nozzles that were
mounted on the tube sheet of the boiler in such a way that the nozzles could
be maneuvered to blow steam or air through each tube. Soot blowers are
used mainly in large power utility boilers where the smoke stacks are
equipped with scrubbers and other environmental devices.
Fire hose tube: Another tube cleaning method practiced by some boiler tube
technicians was washing out the tubes using a fire hose. One can imagine the
mess this left behind. Yes, the tubes were cleaned but the boiler room was
left with a layer of black mud on the floor. It took longer to clean the floor
than the tubes.
Cleaning tool: The tool in the drawing is available as an all-purpose product,
also it can be set up on board.

P A G E | 124

4)

Brushes on metal rods: This tube cleaning is a strictly a manual operation

requiring a great deal of time, labor, mess and inconvenience. Brushes
fastened to long, heavy metal rods were manually pushed and pulled through
the soot laden boiler tubes, resulting in clouds of soot filling the air and
settling on every surface in the room.

Water tube cleaning

Most water tube boilers have tubes in a more or less vertical position. Some water
tube boilers have straight tubes which can be cleaned using methods similar to
those described above. Most water tube boilers, however, have tubes with bends in
them, making them more difficult to clean. In addition, where fire tube boilers

P A G E | 125

commonly have only soot and ash to be removed, water tubes commonly have
scale deposits that adhere stubbornly to the tubes. The amount and nature of the
scale are determined by the water quality and the effectiveness of water treatment.
Scale is formed when water is heated and the suspended solids in the water
precipitate out onto the heating surfaces. A well-managed water treatment program
is essential to minimizing scale deposits.

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Fired Heater

P A G E | 127

THE INSPECTION OF INSTALLED FIRED HEATERS

VISUAL OBSERVATIONS

The tube coils should be inspected closely for bulging, bowing, sagging, splitting,
scaling, corrosion, and deposits from fuel gas. Fittings may show signs of damage,
distortion or corrosion. Internal inspection of tubes is limited to those types which
have removable U-bend or plug type fittings. Remote examination may also be
utilized, using a boroscope (This is a flexible fiber optic instrument that is inserted
into a tube through an opening, such as a thermocouple or pressure tap. It enables
an internal visual inspection of the tube to be made up to distances of
approximately 8 feet), video camera or other visual aids. Suitable record such as
videotapes should be maintained. When tubes are subjected to excessive
temperatures they may sag or bow. This, on its own, is not usually indicative of
creep damage; or high temperature metallurgical changes such as decarburization
or graphitization etc. However, it may cause physical distortion or excessive stress
on return bends, or leakage of rolled joints in tube sheets etc. Limits should be set
on the deviation from the center line where bowing occurs. (I.e.one tube dia.)
In the Convection section, sagged or bowed tubes that nest together and prevent
circulation of the flue gas around the tubes, may cause overheating of adjacent
tubes and draft loss. When this occurs the distorted tubes may have to be replaced.
TUBE TEMPERATURE MONITORING
Tube failures are most commonly due to overheating. Therefore close monitoring
of tube temperature is a must.
There are two basic systems for tube temperature monitoring:
1) Contact pyrometers (tube skin thermocouple)
2) Non-contact pyrometers
1) CONTACT PYROMETERS
There are several types of tube skin thermocouples in use. These are typically
welded to the tubes in strategic locations. Proper placement and coverage with skin
thermocouples enables them to be viewed through the observation ports for
calibration of the noncontact pyrometers. Tube skin thermocouples are applied to
the areas of highest heat input and tube metal temperatures. The number and
placement required depends on the furnace design. Normally the hottest area is at
one-third firebox height. Attention should also be paid to the first rows of finned
tubes (shock/shield tubes) in convection sections as it has been found that this is
the hottest area in some furnaces.

P A G E | 128

2) NON-CONTACT PYROMETERS
Optical and infrared style pyrometers can be used to scan fired heaters to determine
if areas of local overheating exist. As the firing, oxidation scaling of the tubes,
surface finish, etc. can effect the accuracy of the readings; it is strongly
recommended that a calibration target plate be utilized (skin thermocouple
attached).Routine recording of tube temperatures into a permanent record is crucial
to enable the remaining safe life of the tubing and suitable inspection intervals to
be established.The size and/or location of inspection openings on some existing
furnaces do not permit meaningful results to be obtained. In these instances,
consideration should be given to installing additional larger openings. This should
also be identified when replacement equipment is ordered.
THICKNESS MEASUREMENTS AND RECORDS
Ultrasonic thickness readings should be taken at specified locations on tube coils in
the radiant section, accessible shock (shield) tubes in the convection sections and
return bends. Recent technological advances in furnace tube inspection has seen
the development of a multi-module pig which can increase the number of data
points from the typical 200-300 to in excess of 300,000. The tool can be used to
inspect both the convection and radiant sections. However, since it uses ultrasonic,
the inside of the tubes must be cleaned prior to inspection. Suitable records of the
readings and minimum required design thicknesses must be kept to enable the
remaining service life of the components to be predicted
TUBE GROWTH MEASUREMENTS (CREEP RANGE)
Tube coils and return bends should be gauged for bulging or creep growth and the
history of tubes that have been replaced due to thermal growth should be kept.
Thermal growth may occur when the tubes are subjected to localized short-term
Over heating, long-term high temperature exposure (creep), or localized thinning
of the tube through corrosion or erosion. The maximum limits of diametrical
growth based on acceptable levels of creep must be established and readings
checked against these limits. Special pre-set gauges can be used to quickly scan the
length of a tube and a micrometer used to take precise measurements at preselected locations or areas of concern. The multi-module pig tool also uses laser
triangulation to determine the inside diameter of the tubes which can be used in
looking for potential creep damage.

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Chlorination and carburization Inspection

An eddy current instrument (Hall Effect hand held probe) called a magneto scope
(Forester, Germany) should be used to build up a history of magneto scope
measurements. Any tube that indicates higher magneto scope readings in any
region should be checked by dye penetrant on the O.D. for cracking. Radiography
should be carried out on the region to determine the condition of the I.D.\
RADIOGRAPHY
Radiography may be used to inspect weldments, tubes, and return bends etc. It will
provide evidence of wall thinning, deposits, pitting, cracking and internal
obstructions etc. In circular heaters the film can be placed behind each set of tubes
or return bends at a given elevation, and the source can be located in the center.
One panoramic exposure can then be taken that includes all of the tubes. When
radiographing a tube to determine if corrosion, deposits or coke is present, it is
important to remember that these will usually occur on the fire side of the tube, as
this is the hottest side of the tube. If a radiograph is taken on a horizontal tube, the
film should be placed as close to the horizontal plane as is practical. The resulting
film will show the profile of the fire side of the tube wall and the opposite side
furthest from the source of heat.
HAMMER TEST
A hammer test is an accepted method of locating areas of reduced thickness in
certain materials. However, it should be noted that some materials such as cast
tubes, chromium alloy tubes, and those subject to carburization, should not be
hammer tested.
HARDNESS MEASUREMENTS
Hardness Testers - mechanical and electronic hardness testers can be used to
determine the hardness of base metal, welds, and heat-affected zones. Electronic
testers must be used with extreme care on thin materials or erroneous readings may
be obtained. Hardness tests should only be specified only after it has been
determined that the base material is suitable; as some materials (i.e. carburized,
cast materials) may well be damaged if hardness readings are taken.

SCALE AND DEPOSIT ANALYSIS - INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL

Scale/Deposits- Samples of surface scale and deposits can be analyzed to
determine composition, source of contamination and provide an indication of the
degree of overheating.

P A G E | 130

REMOVAL OF TUBES AND FITTINGS FOR METALLURGICAL ANALYSIS

AND MECHANICAL TESTING
It may be necessary to remove samples to assess the mechanical and metallurgical
integrity of furnace components that are approaching their design life and cannot
be assessed in place due to the design (i.e. finned tubes), or when inspection results
indicate that sample removal is required to enable the overall condition of the
furnace to be verified. Metallurgical considerations for sample removal would
include: suspected high temperature creep damage, sensitization, carburization,
decarburization, spherodization, oxidation, embrittlement, etc.
A plan should be developed for tube removal and include:
1) Need to implement specific neutralization procedures (material dependent).
2) Tube material availability for replacement.
3) Review of welding requirements, including the weld procedure and
qualifications of welder.
4) Non-destructive testing requirements, such as radiography, liquid penetrant
and magnetic particle examination.
5) Post weld heat treatment requirements and schedule.
6) Hydrostatic test procedure and schedule.
7) Need to dry furnace after hydro test.
PRESSURE TEST
A full temperature compensated hydrostatic test in accordance with ASME B31
345.1. is required when welded repairs to the pressure envelope have been made.
(Note the test pressure may be limited by other components in the system such as
flanges and crossovers). When a full hydrostatic test is not practical, a pneumatic
test or alternative testing may be conducted in accordance with ASME B31.3 345.5
to 345.9.
CONVECTION TUBES
The access described above does not fully address concerns involving access to
finned convection tubes that are deep within the bank. Usually the most severe
fouling using various feeds occurs in the convection section. Solids may precipitate
here due to fluid flow changes and phase changes, especially when the feed initial
temperature is high. Therefore, it is critical that the convection section be
inspected especially if the tubes are thinned or the feedstock quality is unknown.
(Note liquid/vapour phase is often the location where the highest corrosion is likely
to take place)It should be noted that in some furnace designs, finned convection
tubes above the shield tubes have been found to have the highest skin temperature,

P A G E | 131

so assessment of bare shield tubes may not provide adequate basis for permitting
continued operation of other tubes.
Given the limited access, there are a number of things that can be used to gain
additional inspection information on these tubes, as follows:
1) Selected locations on the upper rows can be radiographed.
2) A boroscope may be placed among the tubes (externally) to assess the
condition of the fins. This information could be used to justify pulling a tube
for analysis.
3) If there are any pressure taps available it may be possible to insert a
boroscope down inside a pressure tap tube to get a visual check for pitting,
erosion, coking etc.
4) Return bends can be cut out to allow for an internal visual inspection and
deposit analysis.
5) The installation of convection access doors on each side of the convection
bank (recommended min. 2ft x 4ft) should be seriously considered. The
placement of these doors would provide access to the inaccessible sections
(middle) of the convection bank for visual and radiographic inspections.
6) Inspect condition of fins on convection tubes. The maximum temperature
area can be determined by observing the area of most severe fin oxidation.
If the metallurgy of the fins is known, it may be possible to approximate
temperatures based on the condition of the fins.
MECHANICAL REPAIRS OR ALTERATIONS
Mechanical repairs are any type of repairs that do not require welding. These
include clamped types of enclosures, pigtail pinching, tube straightening, etc.
These repairs may be made while the equipment is operating (online) or when it is
shutdown. ABSA acceptance is required.
TYPICAL RECORDS KEPT
1) Mechanical Design Data (i.e. API Data Sheets)
2) Manufacturers Fired Heater Data Report( Exhibit No 6 )
3) ASME Manufacturers Data Reports (for steam generating coils)
4) Material specifications
5) Drawings, general arrangement, etc.
6) Tube layout drawings showing the actual arrangement of tubes and fittings
in the heater, flowsheets, thermocouple locations, etc.
7) Records of process conditions
8) Record of corrosion rates
9) Flowsheets

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10)
Continuous inspection history, tubes removed, recommendations and
observations, etc.
11)
Inspection Plan including:
Examinations, inspections, tests, and sample tube removals etc. and intervals
Applicable procedure reference numbers
On-stream inspections, temperature measurements etc.
Inspection review of operating conditions
12) Detailed Inspection Reports including:
visual inspection records, inspection findings etc. (refer to Section 9)
thickness and gauging record of tubes and fittings including data readings
prior
to commissioning (refer to Section 9)
radiographic and other NDE results
pressure test records
repair procedures and repair reports
record of material replacement
life extension reports

P A G E | 133

Process heater operation involves combustion, heat transfer, and fluid flow
principles. Process heaters (see Figure 1) are used in the chemical and refining
industries to heat hydrocarbon fluids flowing through tubes inside the radiant and
convection sections. These heaters are designed to increase the fluid temperature
for further processing in some type of downstream reactor. The main adjustments
made to the heater are the fuel and combustion air flow rates and the pressure
levels inside the heater. The adjustments are made by adjusting the fuel flow
control valves, the burner dampers, and the stack damper. The latter two are
frequently manually controlled.
Process Heater Operating Principles
Combustion
Large amounts of fuel are combusted to convert the chemical energy into useful
thermal energy to heat the fluids flowing through the process heaters.1 Burners are
used to safely control the combustion process to maximize thermal efficiency,
while minimizing pollutant emissions. One aspect of this combustion process that
differs from nearly all other types of industrial combustion processes is the varying
fuel composition. In most cases, the fuels used in process heaters in refineries and
chemical plants are waste gases generated during the production of
liquid fuels such as diesel and chemicals such as ethylene. These waste gases may
consist of a dozen or more components and usually contain significant amounts of
methane (CH4), propane (C3H8), and hydrogen (H2). Most process heaters are
natural draft means the flow of gases through a chimney due to the difference in
temperature and density between the gases within the chimney and the outside air.
Heat Transfer
Heat transfer in a heater is critical to proper operation the bulk of the heat transfer
in the radiant section is by radiation, hence the name radiant section. The bulk of
the heat transfer in the convection section is by convection, hence the name
convection section. Conduction losses through the heater walls reduce the thermal
efficiency. The heat flux pattern inside the heater from the burners is also a critical
parameter. Too much heat in a localized area can cause damage. Flame
impingement on process tubes can cause the hydrocarbon fluids being heated to
form coke layers inside the tubes.6 These layers reduce the heat transfer through
the tubes which causes the tubes to overheat and can ultimately lead to a rupture.
Ruptured process tubes allow hydrocarbon fluids to flow into a hot heater and are
potentially very dangerous as they can cause very large fires. Engineers need to
know the basic principles of heat transfer in a heater to maximize performance and
avoid unsafe operating conditions.

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Fluid Flow
Most process heaters are natural draft, which means no fans or blowers are used to
supply the combustion air to the burners or to remove the combustion products
from the heaters. Heater draft refers to the negative pressure that develops when
hot gases rise inside the heater. Draft pulls in the air needed for combustion and
pushes out the products of combustion such as CO2, H2O, O2 and N2. Ideally, the
excess O2 should come from the air being pulled through the burners, although
some also comes from air leaking into the heater through cracks and openings,
which is called tramp air. An operator can control the heater draft and excess O2 by
adjusting the damper on the heater exhaust stack, referred to as the stack damper,
and on each burner, referred to as the burner damper (sometimes referred to as an
air register).
Radiant Section: The radiant tubes,
either horizontal or Vertical, are
located along the walls in the radiant
section of the heater and receive
radiant heat direct from the burners.
The radiant zone with its refractory
lining is the costliest part of
the heater and 85% of the heat
should be gained there. This is also
called the firebox.
Convection Section: Rather than hit
the radiant section directly, the feed
charge enters the coil inlet in the
convection section where it is
preheated before transferring to the
radiant tubes. The convection section
removes heat from the flue gas to
preheat the contents of the tubes and
significantly reduces the temperature
of the flue gas exiting the stack. Too
much heat picked up in the
convection section is a sign of too
much draft. Tube temperature is
measured in both convection and
radiant sections.

P A G E | 135

Shield Section
Just below the convection section is the shield (or shock tube) section, containing
rows of tubing which shield the convection tubes from the direct radiant heat.
Several important measurements are normally made just below the shield section.
The bridge wall or break wall temperature is the temperature of the flue gas after
the radiant heat is removed by the radiant tubes and before it hits the convection
section. Measurement of the draft at this point is also very important since this
determines how well the heater is set up. Excess draft, either positive pressure or
negative pressure, can lead to serious problems. This is also the ideal place for flue
gas oxygen and ppm combustibles measurement.
Breeching Sections and Stack
The transition from the convection section to the stack is called the breeching. By
the time the flue gas exits to the stack, most of the heat should be recovered and
the temperature is much less. From a measurement point of view, this location
places fewer demands on the analyzer but is much less desirable for the ability to
control the process. Measurement of stack emissions for compliance purposes is
normally made here.

Draft
Draft is the pressure differential between air or flue gas in the heater and ambient
air. It materializes because hot flue gases inside the firebox and stack are lighter
than (and thus at lower pressure than) the colder ambient air outside. Combustion
air is drawn into the burners from the atmosphere, and hot gas rises due to
buoyancy and flows out of the stack to the atmosphere. While passing through the
heaters convection section and the stack, flue gases encounter friction resistance,
known collectively as draft losses. Sufficient stack height is given to provide the
buoyancy effect needed to overcome these losses, and to ensure that pressure is
always negative inside the firebox.
There are four types of draft systems in the fired heaters:
Natural Draft: As implied above, this is the most common system. Air is drawn
into the burners by means of the draft created by the radiant section. The taller this
section, the greater the available draft. Natural draft is the most simple and reliable
type of heater, as the air supply does not fail. System performance is directly
linked to the draft available in the heater. In these heaters, draft control is the most
important operating parameter.

P A G E | 136

Forced-Draft: In this type of heater, the air is supplied by means of a centrifugal

fan, commonly known as a forced-draft (FD) fan.
Induced-Draft: When the height of the stack is inadequate to compensate for the
draft-loss requirements, an induced-draft (ID) fan is provided on top of the fired
heater. The resulting negative pressure in-side the heater ensures adequate draft for
the burners from the atmosphere. Most heaters in cracking and reforming units fall
into this cate-gory. The size of the convection section in these fired heaters is very
large, and the draft control is very important.
Balanced-Draft: When both forced-draft and induced-draft fans are used with a
fired heater, the combination is known as a balanced-draft system. Most air
preheating installations are, in fact, balanced draft.

P A G E | 137

Draft Profile
Maintaining a negative pressure at all times throughout the fired heater makes the
device inherently safe, and ensures that hot flue gases will at no time escape. By
contrast, a positive pressure inside the heater can be hazardous for operating
personnel, would cause flue gas leakage, as well as damage to the fired-heater
casing and overall structure. Similarly in the stack, the stack controls the draft. If
the damper is closed too far, the arch draft will become positive; if it is instead
opened too far, it will lead a very high draft in the arch. The right stack height provides the draft need to maintain negative pressure at the arch and to take care of
friction losses in the convections section and stack.

P A G E | 138

Draft Control
In natural or forced-draft systems, the draft in the fired heater is controlled by the
means of a stack damper, as just discussed. In induced-draft and balanced-draft
heaters, the draft is controlled by ID fan. Because the arch of the heater has the
highest pressure, it is commonly used as a point of control.

Components of a Furnace
Fuel Train
Peep holes: through which the operator/engineer can view the firebox
flame, get a temperature reading, etc.
Fire Box: Section contains the burners (under it) the open flames, and
combustion gases.

P A G E | 139

Radiant Tubes: Radiant tubes (process stream inside them, i.e. oil, etc) are
along the walls in the fire box. They receive direct heat from the flames
(burners). Section of tubes sees higher temperatures and has a faster
accumulation of coke deposits on inside of the tubes (carbon like when
you BBQ on your grill). Radiant heat transfer typically accounts for 65% of
the total heat absorbed by the process stream (oil, etc.).
Convection Tubes: Convection tubes (process fluid inside them) are in the
roof of the furnace so NOT in contact with the direct flames in the fire box.
Hot combustion gases transfer heat through the metal tubes (often finned
tubes to increase heat absorption efficiency because when hot gas is go
through the fins convection tubes can absorb more heat) and into the
process fluid. Convective heat transfer typically accounts for 35% of the
total heat absorbed by the process stream (oil, etc.).
Stack: Warm air and combustion gases leave the furnace though the stack
and enter atmosphere. This natural draft (like your chimney in your house
that carries the combustion gases up) creates a lower pressure inside the
furnace.
Draft = atm pressure pressure inside fired heater
Typically 0.05 inches water (vacuum) by the stack damper
Refractory Lining: Fire box is lined with refractory brick (usually white/tan
in color, lightweight, chalk-like, ceramic material) lining that can handle
high temperatures and reflects heat back into the furnace. Section contains
the burners (under it) the open flames, and combustion gases.
Damper: Often 10 ft up in the stack and allows adjustment of the stack
draft. Controls amount of air into the furnace. Open the damper, and more
air comes in.Controls the excess O2 into the furnace. Typically want about 2
mol% excess O2 or you waste energy (just send too much hot air out the
stack that you did not need to heat!).
Burners and Air Registers (lets air in by burners)

P A G E | 140

Common Furnace Problems

Flame Impingement: flames from the burner touching a tube Weakens the
metal tube and causes coke (carbon) to form inside the tube where the
process fluid flows Solve by reducing the fuel supply to the affected burner
Coke Formation: Coking always occurs inside the process fluid tubes
(typically the radiant tube section where it is hottest) in a furnace. Remove
coke by shutting down the furnace (typically once/3 yrs) and injecting
superheated steam to remove the coke.
Refractory: Refractory in the fire box becomes brittle and starts to fall off
over time at high temperatures. Solve by shutting down the furnace
(typically once/3 yrs) and removing old refractory and installing new
refractory.
Fuel Composition Changes: Fuel composition of the fuel oil or natural gas
can change. More heat a fuel produces during combustion, the more air is
needed. Your process control programs can help you here. Control the %
excess O2 (open/close damper), allow more or less fuel into burner, etc.).
Process Fluid Feed Pump Failure: Furnace will get too hot, causing coking
and damaging the equipment (too hot for the furnace materials). Try to
restart the feed pump or start the backup process feed pump.Then isolate
(block off) the primary feed pump and get it fixed ASAP.
Flameout: Occurs when the burner flame goes out with the fuel still being
pumped into it. Now we have unburned fuel inside the furnace. Often
happens when there is not enough air in the burner. Solution: Shutdown the
furnace. Stop fuel into the burner/furnace. This is a dangerous situation!

P A G E | 141

Heat Exchanger

P A G E | 142

Transfer of heat from one fluid to another is an important operation for most of the
chemical industries. The most common application of heat transfer is in designing
of heat transfer equipment for exchanging heat from one fluid to another fluid.
Such devices for efficient transfer of heat are generally called Heat Exchanger.
Classification of heat exchangers
Heat exchangers are normally classified depending on the transfer process
occurring in them.

P A G E | 143

Amongst of all type of exchangers, shell and tube exchangers are most commonly
used heat exchange equipment. The common types of shell and tube exchangers
are:
Fixed tube-sheet exchanger (non-removable tube bundle)
Removable tube bundle
Fixed tube-sheet exchanger (non-removable tube bundle)
The simplest and cheapest type of shell and tube exchanger is with fixed tube sheet
design. In this type of exchangers the tube sheet is welded to the shell and no
relative movement between the shell and tube bundle is possible.

1
5
11
12
14
15

Shell
Shell Nozzle or Branch
Stationary Tube Sheet
Channel or Stationary Head
Channel Nozzle or Branch
Tube (Straight)

Removable tube bundle

17
18
22
25
26
27

Tie Rods and Spacers

Transverse (or cross)Baffles or Support Plates
Pass Partition
Instrument Connection
Expansion Bellows
Support Saddles

P A G E | 144

Tube bundle may be removed for ease of cleaning and replacement. Removable
tube bundle exchangers further can be categorized in floating-head and U-tube
exchanger.
Floating-head exchanger: It consists of a stationery tube sheet which is
clamped with the shell flange. At the opposite end of the bundle, the tubes
may expand into a freely riding floating-head or floating tube sheet. A
floating head cover is bolted to the tube sheet and the entire bundle can be
removed for cleaning and inspection of the interior.

1
2
3
4
5
7
10
11
13

Shell
Shell Cover
Shell Flange(Channel End)
Shell Flange(Cover End)
Shell Nozzle or Branch
Floating Head Cover
Floating Head Backing Ring
Stationary Tube Sheet
Channel Cover

14
15
19
22
23
24
25
27

Channel Nozzle or Branch

Tube (Straight)
Longitudinal Baffles
Pass Partition
Vent Connection
Drain Connection
Instrument Connection
Support Saddles

U-tube exchanger: This type of exchangers consists of tubes which are bent
in the form of a U and rolled back into the tube sheet. This means that it

P A G E | 145

will omit some tubes at the center of the tube bundle depending on the tube
arrangement. The tubes can expand freely towards the U bend end.

1
3
5
11
12
14

Shell
Shell Flange(Channel End)
Shell Nozzle or Branch
Stationary Tube Sheet
Channel or Stationary Head
Channel Nozzle or Branch

16
18
22
25
27

Tubes(U-Type)
Transverse (or cross)Baffles or Support Plates
Pass Partition
Instrument Connection
Support Saddles

TEMA (Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association) DESIGNATION

The first letter of the TEMA designation represents the front channel type (where
the tube side fluid enters the heat exchanger), the second letter represents the shell
type and the last letter represents the rear channel type. The TEMA channel types
are shown below.

P A G E | 146

P A G E | 147

The different operational and constructional advantages and limitations depending

on applications of shell and tube exchangers are summarized in Table 1.1

P A G E | 148

Storage
If the heat exchanger is not to be placed in immediate service, take
precautions to prevent rusting or contamination.
Heat exchangers for oil service, made of ferrous materials, may be pressuretested with oil at the factory. However, the residual oil coating on the inside
surfaces of the exchanger does not preclude the possibility of rust formation.
Fill these exchangers with appropriate oil or coat them with a corrosion
prevention compound for storage.
Remove any accumulations of dirt, water, ice or snow and wipe dry before
moving exchangers into indoor storage. If unit was not filled with oil or
other preservative, open drain plugs to remove any accumulated moisture,
then reseal. Accumulation of moisture usually indicates rusting has already
started and remedial action should be taken.
Store under cover in a heated area, if possible. The ideal storage
environment for heat exchangers and accessories is indoors, above grade, in
a dry, low-humidity atmosphere which is sealed to prevent entry of blowing
dust, rain or snow. Maintain temperatures between 70F and 105F (wide
temperature swings may cause condensation and sweating of steel parts).
Cover windows to prevent temperature variations caused by sunlight.
Provide thermometers and humidity indicators at several points, and
maintain atmosphere at 40% relative humidity or lower.
Inspect heat exchangers and accessories frequently while they are in storage.
Start a log to record results of inspections and maintenance performed while
units are in storage. A typical log entry should include, for each component,
at least the following:

Date
Inspectors name
Identification of unit or item
Location
Condition of paint or coating
Condition of interior
Is free moisture present?
Has dirt accumulated?
Corrective steps taken

P A G E | 149

Installation
On removable bundle heat exchangers, provide sufficient clearance at the
stationary end to permit the removal of the tube bundle from the shell. On
the floating head end, provide space to permit removal of the shell cover and
floating head cover.
On fixed bundle heat exchangers, provide sufficient clearance at one end to
permit removal and replacement of tubes and at the other end provide
sufficient clearance to permit tube rolling.
Provide valves and bypasses in the piping system so that both the shell side
and tube side may be bypassed to permit isolation of the heat exchanger for
inspection, cleaning and repairs.
Provide thermometer wells and pressure gauge pipe taps in all piping to and
from the heat exchanger, located as close to the heat exchanger as possible.
Provide necessary air vent valves for the heat exchanger so that it can be
purged to prevent or relieve vapor or gas binding on both the tube side and
shell side. Provide adequate supports for mounting the heat exchanger so
that it will not settle and cause piping strains. Foundation bolts should be set
accurately. In concrete footings, pipe sleeves at least one pipe size larger
than the bolt diameter slipped over the bolt and cast in place are best for this
purpose as they allow the bolt centers to be adjusted after the foundation has
set.
Do not pipe drain connections to a common closed manifold; it makes it
more difficult to determine that the exchanger has been thoroughly drained.
After piping is complete, if support cradles or feet are fixed to the heat
exchanger, loosen foundation bolts at one end of the exchanger to allow free
movement. Oversized holes in support cradles or feet are provided for this
purpose.
Operation
Be sure entire system is clean before starting operation to prevent plugging
of tubes or shell side passages with refuse. The use of strainers or settling
tanks in pipelines leading to the heat exchanger is recommended.
Open vent connections before starting up. After the system is completely
filled with the operating fluids and all air has been vented, close all manual
vent connections.
Re-tighten bolting on all gasketed or packed joints after the heat exchanger
has reached operating temperatures to prevent leaks and gasket failures.

P A G E | 150

To guard against water hammer, drain condensate from steam heat

exchangers and similar apparatus both when starting up and shutting down.
Drain all fluids when shutting down to eliminate possible freezing and
corroding.

P A G E | 151

Terms Glossary
Shell: Shell is the container for the shell fluid and the tube bundle is placed inside
the shell. Shell diameter should be selected in such a way to give a close fit of the
tube bundle. The clearance between the tube bundle and inner shell wall depends
on the type of exchanger. Shells are usually fabricated from standard steel pipe
with satisfactory corrosion allowance. The shell thickness of 3/8 inch for the shell
ID of 12-24 inch can be satisfactorily used up to 300 psi of operating pressure.
Tube: Tube OD of and 1 are very common to design a compact heat
exchanger. The most efficient condition for heat transfer is to have the maximum
number of tubes in the shell to increase turbulence. The tube thickness should be
enough to withstand the internal pressure along with the adequate corrosion
allowance. The tube thickness is expressed in terms of BWG (Birmingham Wire
Gauge) and true outside diameter (OD). The tube length of 6, 8, 12, 16, 20 and 24
ft. are preferably used. Longer tube reduces shell diameter at the expense of higher
shell pressure drop. Finned tubes are also used when fluid with low heat transfer
coefficient flows in the shell side. Stainless steel, admiralty brass, copper, bronze
and alloys of copper-nickel are the commonly used tube materials.
Tube passes: The number of passes is chosen to get the required tube side fluid
velocity to obtain greater heat transfer co-efficient and also to reduce scale
formation. The tube passes vary from 1 to 16. The tube passes of 1, 2 and 4 are
common in application. The partition built into exchanger head known as partition
plate (also called pass partition) is used to direct the tube side flow.
Tube sheet: The tubes are fixed with tube sheet that form the barrier between the
tube and shell fluids. The tubes can be fixed with the tube sheet using ferrule and a
soft metal packing ring. The tubes are attached to tube sheet with two or more
grooves in the tube sheet wall by tube rolling. The tube metal is forced to move
into the grooves forming an excellent tight seal. This is the most common type of
fixing arrangement in large industrial exchangers. The tube sheet thickness should
be greater than the tube outside diameter to make a good seal. The recommended
standards (IS: 4503 or TEMA) should be followed to select the minimum tube
sheet thickness.

P A G E | 152

Tube pitch, tube-layout and tube-count: Tube pitch is the shortest center to
center distance between the adjacent tubes. The tubes are generally placed in
square or triangular patterns (pitch).The widely used tube layouts are illustrated
in.The number of tubes that can be accommodated in a given shell ID is called tube
count. The tube count depends on the factors like shell ID, OD of tube, tube pitch,
tube layout, number of tube passes, type of heat exchanger and design pressure.

Baffles: Baffles are used to increase the fluid velocity by diverting the flow across
the tube bundle to obtain higher transfer co-efficient. The distance between
adjacent baffles is called baffle-spacing. The baffle spacing of 0.2 to 1 times of the
inside shell diameter is commonly used. Baffles are held in positioned by means of
baffle spacers. Closer baffle spacing gives greater transfer co-efficient by inducing
higher turbulence. The pressure drop is more with closer baffle spacing. In case of
cut-segmental baffle, a segment (called baffle cut) is removed to form the baffle
expressed as a percentage of the baffle diameter. Baffle cuts from 15 to 45% are
normally used. A baffle cut of 20 to 25% provide a good heat-transfer with the
reasonable pressure drop. The % cut for segmental baffle refers to the cut away
height from its diameter.
Baffle Cut
At Standard Xchange, either 20%, 35%, or 45% of free area or percent of area cut
off of the whole diameter baffle plate.

P A G E | 153

Baffle Spacing
The space in-between the baffle plates on a tube bundle. Baffle spacing is adjusted
to achieve maximum heat exchanger performance.
Tie Rods and Spacers
Tie rods and spacers are used for two reasons: 1) hold the baffle assembly
together; and 2) maintain the selected baffle spacing. The tie rods are secured at
one end to the tube sheet and at the other end to the last baffle. They hold the
baffle assembly together. The spacers are placed over the tie rods between each
baffle to maintain the selected baffle pitch. The minimum number of tie rod and
spacers depends on the diameter of the shell and the size of the tie rod and spacers.

P A G E | 154

Channels (Heads)
Channels or heads are required for shell-and-tube heat exchangers to contain the
tube side fluid and to provide the desired flow path. The channel type is selected
based on the application. Most channels can be removed for access to the tubes.
The most commonly used channel type is the bonnet. It is used for services which
do not require frequent removal of the channel for inspection or cleaning. The
removable cover channel flanged to the tube sheet. The rear channel is often
selected to match the front channel.
Pass partition
Pass partitions are required in channels of heat exchangers with multiple tube
passes. The pass partition plates direct the tube side fluid through multiple passes.
The number of tube side passes is normally less than eight, although more than
eight passes can in some cases be required. Multiple tube passes allow to
maximize the tube side heat transfer within the pressure drop constraint.
Typically, heat exchangers with liquid as the tube side fluid have multiple tube
passes. Most heat exchangers with large tube side volumetric gas flow rates have a
single tube pass.

P A G E | 155

Bundle Assembly
The name of the tubing assembly in removable bundle heat exchangers. It usually
consist of tubes, tube sheets, baffles, spacers, and tie rods.
Cradle Assembly
The name of the part used to support the entire heat exchanger. Cradles may be
fixed or moveable. Is also used to secure the heat exchanger to the customer's
mounting surface, when they are welded or strapped to the shell.
Fixed Tube sheet
A non-removable tube sheet. The tube sheet on a core assembly. Any tube sheet
that is an integral part of the shell assembly.
Floating Tube sheet
The tube sheet at one end of a removable tube bundle. The floating tube sheet will
always have a smaller diameter than the stationary. The floating tube sheet is
allowed to move freely with the expansion and contraction of the tube bundle due
to temperature changes in operation.
Impingement Plate
A small perforated plate (rows of small
holes in a sheet) or bar assembly placed
inside of the shell side nozzle, usually a
dome type nozzle. They can also be
attached directly to the bundle by being
tack welded to the tie rods. The
impingement plate protects and
prolongs the life of the tubes. The
impingement plate breaks up and slows
down the shell side fluid, which
otherwise would erode the tubing.

P A G E | 156

Heat Exchanger
Maintenance

P A G E | 157

Maintenance
Clean exchangers subject to fouling (scale, sludge deposits, etc.) periodically,
depending on specific conditions. A light sludge or scale coating on either side of
the tube greatly reduces its effectiveness. A marked increase in pressure drop
and/or reduction in performance usually indicates cleaning is necessary. Since the
difficulty of cleaning increases rapidly as the scale thickens or deposits increase,
the intervals between cleanings should not be excessive. Neglecting to keep tubes
clean may result in random tube plugging. Consequent overheating or cooling of
the plugged tubes, as compared to surrounding tubes, will cause physical damage
and leaking tubes due to differential thermal expansion of the metals. To clean or
inspect the outside of the tubes, it may be necessary to remove the tube bundle.
(Fixed tube sheet exchanger bundles are non-removable).
Maintenance Steps
Tube Leak Testing
Plugging
Retubing
Tube Bundle Extraction
Tube Bundle Cleaning
Tube Bundle Installation
Tube Leak Testing
Visual inspection: is a technique carried out by NDT inspectors in almost all
industrial plants, either looking for or accidentally discovering leaks of process
fluids.
Chemical reagent tests: some process gases give chemical reactions with simple
reagent, e.g. leaking ammonia gas may be detected by its reaction with hydrogen
chloride producing dense white fumes of ammonium chloride. This test can be
applied for leak detection in heat exchangers as well,
but in off-line condition only.
Overpressure method (bubble test): is performed by filling the system to be tested
with a fluid. Water is frequently used as the fluid. Observing the outside surface,
the wetted areas reveal leaks. Testing with gas, the vessel is subjected to
overpressure of some bars (depending on material and wall thickness) and
immerged into water. At leaks, the gas bubbles begin to escape. In this manner,

P A G E | 158

leaks up to 10-3 mbarL/s can be detected. If the vessel is too large for
immersion, the suspected points should be painted by soap solution and the
bubbles can be seen if there is a leak. This technique enables leak detection up to
10-5 mbarL/s. This method can be used for leak detection in heat exchangers,
but in off-line condition only.
Dye penetrant method: is an adaptation of a technique used to find cracks in metals
and defects in welds. It uses a low viscosity fluid that exhibits a high rate of
surface migration. This fluid is painted on one side of a suspected leak site, and
after some time, it is detected on the other side of the wall. The test is simple, low
cost, it leaves records, and the sensitivity can be as high as 10-6 mbarL/s. It can
be used for leak detection in heat exchangers, but in off-line condition only.
Mass spectrometer as leak detector: is used as very sensitive instrument for
determining leak existence and pin-point the exact location of the leak in many
industrial components. For units under pressure, the helium is added to the vessel
under investigation at a suitable test pressure. Measurement at locations where
helium may leak is then carried out using a helium portable mass spectrometer.
The sensitivity of this method is up to 10-9 mbarL/s. Helium leak detection
technique is mainly used in offline inspection for leaks in heat exchangers and
other vessels.

P A G E | 159

Pneumatic Testing Gun: Provides a

fast and effective method for
pneumatically testing heat exchanger
tubes and tube to tube sheet joints for
leaks. It is used to test single lengths,
U-shaped tubes, or tubes with only one
end open: the kit is composed of an air
gun and a tube Plugging gun in case of
tubes open at both ends). They have
been conceived to pneumatically test
the leakage of the smallest hole. After
making the gaskets of both guns
expand Simultaneously and after the
pressure has stabilized inside the tube,
every small leakage is easily detected.

RADIOTRACER METHODS
Only radiotracer offers possibility of on-line measurements, providing information
in the shortest possible time. Radiotracers emit Gamma radiation that penetrates
the heat exchangers walls and provides information about very small leaks even
when direct access to the heat exchanger is not possible due to envelopes or other
barriers. The emission of radiation is a specific property of the radioisotope, not
affected by interference from other materials in the system; thus radiotracers have
strong resistance against severe process conditions of heat exchangers. Because the
characteristics of the radiations differ from one radioisotope to another, multiple
radiotracers may be employed and measured simultaneously if needed to locate the
leaks.
Principle of radiotracer method
A very small amount of a compatible radioisotope is injected as a sharp pulse into
the higher pressure process stream entering the heat exchanger. Normally, a
minimum of two radiation detectors are monitoring radiotracer movement through
the heat exchangers. The injection detector (inlet detector) mounted at the tube side
inlet (high pressure) monitors the injection peak and time. The leak detector
(output detector) mounted at the shell outlet (low pressure) detects radiotracer
infiltrated into the lower pressure side from the higher pressure side showing the
presence of a leak (if any). Any leakage throughout the high pressure tube side
could be indicated by a subsidiary peak (so called bypass peak) preceding the main

P A G E | 160

peak. The main peak represents the flow pattern of the fluid flowing from inlet to
outlet in normal way, while the subsidiary peak represents the leak because it goes
in abnormal way bypassing the normal flow. The outlet detector monitors the total
activity injected. The leakage rate is the percentage of the area of the leakage peak
to the sum of the areas of the leakage and main peaks.
Other detectors can be mounted at the tube side outlet and shell side inlet of the
heat exchanger to monitor the radiotracer movement into the whole processing
line. The records of the additional detectors help to identify better the presence of
the leak peak. Below Figure shows an experimental setup where four radiation
detectors are positioned to monitor radiotracer passage through the whole
processing line, which consists of the heat exchanger and a converter.
Detector 1 shows the tube inlet injection pulse, while detectors 2 and 4 show the
outlet responses from the tube and converter respectively. The subsidiary peak
preceding the main peak (detector 3) indicates the leak because appears in shell
outlet before the main peak.

P A G E | 161

Plugging
TUBE PLUGGING PROCEDURES
Tube plugging procedure depends on the type of plug selected. You should contact
your distributor of such plugs. As an example, here is a typical procedure:
1. Identify the leaking tube. Inspect the tube end to determine its size and whether
there is any anomaly in the internal surface of the tube that would interfere with the
successful installation of the plug. Longitudinal defects can prohibit an effective
plug seal; make sure that no such defects exist. Mark the tube end to be plugged.
2. Measure the tube end with an inside tube micrometer or a gauging block to
determine the actual diameter of the tube end. Select the tube plug of the correct
size using your distributor guide based on that measurement.
3. Prepare the inner surface of the tube. Use an aggressive, power Wire brush to
thoroughly provide a bright metal surface to the tube. Be careful that you do not
cut so deeply into the tube that you weaken the tube wall. The surface must be free
of all loose scale and have no extraordinary pitting.
4. Clean the tube end thoroughly. Use a clean swab to remove all loose material
including any remaining reaming remnants or scale, corrosion, deposits, or other

P A G E | 162

anomalies that may have been loosened by the surface preparation process. As
close to the time that the plug is to be inserted, wipe clean the newly prepared tube
surface using a non-residue cleaning solution.
5. Inspect the tube end to assure cleanliness and the absence of any anomalies such
as grooving (particularly longitudinal grooving), ovality, deep scratches, etc. that
could keep the plug from sealing properly. When working on carbon or low alloy
steel tubes or tube sheets, make sure that the newly prepared surface is free of rust,
particularly if there any appreciable time has elapsed since the surfaces were
prepared.
6. Install the plug as per the manufacturers recommendations.
7. Pressure Test the integrity of the plug seal by pressure testing the unit in the
same manner that was used to identify the leaking tube. Once the plug seal has
been tested and determined to be secure, vacate the unit, seal its channel end, and
return the unit to service.
There are different kinds of plugs available in the market. According to the plug
installation procedure also change. One of the easy product is discussing here.
The Elliott Series 883 High Pressure Plug is a solid one piece plug that can be
inserted ` into the tube sheet of a leaking tube and expanded with a standard 3/8"
drive torque wrench. The plug will expand approximately 30 mils (.O3O") to
provide a positive mechanical contact seal. This plug can be used in high or low
pressure applications such as feed water heaters, moisture separator reheaters,
preheaters, condensers, coolers, fin-fan coolers or any other tubed heat exchanger.

P A G E | 163

Be careful to avoid the following:

A) Do not measure tube at roll joint seal
weld (not true tube i.d.)
B) Do not place plug in an internal tube area
near a step roll transition or a tube with
severe pitting, Corrosion or crack.

Retubing
Alter washing and testing it may be necessary to retube the tube bundle partially or
completely. The operations description below give a summary of various steps of
retubing:

Tube cutting
Tube pulling
Tube sheet recovery
Tube to Tube Sheet Joining

For Tube Cutting and Tube pulling portable machines are available in the market.
These processes has to do properly to make a good sheet Recoery.
Tube to Tube Sheet Joining
Type of joint is based on the service temperature, and longitudinal stress in tubes in
and tube sheets. The joint type is taken from ASME Section VIII, Division 1,
Appendix A. If you look at that appendix, all the various tube to tube sheet joint
types are discussed.

Tube Sheets Grooving

Tube to tube sheet joint Welding
Tube Rolling
Exploding charges in the tube ends.
Compressing an elastomer axially in the tube ends, create radial pressure.
Applying hydraulic pressure directly to the tube ends.

P A G E | 164

Tube Sheets Grooving

The grooving is done on any radial drill
machine. Grooving Tools ensures
correct grooves and reduces chances of
leakage of the Heat Exchanger. This
greatly increases the strength of the
tube joint.

Tube to tube sheet joint Welding

The tube to tube sheet joint is the most critical joint in a heat exchanger. As per
ASME Sec VIII Div-2, following are the design considerations for a typical tube to
tube sheet joint in case of a heat exchanger.
[a] Tubes used in the construction of heat exchangers may be considered to act as
stays which support or contribute to the strength of the tube sheet
[b] Tube to tube sheet joint shall be capable of transferring the applied tube loads.
[c] The design of tube to tube sheet joint depends on type of joint, degree of
examination, and shear load tests, if performed
In a tube to tube sheet joint, mechanical design is usually based on the shear
strength of the joint and the tube thickness is based on the thermal design. Some of
the conventional types of tube to tube sheet joints used in manufacturing of heat
exchangers are shown in Figure given below.

P A G E | 165

However, over and above the requirements of standard codes, a number of

additions factors needs to be considered while designing tube-to-tube sheet joint
for a specific application including service conditions, manufacturability, access
for inspection, equipment life and ease of repair.
Selection Criteria
Resist high temperature H2 attack and nitriding,
Withstand design pressure and temperature,
Provide sufficient ductility for forming operations,
Provide easily weldability,
Allow easy availability at competitive cost

Note: Seal welding provides a tight joint while the strength of the joint is added
by roller expanding after welding.

Tube Expanding or Tube Rolling

Tube Expanding is the art of reducing a tube wall by compressing the O.D. of the
tube against tubes into tube sheets. To assure a proper tube joint, the tube wall
must be reduced by a predetermined percentage.

P A G E | 166

Major Causes of Tube Leaks: Tube rolling leakage is usually caused by one
of the following: under-rolling, over-rolling, improper preparation of tube
sheets and differential thermal expansion. Improper expansion can lead to
serious difficulties.
Under-Rolling: Under-Rolling as the word would imply is when the tube is
not expanded to fill the tube sheet hole and the proper amount of wall
reduction is not obtained. It is better to under-roll than to over-roll.
Over-Rolling: Over-rolling is when the expansion of the inside diameter of
the tube surpasses the expansion required for the proper percentage of wall
reduction for the ultimate tube joint. Over-rolling can do considerable
damage to a vessel. Over rolling will decrease the dimensions of the
ligament between tubes and weaken this bridge. Once a ligament is
weakened, it will cause a reaction in all ligaments surrounding that weak
ligament. If we decrease the strength of the ligament the tube next to the
tube being rolled will leak.

Exploding charges in the tube ends

Compressing an elastomer axially in

the tube ends, create radial pressure.

P A G E | 167

Tube Bundle Extraction

Manual Extraction of Tube Bundles from Heat Exchangers
The weight of the tube bundle should not be supported on individual tubes
but should be carried by the tube sheets, support or baffle plates or on blocks
contoured to the periphery of the tube bundles.
Do not handle tube bundles with hooks or other tools which might damage
tubes. Move tube bundles on cradles or skids.
To withdraw tube bundles, pass rods through two or more of the tubes and
take the load on the floating tube sheet.
Rods should be threaded at both ends, provided with nuts, and should pass
through a steel bearing plate at each end of the bundle.
Insert a soft wood filler board between the bearing plate and tube sheet face
to prevent damage to the tube ends.
Screw forged steel eyebolts into both bearing plates for pulling and lifting.
As an alternate to the rods, thread a steel cable through one tube and return
through another tube.
A hardwood spreader block must be inserted between the cable and each
tube sheet to prevent damage to the tube ends.
If the heat exchanger has been in service for a considerable length of time
without being removed, it may be necessary to use a jack on the floating
tube sheet to break the bundle free.
Use a good-sized steel bearing plate with a filler board between the tube
sheet face and bearing plate to protect the tube ends.
Lift tube bundles horizontally by means of a cradle formed by bending a
light gauge plate or plates into a U-shape. Make attachments in the legs of
the U for lifting.
Do not drag bundles, since baffles or support plates may become easily bent.
Avoid any damage to baffles so that the heat exchanger will function
properly.

P A G E | 168

P A G E | 169

Tube Bundle Cleaning

Methods of Cleaning the Shell Side or Tube Side
Circulating hot wash oil or light distillate through tube side or shell side will
usually effectively remove sludge or similar soft deposits.
Soft salt deposits may be washed out by circulating hot fresh water.
Some commercial cleaning compounds such as Oakite or Dowell may
be effective in removing more stubborn deposits. Use in accordance with the
manufacturers instructions.
If the scale is hard and the above methods are not effective, use a mechanical
means. Neither the inside nor the outside of the tube should be hammered
with a metallic tool. If it is necessary to use scrapers, they should not be
sharp enough to cut the metal of the tubes. Take extra care when employing
scrapers to prevent tube damage.
Note: Do not attempt to clean tubes by blowing steam through individual tubes.
This overheats the individual tube and results in severe expansion strains and
leaking tube-to-tube sheet joints.
To locate ruptured or corroded tubes or leaking joints between tubes and tube
sheets, the following procedure is recommended:
Remove tube side channel covers or bonnets.
Pressurize the shell side of the exchanger with a cold fluid, preferably water.
Observe tube joints and tube ends for indication of test fluid leakage.

P A G E | 170

(1) Steam Cleaning: Steam cleaning is best suited for the removal of oil and grease.
Chemicals such as trisodium phosphate may be added to the steam to increase its
oil removal effectiveness. Debris such as dirt and rust will also be removed if the
steam velocity is adequate to blow it out of the tube. This is usually not the case in
Field cleaning as the amount of steam required exceeds the capacity of a typical
portable steam jenny.
(2) High Pressure Jetting: High pressure jetting involves cleaning the tube with
high pressure water (up to 10,000 psi).Mechanical cleaning involves the use of airdriven high-speed brushes or cutters which are inserted into the tube and which
clean by abrasive action. The method is fast, economical and safe. Even hard mill
scale is removed. Using an external air-driven motor coupled to a flexible shaft it is
possible to get the brush through 90 degree bends in larger diameter tubes.

P A G E | 171

Tube Bundle Installation

Tube Bundle Manual Installation
The manual way for inserting tube bundle inside shell makes use of cradle,
overhead crane, locking boom & chain pulley blocks. Cradle is a semi-circular
structure made from thick sheet of steel. Cradle is used to support baffles of tube
bundle. After placing tube bundle on to cradle, it is lifted to desired height using
overhead crane & located against shell such that center of shell should match with
center of tube bundle. At the end of tube bundle, tubes are welded to thick circular
sheet called tube sheet. Locking boom is mounted on tube sheet so that it can serve
reaction to pair of chain pulleys. After locating tube bundle against shell, chain
pulleys on either side are pulled so that tube bundle starts inserting in to shell. The
entire activity takes time of 15-16 hrs. with 6 workmen needed to do this job.

P A G E | 172

Pressure Test of
Piping System

P A G E | 173

Engineering Specification for Pressure Test of Piping System

SCOPE
This specification covers the minimum requirements for pressure testing, draining
and reinstatement of the piping system in industrial plants. Pressure test shall be a
hydrostatic leak test, only where a hydrostatic leak test is impractical, pneumatic
leak test may be substitute. Lines and systems which are open to the atmosphere,
such as drains, vents and open safety valve discharges, do not require pressure
testing. These lines shall be visually examined to determine that all joints are
properly made up.
This specification covers non-metallic piping. This specification does not cover
the testing of pressure vessels, exchangers, piping in fired heater and other
equipment (including packages) which are tested in accordance with codes and
standards under which they have been built.
CODES AND STANDARDS - Pressure Test of Piping System
ASME B31.3: Process Piping
ASME Sec. V: Non-Destructive Examination
RELATED ENGINEERING & CONSTRUCTION SPECIFICATION
The following related Engineering Specifications are applied as supplement of this
specifications.
Cleaning for Pipe lines
Inspection and test of piping construction
RETEST - Pressure Test of Piping System
In the event repairs of additions are made following the pressure tests, the affected
piping shall be re-tested, except that, in the case of minor repairs or additions the
Owner may waive retest requirements when precautionary measure are taken to
assure sound construction.
SAFETY
Full care and precaution shall be given by the field management for the
safety of the workmen to prevent accidents during the execution of the
works.

P A G E | 174

Especially the pneumatic testing involves the hazard due to possible release
of energy stored in compressed gas. Therefore, particular care must be taken
to minimize the chance of brittle failure of metals and thermoplastics.
Pressure testing shall be performed in presence of the Owners inspector.
Pressure testing shall be performed when the weather condition is suitable
for inspection.
HYDROSTATIC TEST
As a rule, test shall be hydrostatic, using fresh water or industrial water. The water
shall have a suitable corrosion inhibitor which meets Owner approval. Where the
use of sea water is unavoidable, agreement between Owner and Construction
Contractor shall be made, before proceeding with the work. When sea water is
used, quick draining and sufficient cleaning by fresh water shall be performed after
completion of the testing. Where atmospheric temperature is 0 C or below water
shall not be used unless water is heated by steam or other heat source, and
maintained at temperature of 4C or above during the testing. If there is a
possibility of damage due to freezing, or if the operating fluid or piping material
would be adversely affected by the water, any other suitable liquid such as oil or
kerosene may be used with agreement between Owner and Construction
Contractor.
For testing of system containing stainless steel piping system, the chloride ion
content of water refer to para. 8.5.7 of Spec. 0000-S1830-002.
PNEUMATIC TEST
As a rule, test shall be pneumatic, using air. The use of other test fluid shall be
subject to agreement between Owner. Pneumatic testing shall be made with oil free
air.
TEST PREPARATION
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

CLEANING
BLIND FLANGES AND BLANKS
PIPE SUPPORTING ELEMENT
VENT
PRESSURE TEST GAUGES
MISCELLANEOUS

P A G E | 175

CLEANING
Prior to test, any piping system to be tested shall be cleaned. And all joints,
including welds, are to be left un-insulated and exposed for examination
during the test, except that joints previously tested in accordance with this
specification may be insulated or covered.
Piping shall be inspected for completeness and conformity to piping
drawings and specifications.
All required non-destructive testing (NDT) and soap tests of reinforcing
rings shall be completed with results satisfactory to Owner.
Owner will release all piping system for flushing and testing after he has
satisfied himself that the system is complete and ready for testing. Piping
shall be divided into test system by using blinds caps or plugs suitably.
All instruments in the test system shall be excluded from flushing / testing
by isolation or removal.
Instrument piping shall be tested up to the first block valve.
All other valves in the piping system shall be kept in open position.
All tests executed with day temperature or fluid temperature of 5C and
lower or when frost is expected during night and system may stay filled
overnight shall have anti-freeze. (Glycol).
Trash and construction debris shall be removed from the piping system by
flushing with water or by blowing with air or nitrogen in line with the
pressure test medium. All lines shall be completely free of weld slag and
other foreign material and shall be reasonably clean.
Flushing through equipment or machinery is not allowed. Flushing shall be
performed against open pipe ends.
Flushing water shall be drained through hoses locations as indicated by
Owner.
Before commencing pressure test, the Contractor, shall prepare and submit
for the Owner approval a detailed flushing test procedure.
The area shall be continuously monitored by test personnel while testing is
being performed that-any change in test procedures or conditions will be
noted immediately and corrective-action taken as required.
Plugs shall be removed from tell-tale holes in compensating rings and
reinforcement pads around branches (nozzle) and the holes left open
hydrostatic testing to observe any leakage.
Pressure test flow diagram shall be prepared by Construction Contractor.
These diagrams shall show the system to be tested, the valves to be opened,
and the equipment to be blanked with blind flanges and necessary
instrumentation.

P A G E | 176

BLIND FLANGES AND BLANKS

Where the piping system is required to be disconnected from equipment in
the test, disconnected end of the piping shall be isolated by blind flange
having the same rating with the piping system to be tested.
Where the piping system to be tested is isolated at a pair of companion
flanges, blank shall be inserted between the companion flanges. And a
record should be kept showing the location of all test blinds to assure their
removal.
A grip shall be fixed to outside of the blank (blind flange) to be used for the
test, and shall be painted in red to distinguish from other blanks. The blank
shall be indicated on the pressure test flow diagram.
No testing shall be down against closed valves, blind flange or blanks.
Instrument block valves shall be exempted from this rule.
For flanged control valves with block valves and a by-pass, if the test
pressure upstream and downstream is the same, the block and by-pass valve
shall be left open, with the control valve removed and blinds.
In case the test pressure upstream and downstream of the control valve is
different, the test on the upstream position shall be made with the by-pass
valve open and blanked-off, upstream block valve open and blanked off and
control valve removed.
PIPE SUPPORTING ELEMENT
Piping designed for vapor or gas shall be provided with additional temporary
supported, if necessary, to support the weight of the test liquid.
Prior to the liquid fill for test of the piping system, it shall be checked that
springs with "down travel stop" have the "stop" inserted. The "stop" in the
spring shall be removed after draining of test fluid from the piping system.
VENT
During water-filling, the air is to be removed from the line by leaving the
vent valves open until water spurts from them.

P A G E | 177

PRESSURE TEST GAUGES

Two calibrated dial indicating pressure gauges, at least, shall be provided at
the pump discharge and other suitable locations.
All gauges used shall be checked for accuracy. All test pressure gauges shall
be calibrated at regular intervals at least every two weeks. Calibration
certificate shall be available at the work site and all gauges shall be properly
identified to enable tractability to the calibration certifications.
The test pressure shall be checked by means of a gauge having a range from
zero up to 1.5 to 2 times the intended maximum test pressure.
Pressure gauge shall be connected at point as near as possible in highest and
lowest point of the piping system to be tested. Where practical, the static
head of the water column shall be taken into account in the test pressure.
MISCELLANEOUS
Subject to permission lines which are to be tested with their service fluid
(category D fluid) may be subjected to an initial service leak test in
accordance with para. 345.7 of ASME B31.3 in lieu of the hydrostatic leak
test. It shall be subject to Owner prior approval.
Pressure-relief valve which is calibrated shall be provided in order that
excess test pressure can be escaped.
Lines containing check valve shall have the source of pressure located in the
piping upstream of check valve so that pressure is applied under the seat. If
this is not possible, check valve disk shall be removed or located open.
Expansion joints of the sliding sleeve or bellows type shall be provided with
temporary restraint if required for additional load under-test, or shall be
isolated from the test.
Prior to start test, the piping system shall be checked that all the valve discs
are located suitable open and closed position, and the vents and drains are
installed properly for the test.
The following items shall be isolated or block them out of the test. Field
tests of these items, when required, are covered by their respective
specifications; equipment, machinery, Relief valves, Rupture discs, Flame
arrestor, Displacement meters, Rotameters, Pressure gauges, Gage glasses,
Filter and strainer elements and Control valves with close tolerances. Steam
traps, internals and any items not designed to with stand the pressure.
All instrument control piping downstream of first piping block valve.

P A G E | 178

All orifice plates which interfere with filling, venting and draining shall be
removed from the test.
TEST PRESSURE
HYDROSTATIC TEST
The hydrostatic test pressure at any point in the system shall be as follows.
Test pressure shall not be less than 1-1/2 times the minimum design pressure, but
shall not exceed the maximum allowable test pressure for flanges, according to
ASME B16.5 OR ASME B16.47. The test pressure shall be corrected to take into
account the line temperature as per clause 345.4.2 of ASME B31.3. As a rule, the
test pressure shall be as shown in "the line Designation Table".
The following points shall be taken into account to determine the test pressure.
The weakest component in the piping system to be tested.
In case that the piping system is tested together with equipment having
lower test pressure than the system.
PNEUMATIC TEST
If the piping is tested pneumatically, the test pressure shall be 110% of the design
pressure of the system. If the test pressure exceeds 6 bars written approval of the
Owner shall be obtained. Welds of piping subject to pneumatic strength test above
6 bars shall be %100 radio graphed. The test temperature is important in pneumatic
test and must be considered when the choice of material is made in the original
design.
TESTING PROCEDURES
HYDROSTATIC TEST
Hydrostatic test pressure shall be applied by means of a suitable test pump or
other pressure source, which shall be positively isolated from the system
until ready to test. Test equipment (hydrostatic, pneumatic, etc.) shall be
approved by Owner.
The pump shall be attended constantly during the test by an authorized
operator. Whenever the pump is left un attended, it shall be positively

P A G E | 179

disconnected from the system, while the pressure gauge remains connected
to the test system.
After filling the water and purging the air in the piping system to be tested,
the pressure shall be increased gradually in the steps maintaining for at least
3 minutes in each step to allow the equalization of strain during test and to
check for leaks.
The test pressure shall be maintained for at least one hour prior to starting
inspection and long enough to enable inspection of the complete test system
by Owner.
On water filling for the test in chilly district, or leaving the piping system
liquid filling, the piping system shall be taken into account for variation of
atmospheric temperature and due care shall be given for freezing or thermal
expansion.
The Construction Contractor shall be responsible for the supply of suitable
pumps for the testing. As a minimum a high volume centrifugal pump for
filling and a variable speed positive displacement, reciprocating pump, with
sufficient discharge head and capacity for the pressurization shall be
provided. The Construction Contractor shall provide chemical injection
pump and means necessary for measuring of the inhibitor to be added to test
water.

PNEUMATIC TEST
After evacuating all personnel from the test area The system shall be
pressurized to 1.7 Bar G. and held for sufficient time to allow the piping to
equalize strains (ten minutes minimum).
All joints (threaded, socket welded, butt welded and flanged) shall be
preliminary tested for leakage using the test solution.
Pressurize the system gradually to 60% of the indicated test pressure, and
hold at that pressure for a sufficient length of time to allow the piping to
equalize strains (ten minutes minimum).
Reduce the pressure to 50% of the indicated test pressure and retest all joint
for leakage.
Pressurize in steps of not more than 10%, until the indicated test pressure
has been reached. The pressure shall be held at each step during pressurizing
sequence (to allow the piping to equalize strains) for a period of not less than
ten minutes. The indicated test pressure shall be held for a sufficient length
of time to permit the testing of all joints, the pressure shall then be reduced
to the design pressure before examining for leakage

P A G E | 180

Each reinforcing pad (or each segment thereof) and similar attachments shall
be tested at a designated test pressure with air, a soap solution shall be used
to detect air leaks. Test and vent holes shall be left open upon completion of
the test.
A soap solution shall be applied to all screwed, weld and flanged joints
undergoing pneumatic test.
As pneumatic testing presents special risk due to possible release of energy stored
in the compressed gas almost care shall be taken during pressurization and
inspection of the system to prevent any danger to personnel or equipment and the
chances of a brittle failure of piping.
The Construction Contractor shall make sure that prefabricated piping which
are not included in the pressure test are certified by an authorized inspector.
Welds or portion of welds that leak during hydrostatic test shall be repaired,
cutout, rewelded, radiographed (if needed) and line shall be hydrostatically
tested again.
PRESSURE RELEASING
After completion of the test, the pressure shall be released so as not to
endanger personnel or damage equipment. As a rule, releasing rate shall be
300 Kg/Sq.cmhr, but lining pipe, tower filled with catalyst, etc., shall be less
than 25 Kg/Sq.cmhr.
DRAINING
After completion of the test, the piping system including equipment to be
tested shall be drained as completely as possible.
All vents shall be opened before the piping system is drained and shall be
remain open during draining to prevent pulling a vacuum on the piping
system.
After drainage, remove all temporary blinds and blanks, temporary supports,
and temporary testing connections, as per drawings and specifications
and reinstall all items such as control valves, relief valves, rupture discs,
orifice plates etc., which were removed for test. Ensure that line
specification of gaskets and bolts are being used when reinstalling these
items. All flange joints for the test shall be made up with
new temporary gaskets provided by the Construction Contractor.

P A G E | 181

All drained lines shall be dried after testing by blowing through with dry oil
free air. Special care shall be taken that no freezing can occur in winter.

TEST RECORDS
Records shall be made for each piping system during the testing and these records
shall include the following items.
A. Extent of testing and specification
B. Identification of piping tested
C. Pressurizing apparatus
D. Test pressure and test duration
E. Test fluid
F. Date of test
G. Approval signature of witness (Owner's representative)
H. Signature of person in charge of testing
I.

Applicable remarks concerning defects

J.

Water temperature and chloride content

K. Design temperature and pressure

All tests satisfactory or not shall be record on the test form and complete set will
be made part of the permanent job records.

P A G E | 182

5S

P A G E | 183

The 5S System
What Is 5S?
5S is a method of creating a self-sustaining culture which perpetuates a neat, clean,
efficient workplace; a method for removing all excess materials and tools from the
workplace and organizing the required items such that they are easy to find, use,
and maintain.
It is all about having what you need to do your
Job when you need it; no more, no less!

Form a Core Implementation Team

The team leads the 5S process and should include area workers for knowledge and
understanding, outside workers for a fresh eye, a department manager for quick
decisions, and a facilitator for guidance.
Identify a Project Using the Team Charter
Define the target areas geographic boundaries and its functions.
Perform a Workplace Scan
Mark the boundaries of the area.
Draw an area map and arrow diagram.
Take before photos.
Use the Workplace Scan Checklist to assess your current state and measure
control points.
Create a Workplace Scan Display
The display includes before photos and scan results, plus after photos to show
progress. The display, posted in the work area, encourages involvement and
understanding. Remember: You need to go where the action is! You cant
implement 5S from a conference room; you have to go to the shop floor.

P A G E | 184

The 5S
1. SORT
2. SET IN ORDER
3. SHINE
4. STANDARDIZE
5. SUSTAIN
1. SORT (When in doubt, throw it out!)
Sort means that you remove all items from the workplace that are not needed for
current production or transactional operations. It does not mean that you only
remove the items that you know you may never need and It does not mean that
you simply arrange things in a neater fashion.
ASK YOURSELF:
Is this item necessary to do this job?
Do we really need these items?
When you sort, you only leave the bare
Essentials: When in doubt, move it out.
Sort Procedure
1. Sort through items in the area.
2. Keep what is needed.
3. Eliminate what is not needed.
4. Reduce the number of items to the quantity required at any given time.
Sort Checklist
Review and use the Item Disposition List as the criteria for red tagging.
Gather needed supplies, including Red Tags.
Set up a Red Tag Holding Area, mark the location, identify a Red Tag Holding
Area manager, write and post standards and rules for item disposition.
Create and implement an initial Sort plan to purge the area of unnecessary items.
Fill out a log sheet listing all items removed from the area.
Continue to Sort, through Red Tagging, as the other 5S System steps are
implemented.

P A G E | 185

Red Tag Method

A method of identifying and
removing all unneeded items from
the workplace through the use of
red tags as a visual control.
Attach a red tag to each item that
is unneeded or does not belong in
the area.
Attach a red tag to each item that
belongs in the area but DOES
NOT have an identified storage
area.
Fill out each tag to describe what
each item is and why it was
tagged.
Record all the tags and their
description in the 5S Tag Log.
Do not tag the trash! Just throw it away!
Five S Log
Tag
No.

Tag
Date

Item Description

Disposition When

Status (New Location,

Complete?)

P A G E | 186

2. SET IN ORDER (A place for everything, and everything in its place)

Set in order means that you arrange the items that are needed in the area and
identify them or label them so that ANYONE can find them or put them away.
ASK YOURSELF:
Would a new person in this work area
__know where this item belongs?
Set in Order Procedure
1. Analyze the current situation by updating the Workplace Scan Display
Checklist.
2. Target specific issues.
3. Decide where things belong.
4. Make it visually obvious where and how things belong.
Set in Order Checklist
Store items together if they are used together, and store them in the sequence
they are used.
If tools are being set in order, design a system that keeps the tools in their
location.
Store infrequently used items away from the point of use.
Determine the criteria for relocating out of place items. Who needs to be
contacted regarding relocation, who will actually do the relocating, what
policies and procedures affect relocation, and when is the best time to
relocate?
Identify and gather needed supplies (bins, labels, tags, colored tape, etc.).
Identify and relocate large items. Use the Area Map and arrow diagram to
find the best location for large items; create and obtain approval of a moving
plan; move the items; identify and implement location indicators for the
items that have been moved.
Identify and relocate small items. Determine the best location, move them,
and identify and implement location indicators.
THE KEY:
Look at the area as if you were brought into the area to help out.
Would you be able to find & put things away immediately?

P A G E | 187

3. SHINE (Cleaning = inspection; Cleaning with meaning)

Shine emphasizes removing the dirt, grime, and dust from the work area. This is a
program of keeping the work area swept and clean of debris. Floors are swept,
machinery is clean and wiped off and everything in the work area is kept clean.
ASK YOURSELF:
Are there items in the area that need to be cleaned?
The best time to find defects, dents, and scratches on your
automobile is when you are hand washing it. Likewise, the best
time to find defects and safety problems is when you are cleaning
your work area.
Shine Procedures
1. Check to see if everything is in its place.
2. Check to see if you need to replace anything.
3. Check specific equipment targets for necessary repairs.
4. Check everything; see if deep cleaning, repair, or replacement is needed.
5. Shine and inspect through cleaning every shift.
Shine Checklist
Systematically determine targets and assignments.
Make sure all workers know their assignments.
Determine appropriate cleaning methods.

P A G E | 188

Get the right tools and supplies.

Perform initial cleaning of targets using the Initial Cleaning Plan.
Replace wires, hoses, tubes, etc.

4. STANDARDIZE (Make the best way the easiest way)

Creating a consistent way of implementing the tasks that are performed on a daily
basis including Sort, Set in Order, and Shine. Do the right things the right
way, every time!
ASK YOURSELF:
Are the methods/processes in place to keep the first three Ss
maintained and ongoing?
Is 5S practiced throughout the day?
Just like in our personal lives, if the rules are in writing
and right in front of us, we are much more likely to
understand and follow them, especially if they have our
signature on them!
Standardize Procedure
1. Identify and categorize a condition to standardize.
2. Brainstorm potential control ideas.
3. Select, test, and adopt control ideas.
4. Assign responsibilities for condition maintenance.
5. Maintain and monitor those conditions.
6. Integrate the benefits found through Sort, Set in Order, and Shine into the
everyday work activity
Standardize Checklist
Prepare the standardization chart.
Identify standardization issues.
Identify and attain desired conditions for Sort, Set in Order, and Shine.
Make all standards clear and obvious.
Monitor and improve all standards.
Continue to implement Sort, Set in Order, and Shine to improve conditions.
THE KEY:
Documentation exists to show how, where, and
when 5S activities take place.

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5. SUSTAIN (Stick to it!)

Sustain means that the 5S mentality is ingrained in everyday work life and
procedures. Sustain means that the 5S program has a discipline that ensures its
continued success. Sustain involves making a habit of maintaining correct
procedures.
ASK YOURSELF:
Are things reverting back to the unorganized way they were?
The first four Ss are solidly in place and being practiced daily.
Every day we do some 5S.
Sustain Procedure
1. Stick to the rules to keep the workplace well-ordered and run by agreed-upon
standards.
2. Ensure that all workers have been trained in the procedures.
3. Inform and encourage participation through 5S concepts and skills training, 5S
Communication Boards, photo displays, one-point lessons, study groups, and daily
and weekly 5S activities.
Sustain Checklist
Create a plan for Sustaining.
Ensure that you have management support for the plan.
Inform everyone in the area about the 5S standards and their purposes.
Create and maintain a 5S Communication Board and other communication
devices to ensure that everyone in the area has a basic understanding of the 5S
System.
Make 5S activities part of daily work through the 5-minute 5S.
Continue to improve standards and visual methods to make the standards
obvious.
Maintain Total Employee Involvement.

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5s Audit
5S Auditing and Improvement produces help to internal auditors and 5S team for
improvement in 5 S activities, 5 S is not one times procedure or having a finish
area that cycle process should be continual improvement, for planning to audit that
makes is systematic cycle for 5S process, off cause single cycle are or stand that
possible to auditable Is sustain that peoples / team are well aware of the 5S
activities, standardizes that daily behavior that support 5S process.
Scope
Any process or Procedure has a scope that bound of the process that involved
activities area to concern. Scope can be zonal, sections, area, department or whole
company or unit or multiple units, depends on how much you want to covered,
implement 5S.. Its a Scope; Defined in the scope section should be valid for
implementation & Audit.
Definitions
Definitions should include for understanding of procedure, if you made, read any
procedure having a short form of the long sentence or word that makes in short
character are mentioned in this section of the procedure to readers, implementer get
understanding of words that you shorted.
Process Descriptions
In the description section, planning, schedules, follows, execute 5S audit to afford
purpose verification of the accomplishment & success of 5S. This process owner is
5S leader that coordinator of 5S project establishment & implementation, in this
section
Inputs
1. From departments,
2. Area head
3. 5S checklist
4. List of area
5. Names of leaders
6. 5S audit schedules
7. Audit plans form

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Output
1. 5S scores or points
2. Corrective actions
3. Analysis of 5S activities
4. Observations
5S Audit should be conduct by 5S qualified auditors as per standards methods &
procedures are made by organization. Criteria of the audit should be considered for
method.
Define Responsibility
5S Leader Responsibility:
Prepare 5S Annual Audit plan; communicate to all sub leaders, Zone
Leaders, Section teams.
Define scope of audit, frequency on layers
Select auditors, verify qualified list of auditor
Support to NCs clearance for close audit.
Checking of corrective action effectiveness, Root cause, action plan on
audits observation & as per NCs.

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P A G E | 193

5S Auditor Responsibility:
Audit Planning, Scheduling, Checklist & concern information collect of
previous audits doc. Like findings, CAPA, NC etc..
Corrective Action Report, Observations, 5S Audit Result, NCs if any raised.
5S Auditee Responsibility:
Corrective actions for non-compliance & compliance
Carry out the root cause, specify target, preventive actions & impact
Documents & Records:
List of supporting documents, Records for Procedure
Revision Summary:
Details to be filled for previously amendment happen for this procedure.
Signatures:
Prepared & Approved by

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Work Permit

P A G E | 195

The purpose of this is to describe procedures and guidelines on work permit system
to carry out jobs of inspection, testing, maintenance, alternation, repair,
upkeepment and construction in safest possible manner. The implementation of
this system will help in bring down the risks at work sites to acceptable level,
thereby reducing possibility of any accident, fire, explosion, property damage and
adverse effect on environment.
Permit-to-work system
Permit-to-work systems form an essential part of the task risk assessment process.
When a task is identified an appraisal should be carried out to identify the nature of
the task and its associated hazards. Next, the risks associated with the task should
be identified together with the necessary controls and precautions to mitigate the
risks. The extent of the controls required will depend on the level of risk associated
with the task and may include the need for a permit-to-work.
A permit-to-work is not simply permission to carry out a dangerous job. It is an
essential part of a system which determines how that job can be carried out safely,
and helps communicate this to those doing the job. It should not be regarded as an
easy way to eliminate hazard or reduce risk. The issue of a permit does not, by
itself, make a job safe - that can only be achieved by those preparing for the work,
those supervising the work and those carrying it out. In addition to the permit-towork system, other precautions may need to be taken - eg process or electrical
isolation, or access barriers - and these will need to be identified in task risk
assessments before any work is undertaken. The permit-to-work system should
ensure that authorized and competent people have thought about foreseeable risks
and that such risks are avoided by using suitable precautions. Those carrying out
the job should think about and understand what they are doing to carry out their
work safely, and take the necessary precautions for which they have been trained
and made responsible.

What is a permit-to-work system?

A permit-to-work system is a formal recorded process used to control work which
is identified as potentially hazardous. It is also a means of communication between
site/installation management, plant supervisors and operators and those who carry
out the hazardous work. Essential features of permit-to-work systems are:

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Clear identification of who may authorize particular jobs (and any limits to
their authority) and who is responsible for specifying the necessary
precautions.
Training and instruction in the issue, use and closure of permits.
Monitoring and auditing to ensure that the system works as intended.
Clear identification of the types of work considered hazardous.
Clear and standardized identification of tasks, risk assessments, permitted
task duration and supplemental or simultaneous activity and control
measures.
The terms permit-to-work, permit or work permit refer to the paper or
electronic certificate or form which is used as part of an overall system of work,
and which has been devised by a company to meet its specific needs. Whether it is
manually or electronically generated, the permit is a detailed document which
authorizes certain people to carry out specific work at a specific site at a certain
time, and which sets out the main precautions needed to complete the job safely.
The objectives and functions of permit-to-work system
Ensuring the proper authorization of designated work. This may be work of certain
types, or work of any type within certain designated areas other than normal
operations.
Making clear to people carrying out the work the exact identity, nature and
extent of the job and the hazards involved, and any limitations on the extent
of the work and the time during which the job may be carried out.
Specifying the precautions to be taken, including safe isolation from
potential risks such as hazardous substances, electricity and other energy
forms.
Ensuring that the person in direct charge of a unit, plant or installation is
aware of all hazardous work being done there
Providing not only a system of continuous control, but also a record showing
that the nature of the work and the precautions needed have been checked by
an appropriate person or people.
Providing for the suitable display of permits.
Providing a procedure for times when work has to be suspended, ie stopped
for a period before it is complete.

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Providing for the control of work activities that may interact or affect one
another.
Providing a formal handover procedure for use when a permit is issued for a
period longer than one shift.
Providing a formal hand-back procedure to ensure that the part of the plant
affected by the work is in a safe condition and ready for reinstatement.
Providing a process for change, including the evaluation of change on other
planned activity, a determination of when hazards need to be reassessed, and
a means for controlled communication of change.
DEFINITIONS AND ABBREVIATIONS
A) Hot Work: An activity that can produce a spark or flame or other source of
ignition having sufficient energy to cause ignition, where the potential for
flammable vapors, gases, or dust exists. This includes all works, which produces
spark, running of IC engine, breaking of concrete, use of ordinary torches, use of
battery operated devices etc.
B) Cold Work: Cold Work is an activity that does not produce sufficient heat to
ignite a flammable air- hydrocarbon mixture or a flammable substance.
C) Radiation Work: Any activity that is carried with a source of ionizing radiation,
which does not produce sufficient heat to ignite a flammable air- hydrocarbon
mixture or a flammable substance.
D) Working at Height: Any activity that is carried out at 2.0 meters & above on
temporary structure, scaffolds or on a structure not meant to do particular job
safely.
E) Excavation: Any job, which requires excavation / digging of earth. An
Excavation is any man-made cut, cavity, trench, or depression in an earth surface
that is formed by earth removal. A Trench is a narrow excavation (in relation to its
length) made below the surface of the ground. In general, the depth of a trench is
greater than its width, and the width (measured at the bottom) is not greater than 15
ft (4.6 m). If a form or other structure installed or constructed in an excavation
reduces the distance between the form and the side of the excavation to 15 ft (4.6
m) or less (measured at the bottom of the excavation), the excavation is also
considered to be a trench.
F) Confined Space: It is an enclosure with known potential hazards and restricted
means of entrance and exit. It is not meant for normal occupancy of people and is

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usually not well ventilated such as vessels, boilers, storage tanks, large diameter
piping etc. The excavation more than 1.2 M deep, entry into floating roof tanks,
when roof is more than 3M down from the top, space located below ground level
such as pits, drain channels etc. shall also be considered as confined space.
G) Lower Explosive Limit (LEL): LEL is the minimum concentration of a vapour
in air (or other oxidant) below which propagation of flame does not occur on
contact with an ignition source. This is usually expressed as volume percentage of
the vapor in air.
H) Upper Explosive Limit (UEL): UEL is the maximum concentration of a vapor
in air (or other oxidant) above which propagation of flame does not occur on
contact with and ignition source. This is usually expressed as a volume percentage
of vapors in air.
I) Pyrophoric Substance: Substances that ignites spontaneously in air at ambient
temperature. In hydrocarbon industries iron sulphide is the most commonly
observed pyrophoric substance and is called as pyrophoric iron.
J)Self Contained Breathing Apparatus (SCBA): It is an lifesaving personal
protective apparatus consisting of a face mask, combined with a hose and source of
fresh air generally in form of a cylinder of compressed air, to be carried by bearer.

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K) Gas Safety Inspector (GSI)/Issuer: GSI means a designated officer authorized to

perform all necessary tests before signing a work permit. He must satisfy himself
by a personal inspection that the tank / vessel /line /equipment/ any other confined
space involved is safe for the work intended. He can independently issue Cold
work permit and permit for working at height.
To prepare the equipment/ facility/ area properly prepared before handing
over for Maint. / Repair/ construction / inspection as per written down
procedure.
Ensure that equipment/ facility and area is safe for particular work.
Permit is properly filled up and precautions are categorically mentioned.
Gas test has been carried out, if required. (Gas test is mandatory for hot
work and entry into confined space).
GSI shall ensure before signing any work permit that the atmosphere tested
is gas free or gas levels are within permissible limits for the assigned job and
satisfy himself that all necessary precautions have been taken so that the
atmosphere remains under control during the work.
Avoid giving general/ vague remarks on permit, which is not specific.
For working at height, ensure that there is provision of safe access to the
work site and there is provision of ladder/ platform/ scaffold for safe
execution of work. Check those scaffolds provided are with green tags.
Ensure positive isolation of energy and decide about the extent of isolation
required for the job. Refer chapter on Energy isolation- electrical and
process.
Permit or clearance shall not be issued until and unless he is satisfied that
points mentioned in work permit has been fully complied and the area as
such is safe to perform the particular work. Positive isolation of all energy
sources shall be ensured for confined spaces.
Close the permit on completion of work and retain the copy for at least three
months. Copies of Hot work/ Entry into confined space shall be returned
to Fire station after close out.
Keep your copy of permit always with you
Dont sign the permit without authority.

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L) Fire Permit Signatory (FPS)/Issuer: FPS means a designated officer authorized

to issue work permit. He is Fire Permit Signatory/Issuer in case of Hot work/
Vessel entry/ Excavation permit and for any other permit. He issues the permit for
the particular job after addressing the checklist points of permit for the units/ areas,
where he is the in-charge. FPS will sign the permit after getting satisfied that GSI
has carried out all the tests/checks and signed the permit.
FPS shall check the permit, submitted by GSI to assess the safety
requirement mentioned in the permit for their adequacy and may check
physically some critical checklist compliance such as gas test, isolation,
tagging, LOTO implementation etc. and recommend corrective measures
before signing the permit.
For all critical activities, he will thoroughly check the work site condition
(such as hot work in running unit / near OSW lines, working at height, entry
in confined space, radiography etc.) and compliance of permit conditions at
site before signing.
With his experience he may visualize additional hazards/ risks in jobs, which
needs to be addressed and will add this in permit for compliance.
Before signing he shall ensure that conditions mentioned in permit by GSI is
fully complied at site.
He should withdraw the permit, if the conditions in permit/ clearance is
violated or the job is not safer due to some other reasons. The information
about the withdrawal should be communicated to all concerned.

M) Receiver (Permittee): The Receiver the designated person authorized to

receive work permit. Receiver generally is the executing department officer, who
has to execute the particular job for which permit has been issued. The executing
officer can be Engineer In-charge / Site in-charge of the job or any other
nominated officer for executing dept. (normally service dept.).
On issue of permit, Receiver (Permittee) should go through the permit and
pass the instruction down the line as has been mentioned in the permit for
compliance. In case of any doubt, he should clarify from Issuer.
Do not sign without authority.

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Ensure that precautions mentioned in the permit are compiled at site.

Ensure that equipment being used is safe to perform the task in particular
area.
Ensure that all power driven equipment including the cables, insulation of
cables & cable joints etc. are as per standard and are maintained in healthy
condition.
Make the permit available at work site all the time during the work.
Work at specified location only.
Ensure use of approved type of spark arresters on exhaust of every IC
engine.
The checking and certifying including providing tag on each scaffold shall
be the responsibility of executing authority.
All jobs shall be done as per established maintenance practices and relevant
safety norms.
Check and ensure availability of valid medical fitness certificate for
workmen, working at a height of 2M or above under Work at Height
permit.
Clear the site on completion of work.
Close the permit on completion of work and hand it over to issuing
authority.

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N) Blanket
permit: The hot
work permit
issued to areas
after due
consideration to
safety (the fire
hazard is
minimum and
hazards due to
adjoining
facilities taken
into
consideration)
with approval of
local management
for a maximum
period of 1
month. Such
permit shall not
need shift-wise
renewal, however
the executer has
to ensure that
permit conditions
are compiled
throughout the
work period.
WORKS WHICH REQUIRE PERMIT
Normally all maintenance, repair, construction work shall be carried out with a
proper work permit.
Jobs where work permit is required include but not limited to followings:
Major and minor maintenance work
Inspection

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Construction
Alteration
Any hot work (including use of normal battery driven equipment in
operating areas)
Cleaning activities of process equipment
Entry into confined space
Excavation
Vehicle entry into process areas
Work at height
Handling of materials using mechanized means in operating areas
Erection and dismantling of scaffold
Radiography
Isolation and energisation of electric equipment/ facilities
WORKS EXEMPTED/ PARTIALLY EXEMPTED FROM REQUIREMENT
Routine work carried out by operations Dept. personnel (e.g. pump change over,
furnace lighting, operating valves etc.). It is considered that safety measures are
built-in in system while carrying out above works and covered in Operating
manuals.
Routine work carried out on equipment taken into workshop by maintenance dept.
and routine operation of workshop equipment (except hot work permit).
Routine testing of samples and handling chemicals in Quality Control Laboratory
(except hot work permit).
Jobs carried out during emergencies (fire/ explosion, rescue, uncontrolled release
of hazardous chemicals etc.) to control the emergency.
Work carried out at construction site with management approval (except permit
for hot work, radiography and working at height)

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TYPE OF WORK PERMITS, CLEARANCES AND FORMATS

Depending on the nature of the job, there are 7 types of work permit formats
covering various works as mentioned below:

Cold Work Permit

Hot work
Entry in to Confined Space Permit and clearances
Excavation Permit and Clearances
Electrical Isolation and Energisation Permit and Clearances
Working at Height Permit
Radiation permit

Cold Work Permit

This permit is required for carrying out any activity of maintenance/ cleaning /
testing inside refinery that does not produce sufficient heat to ignite a flammable
air- hydrocarbon mixture or a flammable substance. The list of job includes
blinding, de-blinding of equipment/ facilities, tightening/ loosening of bolts,
insulation, painting of lines, cleaning of equipment, repairing on instruments on
facilities etc.
Cold Work Permit in Prescribed format shall normally be valid for single
shift only and clearance on the same permit can be renewed/ extended up to
a maximum of seven calendar days. GSI/ FPS of the area shall issue
clearance renewal in each shift after checking permit conditions/precautions
and complying the same.
GSI/ FPS of the area is authorized to issue the permit.
The permit is issued in duplicate. Original (yellow in colour) shall be issued
to receiver /executer watermarked as Executer copy and 1st copy (white in
colour) for issuer shall be watermarked as Issuer Copy. Permit shall be
considered issued on signature of issuer and receiver. The original permit
shall be water marked as issuer copy and duplicate as executer copy.
Important Dos and Donts copy (preferably bilingual- English and local
language) duly signed by Receiver and Issuer shall be attached to permit for
Cold Work Permit. The copy shall be available at site along with original
permit copy.

P A G E | 205

Hot work
Hot Work Permit is required for carrying out any activity, which produces
sufficient heat to cause fire in an inflammable air- vapour mixture. No hot work
shall be permitted unless the Explosimeter shows zero.
Explosimeter (combustible gas
detector) is a gas detector which is
used to measure the amount of
combustible gases present in a sample.
When a percentage of the lower
explosive limit (LEL) of an
atmosphere is exceeded, an alarm
signal on the instrument is activated. It
operates on the principle of resistance
proportional to heata wire is heated,
and a sample of the gas is introduced
to the hot wire. Combustible gases
burn in the presence of the hot wire,
thus increasing the resistance and
disturbing a Wheatstone bridge, which
gives the reading.

Entry in to Confined Space Permit and clearances

Entry to Confined Space Permit is required for entry into any confined space.
Before Issuing Permit for Entry into Confined Space, the requirement of Pre
Entry checklist for Confined Space format shall be complied. The attendance of
each entrant of confined space shall be taken by attendant at man way of
equipment. Each confined space, where entry has been made is required to be boxup after obtaining necessary clearance. Entry into confined space, where no hot
work is to be carried out, may be permitted if combustible gases are up-to 5% of
lower explosive limit (LEL). Entry with an air-supplied mask may be permitted
with LEL up to 20 %. The oxygen level should be at least 19.5 vol. % and the
concentration of toxic gases below the threshold limit (TLV for H2S- 10 PPM,
CO- 50 PPM, Cl2- 1 PPM, NH3- 25 PPM & SO2- 2 PPM).

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Confined Space box-up clearance in prescribed form shall be obtained for only
those spaces, where Confined Space Entry permit has been taken. The clearance
shall be obtained in duplicate and a copy shall be returned to issuer on completion
of work.
Hot work / Entry into Confined Space Permit shall be filled in prescribed
form. For each entry into confined space permit, the compliance of Pre
entry check-list for confined space is a prerequisite.
Permit shall be issued in triplicate. The original (Pink in colour) shall be for
permittee/ executer shall be water marked as Executer copy. The duplicate
(white in colour) shall be watermarked as F&S Dept. copy and triplicate
(green in colour) shall be watermarked as Issuer copy.
The permit shall be issued equipment wise, specifying the exact location of
work. Equipment number shall be categorically specified in the permit.
Where the equipment number cannot be specified, the sketch of the area
should be enclosed. In such cases the Hot work permit can be obtained for a
distance of only 15 M on either side of hot work spot. Beyond 15 M from
hot work spot, separate permit is required.
Normally permit shall be considered issued for the job after Clearance
renewal is signed by GSI and receiver. This clearance on the same permit
can be renewed/ extended up to a maximum of seven calendar days. GSI/
FPS of the area shall issue clearance renewal in each shift after checking
permit conditions and ensuring compliance.
During Shut down Hot work / Entry into Confined Space shall be
considered issued for job after Clearance renewal is signed. This clearance
on the same permit can be renewed/ extended up to a maximum of fifteen
calendar days and additional clearance sheets shall be attached with permit
for extended clearance renewal. GSI/ FPS of the area shall issue clearance
renewal in each shift after checking permit conditions and ensuring
compliance of the same.
Blanket hot work permit shall be issued with the authorization of DGM of
issuing department for a period of maximum one month, where normal
clearance renewal is not required on the same permit. While issuing permit

P A G E | 207

the possible impact of nearby operating areas must be taken into

consideration. For Q.C. Laboratory and Workshop or any place, where hot
work is required almost every day and the area is safe for the hot job, the
blanket permit can be issued after compliance of permit conditions.
Blanket hot work permit can be issued for project construction work in nonoperating areas. However, for cutting process lines, specific permit shall be
required. However in such cases executer shall constantly keep a watch to
ensure that permit conditions are complied at site.
For Hot work / Entry into Confined Space Permit after signature by both
GSI and FPS shall be registered at Fire Station by F&S operator. Fire and
Safety operator shall allot a number on the permit with validity and put his
signature. Receiver/ permittee shall retain the original copy (pink in colour),
Fire and Safety Department shall retain the duplicated copy (green in colour)
and Issuer shall retain the triplicate copy (white in colour).
For carrying out Hot work / Entry into Confined Space, Permit beyond
normal working hours (General Shift) or on Sundays/Holidays, permission
shall be obtained from HOD/DGM. In case concerned HOD/DGM is not
available on duty, SRSM/RSM may give the permission on instruction from
HOD/DGM for emergency/ urgent nature of job.
The man way for entry in confined space shall be manned by Attendant all
the times, till last man comes out from inside. He shall maintain attendance
sheet for all entries in prescribed form.
For carrying out Hot work / Entry into Confined Space beyond normal
working hours (General Shift) or on Sundays/Holidays, the clearance shall
be obtained from SRSM/RSM.
Whenever hot job is discontinued at work site for a day due to some reason,
when the hot work permit is valid, the executor has to make an entry in
prescribed register at Fire Station in advance. Fire station shall be kept
informed when no job is done under the valid hot work permit. The
compliance of permit conditions must be ensured by signatories ( Issuer &
permittee) before restarting the work.
Dos and Donts copy (preferably bilingual- English and local language)
shall be attached to permit signed by Receiver and Issuer for Hot work/
Entry into Confined Space permit. The copy shall be available at site along
with original permit copy.

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All hot work permit shall get automatically cancelled on occurrence of fire
against that permit, unless it is rechecked & certified by issuer & Fire and
Safety department officer. All such permits shall be withdrawn and handed
over to Fire Station by issuer/ receiver of the permit.
For further details about hot work refer Standard on Hot Work and for
entry into confined space refer standard on Confined Space Entry.
All confined space, where man entry has been made against permit shall be
boxed up after obtaining CONFINED SPACE BOX-UP clearance in
prescribed form.
Equipment and surrounding areas shall be checked to ensure that they are
free from any inflammable gas using a portable gas tester. Frequency of
repeating this test or the need for continuous monitoring shall be determined
and shall be arranged accordingly.
Gas testing of atmosphere shall be mandatory for all hot works and Entry
into confined space permit.
Any heavy oil deposit, dried vegetation or other flammable / combustible
materials within 8 M of a hot work site shall be cleared away.
No hot work shall be allowed within 15 M of any sample point, drain or
relief valve outlet unless precautions have been taken to prevent the escape
of flammable liquids and vapour.
If there is any drain or ditches into which flammable liquid can escape, the
drain shall be dammed and pumped dry within 15 M of the work site.
The outlet of all units drain seals within 15 M of the hot work shall be
plugged to isolate them from rest of the drain line.
All drain covers and surface manhole covers within 15 M of hot work site
shall be covered by flame retardant fabric cloths / wet tarpaulin and wet
sand. Particular care shall be taken to ensure that these seals are maintained
in good condition.

P A G E | 209

If welding or grinding is to be done at height, then precautions shall be taken

to prevent the spread of sparks and molten metal by surrounding the work
area with fire-resisting or flame retarding tarpaulin. Arrangement shall also
be made to quench and extinguish sparks and molten slag by applying water
through a hose.
A minimum number of 2 fire extinguishers shall be available for each hot
work within 8 M from the place of work.
A hose with a control type discharge nozzle, capable of reaching up to the
hot work point and connected to fire hydrant shall be provided during all hot
work. There shall be either be a continuous flow of water through the hose
or it shall be kept pressurized up to the discharge nozzle.
For detail safety requirements & precautions for hot work refer standard on
Hot Work and for safety precautions during Entry into Confined Space
including gas test, refer standard on Confined Space Entry.

Excavation Permit and Clearances

Excavation permit is required for carrying out any excavation inside Refinery.
Duly signed Dos and Donts during Excavation Work shall be attached with
each Excavation Permit. Duly filled signed and registered Excavation Clearance
is prerequisite for any Excavation Permit. Wherever temporary closure of road /
cutting of road or blockage of main roads is required in a refinery.
All excavation permit, excavation clearance is mandatory in prescribed form.
Additionally for Closure of road, permission to be taken in prescribed form and
information of the same shall be circulated to all concerned in prescribed format.
For Excavation Permit jobs, the following shall be ensured:
A warning or protective barricade of 1 meter height with red & white band/
self-glowing caution board should be provided around excavation site.
Excavated material should be piled at least one meter away from the edge of
the excavation / trench or depth of the trench whichever is more.

P A G E | 210

Provision of minimum two entries/exits should be made. Additionally in

case of long trench for each 7.5 M and part thereof, there should one ladder.
Safe angle of repose or proper shoring/strutting to prevent cave-in should be
provided as per relevant codes and safe operating practices.
Excavation clearance shall be obtained from various dept. in prescribed
format before applying for excavation permit.
For excavation permit, permittee shall obtain the Excavation clearance in
prescribed format from the respective discipline like Area in-charge, Civil
Maintenance, Electrical Maintenance, Telecom, IS, Production/ P&U,
Instrumentation, Inspection and Fire & Safety as a prerequisite condition to
Permit two days before commencement of work. The clearance form shall
be in duplicate. Original for permittee (pink in colour) shall be watermarked
as Executer copy and duplicate for F&S Dept. (white in colour)
watermarked as F&S Dept. copy.
Permit for excavation shall be in triplicate. Original (pink in colour) shall be
watermarked as Executer copy, duplicate for GSI (white in colour)
watermarked as F&S Dept. Copy and third copy (green in colour)
watermarked as Issuer copy.
For road cutting, approval from HOD of issuing Dept. in Excavation Permit
shall be obtained. Additionally the permission for road blockade shall be
obtained by E-I-C one day before commencement of working prescribed
format. HOD (F&S) shall circulate the road blockade information to all
concern one day before commencement of work. For detail please refer
Standard on Safety during Excavation Work.
In case of dyke cutting, permission of concerned DGM hall be obtained in
prescribed form. For cutting tank dyke containing Hydrocarbons, the job
should normally be carried out between sunrise & sunset and the site should
be kept manned all the times. Wherever, job is of continuous nature, the cut
dyke should not be left unattended; unless it is temporarily closed with sand
bags, G.I sheets etc. to ensure that in case of any leak, the oil should not
come out of the dyke enclosure.
The Maximum validity of excavation clearance shall be for 15 days, except
in case of construction sites & non-operational areas, where it shall be for a

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maximum period of 1 month. It shall be obtained at least 2 days before

commencement of the work. If the work continues beyond one month, the
fresh excavation clearance is required to be obtained. The excavation
creance shall be followed by EXCAVATION PERMIT, which shall be
obtained at least 1 day before commencement of job.
Excavation permit shall be issued in triplicate. On issue, the original (Pink
colour) shall be with executer, 1st copy with Fire Station and 2nd Copy with
issuer of permit. On issue, the registration of permit is required to be done at
Fire station. This will be done for a maximum period of maximum 7 days
with renewal in each shift by GSI. However during shut down of units/
facilities the permit can be registered for maximum 15 days with shift wise
renewal and during construction site for a maximum period of 30 days.
Other appropriate Work Permits are also to be obtained prior to start of
excavation work. Copy of excavation clearance shall be attached to the
Excavation Permit and serial number of excavation clearance shall be
mentioned on the Excavation Permit.
In addition to an Excavation Clearance, a Cold Work Permit is required if
hand tools are being used for excavation or a Hot Work Permit if powered
tools or mechanical equipment are being used.
For excavations more than 1.2 meter deep a Confined Space Entry Permit
is required. Gas tests shall be done as per entry permit requirements.
For any other work inside the excavation, appropriate work permits shall be
obtained in addition to above.
Executing Dept. officer (executor) shall ensure compliance to precautions
specified on the Work Permits and Excavation Clearance. Issuing authority
shall monitor these conditions.
Each signatory of excavation clearance, who has underground facilities near
to excavation site shall monitor the site daily while the excavation is in
progress, to ensure that the respective underground facilities are not
damaged. Issuer shall check the site for damages before closing the work
permit.

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Excavations adjacent to building, structures, pipe tracks, etc., may require

temporary supports or strutting. Concerned civil engineer (executor) shall
sign the Work permit and provide the relevant safety recommendations.
Certain recommendations may require to be implemented before starting of
excavation work.
Ladder shall be positioned projecting a minimum of 1 meter above the edge
of the excavation. There should be at least two means of exit for persons
working inside large excavation within 7.5 meters of travel distance.
All walkways across any excavation shall be of scaffold construction with
handrails (Refer chapter on Scaffold Safety). Jumping across excavations is
not allowed.
Executor shall barricade the excavation to avoid the hazard of persons and
vehicles falling in. Reflective warning notices, traffic cones and flashing
lights (only in non hazardous areas) should also be provided at the edge of
excavation and at a safe distance ahead.
During night, adequate illumination inside and outside the excavation shall
be maintained as long as site is not restored to normal condition.
All materials, equipment and excavated soil shall be kept at least one meter
away to prevent "fall in" injuries and collapse of excavation.
Executor shall inspect strutting and shoring materials before their use.
Minimum section size for poling boards shall be 200mm x 50mm (8" x 2"),
while walling 150mm x 50mm (6" x 2") and struts 100mm x 50mm (4" x
2").
Sheeting shall project at least 450mm (18") above ground level to prevent
falling objects.
Executor shall check the excavation safeguards, shoring, sloping and
supporting system daily before starting the job and after every rainstorm or
other hazard-increasing occurrence.

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Engine driven equipment should not be used inside confined excavations. If

required, confined space precautions shall be followed. Exhaust gases from
the engines of excavators, etc., shall be kept clear of the excavation.
Trial excavations shall ensure safety of underground facilities before use of
mechanical excavators.
Excavation work shall cease if any underground services are discovered or
damaged during excavation. Matter shall be reported to the concerned
Division without delay. The work shall be restarted only after approval has
been obtained from concerned Dept. and a new Work Permit obtained.
Executor shall report any damage to underground services or any other
incident immediately to the E-I-C and Area in-charge.
Prevention of drowning: Adequate fencing, warning notices, etc., are to be
provided around an excavation deeper than 1.2 meters and contains enough
water to present the risk of persons being drowned. The fencing shall be
removed only for the minimum time required for the passage of equipment
and materials. If the excavation is in an area where persons could easily gain
access, suitable rescue equipment such as safety harness with life line,
lifebuoys, rescue jackets, inflatable boats etc. shall be provided on or near
the site.
Safe systems of work in Confined Space
Appointment of a supervisor: Supervisors should be given responsibility
to make sure that the necessary precautions are taken, to check safety at each
stage and may need to remain present while work is underway.
Are people suitable for the work?: Do they have sufficient experience of
the type of work to be carried out, and what training have they received? The
competent person may need to consider other factors, eg concerning
claustrophobia or fitness to wear breathing apparatus, and may need to seek
medical advice on an individuals suitability.
Isolation: Mechanical and electrical isolation of equipment is essential if it
could otherwise operate, or be operated, inadvertently. If gas, fume or
vapour could enter the confined space, you need to isolate the pipework. In
all cases, a check should be made to ensure isolation is effective.
Cleaning before entry: This may be necessary to ensure fumes do not
develop from residues etc while the work is done.

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Provision of ventilation: You may be able to increase the number of

openings and therefore improve ventilation. Mechanical ventilation may be
needed to make sure there is an adequate supply of fresh air. This is essential
where portable gas cylinders and diesel-fuelled equipment are used inside
the space because of the dangers from build-up of engine exhaust. Warning:
carbon monoxide in the exhaust from petrol-fuelled engines is so dangerous
that use of such equipment in confined spaces should never be allowed.
Testing the air: Testing the air may be necessary to check that it is free
from both toxic and flammable vapours and that it is fit to breathe. Testing
should be carried out by a competent person using a suitable gas detector
which is correctly calibrated. Where the risk assessment indicates that
conditions may change, or as a further precaution, continuous monitoring of
the air may be needed.
Provision of special tools and lighting: Non-sparking tools and specially
protected lighting are essential where flammable or potentially explosive
atmospheres are likely. In certain confined spaces (eg inside metal tanks)
suitable precautions to prevent electric shock include use of extra low
voltage equipment (typically less than 25 V) and, where necessary, residual
current devices.
Provision of breathing apparatus: Breathing apparatus is essential if the
air inside the space cannot be made fit to breathe because of gas, fume or
vapour present, or lack of oxygen. Never try to sweeten the air in a
confined space with oxygen as this can greatly increase the risk of a fire or
explosion.
Preparation of emergency arrangements: Emergency arrangements will
need to cover the necessary equipment, training and practice drills.
Provision of rescue harnesses: Lifelines attached to harnesses should run
back to a point outside the confined space.
Communications: An adequate communications system is needed to enable
communication between people inside and outside the confined space and to
summon help in an emergency.
Check how the alarm is raised: Do you need to position someone outside
to keep watch and to communicate with anyone inside, raise the alarm
quickly in an emergency, and take charge of the rescue procedures?
Electrical Isolation and Energisation Permit and Clearances
For all electrical isolation and energisation of electrical equipments (HT)
Electrical Isolation and Energisation Permit-HT Permit is required. For all
electrical isolation and energisation of electrical equipments (LT) Electrical

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Isolation and Energisation Permit-LT Permit is required. To work on High

Tension (HT) line and / or equipment, Permit to work on High Tension (HT) Line
/Equipment is required. To work on Low Tension (LT) line and / or equipment,
Permit to work on Low Tension (LT) Line /Equipment is required. For Trip reset
of HT equipment, the clearance shall be taken on format Trip Reset Clearance
Certificate for HT Equipment. For Trip reset of LT equipment, the clearance shall
be taken on format Trip Reset Clearance Certificate for LT Equipment.
For all Electrical isolation and energisation of equipment / line-HT or Electrical
isolation and energisation of equipment / line-LT permit (Inter Dept.) shall be
taken, depending on the case. Similarly Permit to work on HT line and
Equipment or Permit to work on LT line and Equipment shall be taken by P&U
Dept., depending on the case. Clearance certificate shall also be taken Trip Reset
of HT Equipment or Trip Reset of LT Equipment as the case may be. For
further details refer standard on Energy Isolation- Electrical and Process.
Before issuing any permit for maintenance of equipment, having electrical
connection, the Shift-in-charge (Operation) shall request the In-charge of
P&U Dept. for isolating equipment electrically through format for
Electrical Isolation and Energisation Permit-HT or Electrical Isolation
and Energisation Permit-LT depending on the case. These permits have 3
parts with tear off facility; Part-III shall remain with Equipment custodian/
shift in-charge of operation. Permits are issued in duplicate. Request for
isolation shall be made by Shift in-charge to Electrical operation (P&U).
After isolation, one portion of permit (Part-I) shall be retuned to Operation
in-charge. On completion of work the relevant portion of permit (Part-II)
shall be forwarded by Equipment custodian / shift in-charge of operation to
electrical operation for re-energisation, which shall be done and a copy of
permit (Part-II) shall be returned to Equipment custodian / shift in-charge of
operation by electrical operation.
Permit to work on HT line & Equipment or work on LT line &
Equipment is an intra departmental protocol of Electrical Department and
shall be used by Electrical Maintenance, Electrical Testing and Electrical
operation. These permits have 3 parts with tear off facility and is issued in
single copy. It shall be initiated by in-charge of electric maintenance (Part-1)
and endorsed by Equipment custodian / shift in-charge of operation before
forwarding the same to electrical operation for de-energisation. After deenergisation, Permit to work certificate (Part-II) shall be initiated by

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electrical operation, which will be forwarded to electrical maintenance, who

will do the job and issue to Job completion Certificate in same form. Part-III
of form for re-energisation shall be done by electrical operational and the
certificate for re-energisation shall be issued in same form.
Trip Reset Clearance Certificate for HT Equipment or Trip Reset
Clearance Certificate for LT Equipment shall be issued is duplicate by
Electrical Operation to Equipment Custodian / Shift In-charge of operation
as per requirement.
Lock out and Tag out (LOTO) of equipments/ facilities will be integral part
of the electrical isolation and energisation permit system.
After completion of maintenance activity, removal of man and material and
clearing of site and ensuring that equipment is safe for operation, owner
dept. agency shall declare that equipment is safe for operation and fill the
clearance for charging which includes the date and time of returning the
permit.
After ensuring that equipment is safe for operation the electrical operation
group shall energize the equipment. The date and time of energizing the
equipment shall be recorded on permit.
A list of personnel authorized for issuing electrical permits shall be issued
by the HOD (P&U) and be prominently displayed in switchgear room. This
list shall be updated annually or whenever there is a transfer/retirement of
concerned personnel.
For detail procedure refer standard on Energy Isolation- Electrical and
Process.

Working at Height Permit

For all working at height (of 2M or above) a permit for Working at Height is
required. Before erection, when scaffold materials are kept at site of erection, Pre
Erection Checklist for Scaffold shall be carried out in prescribed form. All tubular
scaffolds needs to checked and certified before being used. The medical certificate
for workmen, required to work at height is required.

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Working at Height Permit' shall be required for working at a height of 2.0 meters
and above on a temporary structure or on a fixed structure, not meant for carrying
out particular job safely.
Safety harness with lifelines secured with a fixed structure is a must for
working at height.
Provision of safety net should also be made.
All scaffolds shall be checked and certified in prescribed form before use.
All tools should be carried in tool kits to avoid their falling.
Throwing or dropping of material/ equipment from height is prohibited.
Avoid jumping from one member to another of a structure. Use proper
passageway.
Both hands should be free, while climbing the ladder. Bypassing the steps of
ladder should be avoided.
Avoid movements on overhead beam without proper fall protection.
Permit for Working At Height issued in prescribed format shall be
considered issued for job after Clearance renewal is signed. This clearance
on the same permit can be renewed/ extended up to a maximum of seven
calendar days. GSI/ FPS of the area shall issue clearance renewal in each
shift after checking permit conditions and ensuring the compliance of the
same.
For carrying out job beyond normal working hours (General Shift) or on
Sundays/Holidays, permission shall be obtained from respective HOD.
Working at height should be avoided in adverse weather conditions, such as
during rain, high wind, combination of high temperature & humidity.
Pre-Erection Checklist for Scaffold shall be filled up and requirement
shall be fully complied before going for erection of any tubular scaffold. The
checklist shall be in duplicate. Original copy shall be for executer and
duplicate for issuer.
All scaffolds shall be of tubular construction and checked using prescribed
format and certified before being tagged. No working at height permit shall
be issued unless the scaffold is checked and certified in prescribed form and
tagged in green colour, showing Ready for Use. In case a scaffold is in
continuous use for more than a week, it shall be re-checked and certified at
an interval of every week. A scaffold is also required to be checked and

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certified, whenever any alternation / modification is done in scaffold or if the

scaffolds are subjected to severe climatic conditions. All scaffold not ready
for use shall be tagged in Red colour. For details please refer chapter on
Scaffold Safety.
The permit is issued in Triplicate. The original (green in colour) and 2nd
copy (white in colour) will be for the Permittee/ Receiver. Issuing authority
will retain 1st copy (white in colour).
All ladder shall be inspected in prescribed format by custodian once in
month. Pre-use of ladder shall be a carried out by user before every use in
prescribed format. For formats please refer standard on Work at Height.
The persons working at height should be medically examines for their fitness
for working at height. The format for Medical Certificate is attached. The
certified shall be issued by registered medical practitioner and it will be
valid for a period not exceeding 1 year.

Scaffolding
The erection of any tubular scaffold shall not begin before the checking of
scaffold material at site (w.r.t quality and quantity), preparations at site,
availability of PPE, availability of trained personnel for erection etc. in
prescribed format on Pre Erection Checklist for Scaffold. The
requirements of checklist must be complied before start of erection of
scaffold at site. This check-list shall be filled up in duplicate. The original
shall be retained by executer and 1st copy with issuer (area in-charge).
All scaffolds after erection must be checked and certified in prescribed form
by scaffold supervisor and Officer of executing Dept. All scaffolding shall
be inspected after completion of erection and then at least every seven days
or after weather likely to have affected stability of scaffold or on all
alterations.
All Scaffolds, which has been checked and certified for use shall be tagged
with Green card duly filled and signed by scaffold supervisor and Officer
of executing Dept. All incomplete scaffold, scaffold under modification/
alteration / not fit for use shall have Red tag ,

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Green Tag: Means scaffold is safe for use. The tag should be properly filled up
and signed.
Red Tag: Means not for use.
Scaffold erected on firm ground and sole plate & base plate have been used.
A good base is essential, so that the ground or floor on which the scaffolding
is going to stand should be carefully examined. Soil or made up ground will
need consolidating. Sole plates at least 9" x 1" (230 mm x 40 mm) cross
section are required to spread the load on earth, made up ground, asphalted
surface etc. Sole plates shall extend under at least two standards and joints
shall be positioned so that they fall within one half to one third of the
distance between any two adjacent standards. At the end standard the sole
plate shall project a similar distance. No sole plate is required if scaffold is
erected on concrete surface. However base plates are compulsory for all
scaffolds.
Platforms have been provided with Toe board, guardrail & area below is
barricaded.
TOE-BOARD (Also known as a Kicking Board) - A board positioned at the
edge of a platform or place so as to prevent persons, tools and materials
falling from the platform or place.
GUARDRAIL - (Also known as a Handrail) - A tube connected at the edge
of platform and other places to prevent persons falling from platform or
place at a height of about 1M form platform.
For all work platforms TRAP means any gap in floor of platform or 1 of
more, TRIP means overlapping of scaffold boards or any projection on floor
of platform, which may cause trip of person and FREE FROM FALL
means the platform provided with adequate Toe guard, Guard rail and Midrail to avoid any fall from height.
Proper means of access to the scaffold including use of standard aluminum
ladder shall be provided.
Access to a working platform is best achieved by providing a separate ladder
tower (for high scaffolds) or cantilevered access platform so as not to obstruct
the platform and to minimize the possibility of persons falling through the gap
in the guardrail or decking
For details of scaffold refer Standard on Scaffold Safety.

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Work on Tall Chimneys

i) For the erection and repair of tall chimneys, tubular scaffolding shall be
provided. A safety net shall be maintained at a suitable distance below the scaffold.
ii) The scaffold floor shall always be at least 65 cm below the top of the chimney.
iii) Under the working floor of the scaffolding the next lower floor shall be left in
position as a catch platform.
iv) The distance between the inside edge of the scaffold and the wall of the
chimney shall not exceed 20 cm at any point.
v) Catch platforms shall be erected over:
The entrance to the chimney;
Passageways and working places where workers could be endangered by
falling objects.
vi) For climbing tall chimneys, access shall be provided by:
Stairs or ladders;
A column of iron rungs securely embedded in the chimney wall;
Other appropriate means such as access tower, elevator etc.
vii) When workers use the outside rungs to climb the chimney, a securely fastened
steel core rope looped at the free end and hanging down at least 3 m shall be
provided at the top to help the workers to climb on to the chimney.
viii) While work is being done on independent chimneys the area surrounding the
chimney shall be enclosed by fencing at a safe distance.
ix) Workers employed on the construction, alteration, maintenance or repair of tall
chimneys should not:
Work on the outside without a safety harness attached by a lifeline to a rung,
ring or other secure anchorage;
Put tools between the safety harness and the body or in pockets not intended
for the purpose;
Haul heavy materials or equipment up and down by hand to or from the
workplace on the chimney;
Fasten pulleys or scaffolding to reinforcing rings without first verifying their
stability;
Work alone;
Climb a chimney that is not provided with securely anchored ladders or
rungs;
Work on chimneys in use unless the necessary precautions to avoid danger
from smoke and gases have been taken.

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Work on independent chimneys shall not be carried on in high winds, icy

conditions, fog or during thundering/lightening.
x) All persons intended to work on chimney shall be exposed to medical
examination and must carry valid Medical Certificate, showing their fitness for the
job in prescribed form. Validity of such certificate shall be only 1 year.
Radiation permit
The all jobs, which generate ionizing radiation, Radiation Permit is required.
A warning or protective barricade of 1 meter height should be provided around the
surrounding area, meeting the distance requirement as mentioned in permit and
radiation sings & symbols to be displayed prominently by permittee.
Radiation Permit shall normally be issued valid for single shift only and
clearance on the same permit can be renewed/ extended up to a maximum of
seven calendar days. GSI/ FPS of the area shall issue clearance renewal in
each shift after checking permit conditions.
Radiation permit is divided into two parts. Part-2 will be filled by
radiography agency and officer of inspection department will endorse the
permit. The permittee/ receiver shall fill the permit for validity of time &
date, nature of work and location of work before seeking permit from issuer.
For obtaining work permit, permittee shall fill up above information and
send duly signed copy to the issuer. After checking and filling the Part-1 of
the permit format the issuer shall hand over the signed permit to receiver.
The receiver will go through the permit, ensure the compliance and sign the
permit before starting the job.
GSI/FPS of the area is authorized to issue the permit.
The permit is issued in duplicate, the original copy (Blue in colour) for
receiver shall be water marked as Executer copy and duplicate copy (white
in colour) for issuer shall be watermarked as Issuer Copy.

Before issuing a permit, equipment is to be inspected to ensure that the

equipment/ facility is prepared for safe execution of the assigned work, the area
is cleaned and all safety precautions have been adopted. Wherever necessary,
ensure that equipment is isolated, drained/ depressurized, properly purged, water
flushed, gas tested (including oxygen deficiency test) through portable gas
meters and readings have been recorded in the permit.

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GENERAL REQUIREMENTS OF WORK PERMIT

All maintenance/ alteration/ construction jobs in the refinery shall be carried out
under valid Permit to Work only. Normally operating personnel do not require
work permit for carrying out routine work, however in exceptional cases where
they are likely to be exposed to certain risks, work permit is required. The
requirement of work permit in such cases is to be decided by FPS of the area/ Unit
in-charge.

Separate permit should be issued for each job. Multiple jobs in a single permit are
prohibited, except Entry to confined space and hot work inside the confined space
in particular equipment. In such cases a composite permit can be issued and permit
must address all the applicable aspects for both the works.
In a confined space where various agencies are required to work simultaneously, a
risk identification and assessment may be carried out by a team of permit issuer
and various executing agencies and the team may develop a plan for safe execution
of work. The assessment will include a job safety analysis for each job separately
as well as in totality. For job safety analysis please refer standard on Job Safety
Analysis. The work plan is required to be approved by Management. In such
cases a single permit for Entry into confined space can be obtained.

Permits and clearances shall be in printed forms, in duplicate or triplicate,

depending on nature of job, serially numbered, Format Number and different
colour code should be adopted for different types of permits and clearances. Duly
signed Dos and Donts for related jobs shall be attached with each permit and
safety guidelines mentioned shall be complied at work site. Depending on nature of
jobs, type of permit required shall be decided.
All concerned shall be trained on Work Permit System for proper
implementation. 1 day training shall be mandatory for signatory of permit.
Further refresher course shall be attended at a gap not exceeding 2 years. Area
manager shall kept a record of such training ensure that no untrained person is
signing the permit. He shall also initiate action in advance to train the person,
whose validity is expiring.

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WORK PERMIT PROCEDURE / GUIDELINES

Refinery Management shall issue the appropriate authority limits for various
types of permits. For blanket hot work and dyke cutting, permits should be
obtained from DGM of concerned area and the facility should be restored as
quickly as possible.
Entire refinery shall be divided into various zones. For each zone, Gas
Safety Inspector (GSI) and Fire Permit Signatory (FPS) shall be authorized.
Normally, 'A' and 'B' grade officers are made GSI and officers in grade 'C'
and above are designated as FPS. In addition, SRSM/RSM shall be
authorized as FPS for the entire refinery. All HODs of their respective area
are authorized to sign as FPS.
Dy. General Manager/General Manager at Refinery units shall authorize Gas
Safety Inspectors (GSI), Fire Permit Signatories (FPS) and Permittee/
receivers for all types of work permit. List of authorized Gas Safety
Inspectors, Fire Permit Signatories and Permittee/ receivers shall be updated
and issued to all concerned at least once in a year.
All permits shall be clearly filled for validity of time & date, nature of work
and location of work by permittee/ receiver before seeking permit from
issuer. For obtaining work permit, permittee shall fill up above information
and send duly signed copy to the issuer.
Work permit is a document, which certifies that all practicable precautions
have been taken for carrying out the job safely. Hence, it is desirable that the
work permit form shall be filled up by the GSI after checking and ensuring
that the site/ facility / equipment as mentioned in the permit is safe to
perform the assigned job. GSI shall satisfy himself that all precautions have
been taken to ensure that the work site is free from hydrocarbon & toxic
gases and there is no oxygen deficiency and will remain so during execution
of the job. After filling the permit format the issuer shall hand over the
signed permit to receiver. In case of Hot work/ entry into vessel/ Boxing up
of vessel/ excavation/ Vehicle entry permit, FPS has to crosscheck that the
preconditions of permit is complied at site, before signing the permit. The
receiver will go through the permit, check the compliance and sign the
permit before carrying out the job. The receiver will pass the necessary
instructions to working personnel as mentioned in the permit before start of
job.

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In case, electricity is involved, GSI shall request P&U Department for

electrical isolation in prescribed permit .No work permit shall be issued
unless electrical isolation is obtained. Extent of isolation for safe execution
of job shall be as per standard on Energy isolation- electrical and process
Permits shall be available and displayed at the job site while the job is being
executed. The issuer and F&S Dept. shall retain their copies of work permit.
All copies of permits shall be collected, signed and returned to the issuing
authority after completion of the job by the permittee. It is to be ensured that
the area has been cleared of all debris, scraps, additional materials etc. and
all temporary electrical connections have been removed.
The issuer on receiving back the permit would satisfy himself regarding
completion of the job and that the area has been cleaned and made safe for
operation. On confirmation he shall also sign the Cold work permit/
Working at height permit/ Radiation permit and keep the records of closed
out permit for period of three months. In case of Hot work/ Entry to
Confined Space and Excavation permit, the permit shall be forwarded to
F&S Department along with the issuer's copy and the record of closed out
permit shall be maintained at Fire & Safety Department for a period of three
months.
All permit must be displayed at work site at suitable locations. To protect the
permit from weather condition, it shall be displayed in waterproof plastic
cover. Wherever required a separate stand may be kept at site to display the
permit.
In specific cases such as Unit turnarounds the authority to sign / approve the
permit can be sub-delegated for specific period by local management by an
Office Order, issued by respective GM of the unit.
The location of hot work and road cut shall be indicated in Red Colour and
green colour respectively (colored pin may be used) on refinery layout
drawing, displayed in control room of Refinery Fire Station.

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Issue of Permit
Permittee i.e. under whose direct supervision the job is to be carried out shall
raise the requirement for appropriate permit. All permits shall be issued in
triplicate/ duplicate. Based on type of job, following permit shall be used:
a. Cold Work Permit
b. Hot Work/ Entry into Confined Space Permit
c. Excavation Permit
d. Permit for Working at Height
e. Radiation Permit
The permit for Electrical isolation and Energisation Permit shall be
initiated by custodian of equipment (Operation in-charge), whereas Permit
to Work on High Tension/ Low Tension Line / Equipment shall be initiated
by in-charge of electrical maintenance.
In case the job is planned to be executed through a contractor, permit shall
be raised and signed by maintenance/project/ construction engineer and not
by the contractor.
The period of validity, in terms of the date, start time and completion time
should be entered.
The location of the work shall be specified clearly in terms of the plant, plant
area, building, vessel or equipment. Identification number of the equipment
shall be mentioned. Wherever it is necessary location sketch should be
attached with the permit for clarity.
Area in-charge / GSI shall check the permit conditions prescribed in the
format. Permit shall be issued only after satisfying all the conditions.
Additional precautions and remarks, if any, shall be clearly mentioned. All
the items shall be marked appropriately in the boxes under heading Done
and Not required.

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Explanatory Notes To Work Permit On Cold Work, Hot Work/ Entry to

Confined Space
Explanatory notes to fill up the work permit and its check-listed items are
elaborated below to amplify the underlying concepts and highlight their
significance:
a. Exact Location (Area / Unit / Equipment no): Exact location of the area or the
unit in which the work is to be carried out shall be written against it. For example;
AVU / 12 C - 101, Tank farm A, Tank 501 etc.
b. Description of work: Precise description of the work to be performed shall be
written. Sketches with signature should be attached wherever possible to avoid
miscommunication.
c. Equipment / Area inspected: Equipment or area where work is to be
conducted, should be inspected to ensure that it is safe to carry out the work and
assess other safety requirements / stipulations. In case of equipment / vessel box-up
permit, it should be ensured that the work is complete, all personnel are out, no
maintenance gear is left behind and debris removed.
d. Surrounding area checked / cleaned: Unsafe conditions for performance of
work may arise from surrounding area. It should be cleaned-up to remove
flammable material such as oil, rags, grass etc.
e. Sewers, Manholes, Closed Blow Down (CBD) etc. and Hot Surfaces
covered: Flammable gases may be released from nearby sewers. Hot un-insulated
surfaces (equipment / pipelines) may provide a source of ignition and therefore,
these are to be properly covered to prevent fires.
f. Hazard from other routine / non-routine operations considered and persons
alerted: Other activities (routine / non-routine) being carried out near-by, which
can create conditions unsafe for performance of the permit work, should be taken
into consideration and the concerned persons should be alerted accordingly.
g. Equipment electrically isolated and tagged: Before issuing a permit, it shall
be ensured that electrical isolation has been done, switches are locked-out and
cautionary tags duly signed with date and time are attached.
h. Running water hose / Portable extinguisher provided / Fire water system
available: Running water hose and portable fire extinguisher are required to flush /
dilute in case of release of any hazardous chemical or to quench sparks and to put

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out small fires immediately. In order to meet any contingency, it should be ensured
that the fire water system including firewater pumps, storage, network etc. is
checked and kept ready for immediate use.
i. Equipment blinded / disconnected / closed / isolated / wedge opened:
Equipment for which the work permit is being issued, should be isolated from the
rest of the plant in order to ensure that there is no change in the work environment
with respect to presence of toxic / flammable gases, liquids, hazardous chemicals
etc. in the course of the work. Blinding is one of the most effective ways of
isolation. Blinds should be installed as close to the equipment as possible. If lines
cannot be blinded, these should be disconnected and the open ends should be made
safe by installing pipe caps / plugs, blind flanges etc.
j. Equipment properly drained / depressurised: Equipment under pressure
should be depressurised after isolation. This should be followed by draining /
purging / water flushing etc. as the case may be.
k. Equipment containing liquid hydrocarbons should be drained completely. There
may be a possibility of overlooking of liquid collected in pockets or inaccessible
areas such as level gauges, small nozzles / bleeders on vessels, laterals in pipe
work etc. All low point drains should be in unplugged condition.
l. Equipment properly steamed / purged: Purging of equipment (tanks, vessels,
pipelines etc.) is done to make them free of flammable hydrocarbon and toxic
gases. Steam / Inert Gas is used for gas freeing of vessels and pipes in refineries
and other locations. Other means of purging is by displacement with water and
final traces of gas removed by properly earthed air eductor. All high point vents
should be unplugged while purging. It should be done in a systematic manner to
cover the entire equipment / plant and continued till the concentration of toxic /
flammable gas is lowered to allowable level.
Equipment water flushed: Water flushing is an effective means of cooling,
cleaning and even gas freeing of equipment. It is also employed to remove traces
of acids / chemicals. Equipment metallurgy must be considered before using sea /
saline water. Sometimes, flushing with demineralised water would be necessary
depending upon the metallurgy of the equipment.
Gas / Oxygen deficiency test done: Gas test includes measurement of:
Hydrocarbons by Explosive meter.
Oxygen Deficiency by Oxygen Meter.

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Toxic gases like Hydrogen Sulphide, Carbon Monoxide, Sulphur dioxide by

multi-gas meter.
Nickel Carbonyl, and Chlorine etc. by techniques like Indicator Tube
method, Lead Acetate Paper etc.
For details of gas testing refer standard on Confined Space Entry.
o. Shield against sparks provided: Hot works like welding, grinding etc
generates sparks, which can provide source of ignition to the surroundings. In
order to protect operating area from the hazards of sparks generated, shields are to
be provided to contain the sparks generated. The shield material shall be nonflammable and should be kept wet with water.
p. Proper ventilation and lighting provided: Where natural ventilation is not
available, fans / air eductors are provided. These are also required for speedy
dispersal of fumes generated by welding job. Only approved reduced voltage
extension lights (not exceeding 24 volts) are to be allowed for work inside
confined space from consideration of personal safety.
q. Proper means of exit provided: Proper means of exit is required in case of
emergencies developed on account of the work or otherwise. Availability of an
alternate route of escape should be considered.
r. Area cordoned off and caution boards provided: To prevent any unwarranted
entry in the work area and also to caution other personnel taking actions which
may endanger people working on the permit job, precautionary tags / boards are to
be provided to display like "No Entry" sign on roads or "Caution - Men at Work
Inside" on the manhole of a vessel, "Danger - Radiography in progress" etc.
s. Portable equipment / Hose nozzles properly grounded: As a precaution
against static electricity generation, portable equipment / hose nozzles e.g. nozzle
of a shot blasting gun, are to be grounded. Use of hydrocarbon lines for earthing
should be avoided. 30 mili-amp circuit breaker shall be installed on electrical
circuits / cables feeding power supply to portable equipment.
t. Trained Attendant provided for entry to confined space: Whenever a person
is entering in a confined space, minimum two designated trained persons shall be
kept at the man-way or entry point. The designated person shall be in constant
communication with the persons inside the confined space and take corrective
action in case of any emergency situation.

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u. Standby personnel provided for fire watch from Process / Maintenance /

Contractor / Fire Department: Depending on the criticality of the job, work
permit issuer shall decide the type of standby to be provided i.e. from which
department, of which level, how many and also additional fire fighting support
facilities etc.
v. Iron Sulphide removed / kept wet: Pyrophoric substances may be present in
operating area / equipment handling hydrocarbon. Iron Sulphide scale is the most
common pyrophoric substance encountered. These should be either removed to
safe locations or kept wet all the time to prevent their auto-ignition.
w. Checked spark arrestor on mobile equipment: No vehicle / engine without
PESO approved spark arrestor shall be permitted in operating areas.
x. Checked for oil / gas trapped behind lining in equipment: Before
undertaking hot jobs, a check should be done for oil / gas trapped behind lining in
the equipment.
y. Communication Facility to stand by persons: Adequate communication
facility (if required intrinsically safe or hand free communication) shall be
provided to standby persons to remain in touch with persons inside confined space
during the job and respond quickly, if help required.
z. Attendant person with rescue equipment/ SCBA: Attendant at man-way of
confined space shall be trained in rescue and use of respirator equipments and
shall have the facility at site, to extend help whenever required. He shall
communicate effectively to emergency teams, if so required.
Aa.Continuous inert gas flow arranged: This is required where entry into
confined space is required in inert atmosphere. The continuous inert gas flow shall
be arranged in order to maintain the oxygen concentration and other gases within
limit.

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Distillation
Chapter-1
Chapter-2
Chapter-3
Chapter-4
Chapter-5
Chapter-6

Introduction to Distillation
Control for material and Energy Balance
Commissioning,Start-up and Shut down
Column Internals
Operational difficulties
Glossary of terms

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Chapter-1
Introduction to Distillation
Distillation is a method used to separate the components of a liquid mixture that
depends on the distribution of these various components between a vapour phase
and a liquid phase. This requires that the components in the liquid mixture
have different boiling points. Another way of putting it is that the components in
the mixture must have different volatilities. Volatility is a measure of the readiness
of a liquid to vaporize.
A liquid with a low boiling point is said to be volatile, or having a high volatility,
and is known as the more volatile component (MVC). A high boiling
point liquid has a low volatility, and is known as the less volatile component
(LVC).
The vapour phase is created by boiling of the liquid phase using steam or electrical
heating element. The MVC will distribute more in the vapour phase than
the LVC and the reverse is true in the liquid phase. Distillation can be carried out
using tray column or packed column. Vapour flows upward in the column and
becomes richer in the MVC while liquid flows downward become richer in the
LVC.

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With a tray column, the vapours leaving the tray will be richer in the MVC than the
vapour entering the tray by one "step" change(Fig-1). When packings are used
instead of trays, the same enrichment of the vapour will occur continuously over
the entire height of packing used(Fig-2).

Fig-1

Fig-2

Brief Introduction to Distillation Control

All distillation columns have to be carefully operated in order to achieve the
required production rates and product quality. The 3 main objectives of column
control can be stated as:
To set stable conditions for column operation
To regulate conditions in the column so that the product(s) always meet the
required specifications
To achieve the above objective most efficiently, e.g. by maximising product
yield, minimising energy consumption, etc.
Process variables like temperatures, pressures, flow rates, levels and compositions
must be monitored and controlled in all distillation processes. These process
variables within a distillation system affect one another, whereby a change in one
process variable will result in changes in other process variables. Thus, in column
control one should be looking at the whole column and not focusing on any
particular sections only.
Each column has a control system that consists of several control loops. The loops
adjust process variables as needed to compensate for changes due to disturbances
during plant operation.

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Each of the process variables has its own control loop, which typically consists of a
sensor and transmitter, controller and control valve. See the Figure below. Each
control loop keeps track of the associated process variable. An adjustment is made
to a process variable by varying the opening of its control valve. The stream flow
rate is therefore adjusted and a desirable variable is being controlled.

The sensor measures the process variable from the plant (i.e. plant data) and the
transmitter sends the information to the DCS (Distributed Control System)
controller located in the control room.
The controller checks if the process variable agrees with the set point. If not, it will
send corrective signal to the control valve that will make adjustment in the plant so
as to match the process variable to the set point. This goes on continuously,
essentially in a loop - hence the term "control loop".
Distillation Control Philosophy
Some of the general guidelines are noted below:
column pressure normally controlled at a constant value
feed flow rate often set by the level controller on a preceding column
feed flow rate is independently controlled if fed from storage tank or surge
tank
feed temperature controlled by a feed preheater. Prior to preheater, feed may
be heated by bottom product via feed/bottom exchanger
top temperature usually controlled by varying the reflux
bottom temperature controlled by varying the steam to reboiler
differential pressure control used in packed columns to monitor packing
condition, also used in tray columns to indicate foaming
the compositions controlled by regulating the reflux flow and boiled-up
(reboiler vapour)

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Pressure is often considered the prime distillation control variable, as it affects

temperature, condensation, vapourisation, compositions, volatilities and almost any
process that takes place inside the column. Column pressure control is frequently
integrated with the condenser control system.Reboilers and condensers are integral
part of a distillation system. They regulate the energy inflow and outflow in a
distillation column.A column is controlled by regulating its material and energy
balances.

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Chapter-2
Control for material and Energy Balance
Reboiler Control
This is required to provide good response to column disturbances, and to protect
the column from disturbances occurring in the heating medium. The reboiler boilup is regulated either: (1) to achieve desired product purity, or (2) to maintain
a constant boil-up rate. In a typical reboiler control (see Figure below), the control
valve is located in the reboiler steam inlet line.

For inlet steam controlled reboiler, the heat transfer rate is regulated by varying
the steam control valve opening, thereby changing the steam condensing pressure
and temperature. When an additional boil-up is required, the valve opens and raises
the reboiler pressure, which increases the temperature, and in turn increases the
boil-up rate. This scheme has the disadvantage of non-linear relationship between
pressure and boil-up, and is affected by fouling in the reboiler.
An alternative is to control the condensate flow, i.e. by putting the control valve on
the condensate line ( Fig-1). The main disadvantage is that this scheme has poorer
dynamic response than the previous scheme. Manipulating the inlet valve
immediately changes the vapour flow, giving faster dynamic response. On the
other hand, the condensate outlet valve has no direct effect on vapour flow. The
response time varies with the condensate level in the exchanger.

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Fig-1

Fig-2

The other main disadvantage is the sizing of the condensate valve. If condensate
cannot be drained in time, vapour flow may be restricted as much of the reboiler
remains flooded. On the other hand, too fast of condensate draining (faster than
vapour condensation in the reboiler) as result in loss of liquid seal in the reboiler
and steam will pass into the plant's condensate recovery system. Some reboiler
control features the use of condensate pot. This is particularly important in fouling
or corrosive services (where leakage is a serious problem). An example is shown in
the Figure-2.In the system shown, by varying the level control set point, the tube
surface area in the reboiler that is exposed for vapour condensation can be
adjusted, thus changing the available heat transfer area. The heat transfer rate can
therefore be adjusted. This arrangement also automatically minimize the
condensation (and therefore, tube wall) temperature. A pressure-balancing line is
provided to maintain a steady pressure and level in the condensate pot.
Condenser and Pressure Control
The 3 main methods of pressure and condensation control are:
(1) Vapour flow variation,
(2) flooded condenser, and
(3) cooling medium flow variation.
Vapour Flow Variation
The simplest and direct method for column producing a vapour product. The
pressure controller regulates the vapour inventory and therefore the column
pressure. See the Figure below.

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An important consideration here is the proper piping of the vapour line to avoid
liquid pockets.
Flooded Condenser
This method is used with total condensers generating liquid product. Part of the
condenser surface is flooded with liquid at all times. The flow of condensate from
the condenser is controlled by varying the flooded area. Increasing the flooded area
(by reducing flow) increases the column pressure (less surface area for
condensation).

Cooling Medium Flow Variation

Pressure can also be controlled by adjusting the flow of coolant to the condenser (
see Figure below). Operation using cooling water can cause fouling problems at
low flow condition, when cooling water velocity is low and outlet temperature is
high. For air-fin condensers, the controller varies the fan speed or fan pitch to
control pressure (see Figure below). This arrangement is energy-efficient as it
minimizes fan power consumption, but requires the use of variable-pitch fan or
variable speed motor.

Fig-1

Fig-2

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Other method: pressure control using inerts When column pressure falls, an inert
gas is admitted to raise the column pressure(Fig-1) or split-range pressure control
venting excess gas to flare(Fig-2)

Fig-1

Fig-2

In most instances, both vapour and liquid phase are present in the column
overhead. The vapour contains components that can condense out but
are undesirable in the liquid, i.e. excessive condensationmay lead to offspecification liquid product. In addition, it is also undesirable to lose liquid product
(through insufficient condensation) to the vapour. It is therefore important to
control the rate of condensation to obtain the desired vapour-liquid split.
This is usually done by controlling the temperature of the liquid product just
downstream of the condenser. One common scheme used is shown
the Figure below.

Analyzer Control
On-line composition is usually measured by gas chromatographs. Other analyzers
include infra-red and ultra-violet analyzers, mass spectrometers; refractive index
analyzers, etc.Analysers have the advantage of directly measuring the product
quality, but also have the drawbacks of high maintenance and slow dynamic
response. They have a greater downtime than other instruments, and may be
particularly troublesome when the stream analyzed is fouling or contains
impurities which interfere with the analyzer internals.Analysers are prone to large
measurement lags which translate into response delays in control system. The main

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sources of lags are process lags, sample transfer lags (the dead time in the line
from the sampling point to the analyzer) and analyzer transfer lag (the time it takes
to transfer the components from the analyzer sample valves to the detector).
With analyzer controllers, it is essential to minimize sample transfer lags. Vapor
samples are preferred, since they can travel faster. A liquid sample is often
vaporized upon withdrawal if sampling lines are long. Heat tracing and insulation
are usually required to keep the sample vaporized. To maintain high velocities, the
sample withdrawn is often much larger than what the analyzer requires, with its
unused portion returned to the process.
Temperature Control
Column temperature control is perhaps the most popular way of
controlling product compositions. In this case, the control temperature is used as
a substitute to product composition analysis. Ideally, both top and bottom
compositions should be controlled to maintain each within its specifications. See
the Figure below.

In practice, simultaneous composition control of both products suffers from

serious "coupling" (interaction) between the 2 controllers, resulting in column
instability. In the system shown, suppose that there are concentration changes in
the feed conditions that result in lower column temperature. The top and bottom
temperature controllers will respond by decreasing reflux and increasing boil-up
respectively. If the actions of the 2 controllers are perfectly matched, and response
is instantaneous, both control temperatures will return to their set points without
interaction. However, the 2 actions are rarely perfectly matched, and their
dynamics are dissimilar - usually the boil-up response is faster. The reflux and
boil-up will "cycle" as shown in the Figure above. The interaction can
be avoided by controlling only 1 of the 2 product compositions. On-line
analyzer can be used together with temperature control to control product
composition. The principal control action is rapidly performed by the temperature
controller, while the analyzer slowly adjusts the temperature set point to prevent
off-specification product purity. A set up is shown in the Figure below.

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In the above set-up, delayed analyzer response is acceptable, as its time lags
become a secondary consideration. The fast temperature controller action renders
this control method less sensitive to upsets and step changes in an analyzer-only
control system. Another advantage is that, should the analyzer become inoperative,
the temperature controller will maintain automatic control of the process.
Feed Preheat Control
Feed preheat is usually practiced for heat recovery or to attain the desired vapour
and liquid traffic above and below the feed tray. The objective of the preheat
control system is to supply the column with a feed of consistent specific enthalpy.
With a single-phase feed, this becomes a constant feed temperature control; with a
partially vaporized feed, a constant fractional vaporization is required. As an
example, consider case (a) as shown in the Figure below whereby the feed is a cold
liquid. In this case, all the liquid feed will go to the stripping section. In addition,
because the feed is cold, it will also condense some of the rising vapour.

As a result, the amount of liquid flow in the stripping section is much larger than
the liquid flow in the rectifying section. The vapour flow in the rectifying
section is lower than the vapour flow in the stripping section because of the
condensation into the liquid.

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The following Figures showed 2 other feed conditions: case (b) for saturated
liquid (left) and case (c) for vapour-liquid mixture (right):

And the following Figures showed 2 other feed conditions: case (d) for saturated
vapour (left) and case (e) for superheated vapour (right):

Sub cooled feed or superheated feed can be controlled (see Figure below)
by preheating (left) or desuperheating (right) the feed prior to column entry.
Superheated bottom feed can be cooled by injecting a quench stream as shown in
the Figure below.

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Chapter-3
Commissioning,Start-up and Shut down
Column Commissioning
Column commissioning refers to the process of preparing the column for
operation. The main objectives:
Clear the system of undesirable materials
Test the column and rectify potential problems
Take preventive measures against performance deterioration
Most commissioning operations are performed using readily available liquids and
gases, such as air, nitrogen, steam, water, or oil. An important thing to note is that
the column and associated equipment are seldom designed to cater specifically to
commissioning operations. The commissioning operations must therefore be
tailored to suit the limitations of the available system.
Column Startup and Shutdown
A column startup usually consists of the following steps:
1. Commissioning
2. Pressure-up
3. Column Heating (and/or cooling)
4. Introduction of feed
5. Introducing heating and cooling sources
6. Bringing column to desired operating conditions
The best sequence of events must be carefully determined considering the
chemicals to suit the system and the available hardware.
Similarly, column shutdown usually consists of the following steps:
1. Reducing column rates
2. Shutting down heating and cooling sources
3. Stopping feed
4. Draining liquids
5. Cooling (or heating) the column
6. Bringing the column to atmospheric pressure
7. Eliminating undesirable materials
8. Preparing for opening to atmosphere

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Other activities required for carrying out a proper startup or shutdown include:
Preparation of operating, startup, shutdown (normal and emergency) and
maintenance procedures and checklists for each phase
Selection and training of startup/shutdown team. Planning and coordinating
all activities, developing individual tasks and objectives, etc.
Securing any raw materials, catalysts, equipment, and spare parts required.
Commissioning Activities
Line Blowing
A common pre-startup practice is to pressurize the column with air or nitrogen.
The column then serves as a "vapour reservoir" for blowing lines connected to the
column, to remove construction debris.
Some important considerations at this stage are:
Line blowing can cause vapour flow rates that exceed the design flow
rates through the column. The resulting pressure difference across the trays or
packing may be larger than the design condition.
There needs to be a balance in the velocity of the gas used for line-blowing.
While excessive velocities are undesirable, too low a velocity may not be effective
in removing debris. One recommended velocity is 200 ft/s Special consideration
must be given to columns containing valve trays - see Figure below. In other
columns, vapour can freely flow upward or downward through fixed opening e.g.
holes on sieve trays or slots and riser on bubble-cap trays, as well as through the
down comers. In valve trays, the valves at as non-return valves and can
seriously restrict down flow. The problem is most severe if the down comer and/or
down comer clearance is small.

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It is not recommended to blow lines into the column and then clean the
column later. Debris may be blown into restrictive areas, such as seal pan drawoff, vortex breaker, distributor, or other internals. Such debris can restrict the flow
passages when the column is put into service later.
All instrumentations, except for those are directly required for monitoring the
line-blowing operation, should be disconnected or at least isolated (blockedoff) during line-blowing to avoid debris entering the instrument lines.
Any control or trip valves should be removed and replaced by pipe spool
pieces prior to line blowing.
Pressuring and Depressuring
Pressuring and depressuring operations are performed during commissioning,
startups and shutdowns. They are used to check the column for pressure
retention and leaks, remove air or inert gas prior to startup, free the column of
gas (e.g. hydrocarbon) at shutdowns, or prepare the column for entry by personnel
for inspection of the column internals.
Some considerations at this stage are as follows:
Pressuring and depressuring should be carried out at a controlled rate that
is sufficiently low to avoid tray damage. Pressuring should start at the bottom of
the column and progress in an upward direction, especially for column containing
valve trays.
Location and set pressure of relief valves and/or bursting disks, as well as major
vents should be checked.
If the column also contains liquid during pressuring, caution must be exercised as
excessive vapour flows may cause flooding and gas lifting of the liquid, resulting
in liquid discharge into relief header a possible damage to column internals.
Purging
A column needs to be purged with an inert gas prior to startup to remove air if
the column is used for separating combustible or hazardous materials. This is
to prevent the formation of combustible mixture with air. The inert gas can
then be purged with process gas. The reverse steps are performed at shutdown.
Nitrogen is the most common inert gas used for purging. Steam, carbon
dioxide, and other inert gases are also used for purging. Purging with inert gas is
normally done after column steaming during startup because atmospheric
condensation of the residual steam can pull a vacuum which may suck in air.
The converse applied at shutdown - i.e. purge the column with inert prior to
steaming to eliminate combustibles.
Purging often requires installation of special purge lines or purge
connections. These lines are normally disconnected (or at least blinded) during

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normal operation. The key consideration during purging is to properly and

systematically purge each portion of the system. Drain and vent valves must be
opened intermittently so that no dead pockets are left unpurged. Sampling should
be done at each vent and drain to ensure that the concentration of air, combustibles,
or toxic gases does not exceed a pre-determined level.
Steaming
A column may be steamed during commissioning to drive the air out, heat the
column up, clear blockages, or leak-test the column. At shutdown, a column is
often steamed out to strip and drive out residual chemicals to prepare the column
for personnel entry.
Steaming can be troublesome and should be replaced with nitrogen purging
whenever possible. However, nitrogen is usually ineffective for heating up the
column, vaporizing heavy liquids, or clearing blockages, so steaming is often
necessary. Steam also has a cost advantage and enables a quicker purge than
nitrogen.
Some of the important considerations are:
Creation of vacuum: Condensation of steam due to atmospheric cooling may
create a vacuum. If the column is not structurally designed to withstand, and
is not adequately protected against vacuum, it may implode. A vent should
be provided and left open after steaming to break the vacuum.
Water hammer: Initially, the cold column and its internals may cause rapid
condensation of the steam. Subsequent admission of steam will push on
the slugs of condensate and fling them against anything that interferes with
its path. The resulting water hammer can damage column internals and pipe
fittings.
Over-heating: The ability of the column, its insulation, its internals and its
auxiliaries to withstand the expected temperature should be reviewed,
especially if the steam is superheated. The column metal's safe working
temperature must not be exceeded.
In the case of a startup, the column should be placed under gas
pressure (inert gas such as nitrogen or process gas) once steaming is
completed. For shutdown, the column should be opened to let in air or inert
gas.
All low points in the system must be drained after the conclusion of
steaming. Water pockets may cause problems during column operation, or
my damage or corrode drains and pipes.

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Unless hazardous chemicals are present, key drains and vents should be
opened before the start of steaming. Drains should be kept open until only
dry steam is vented. When hazardous chemicals arepresent, the column is
often initially steamed to the flare header. After the hazardous chemicals are
cleared, the atmospheric vents and drains are then opened as steaming
progresses.
Other precautions include the following:
Instruments that may be damaged by steam need to be isolated.
Steaming should be avoided when an acid solution may form upon
condensation.
If the column contains pyrophoric deposits or liquids, it should not be open
to the atmosphere at the conclusion of steaming at shutdown. Instead, the
column should first be cooled (e.g. by an inert gas) and only then opened.
This is especially important in columns contain internals with large surface
area per volume (e.g. structured packing, mist eliminator) where a
considerable amount of deposits can adhere to the internals surfaces. These
surfaces are still relatively hot and upon contact with air, may cause the
deposits to ignite.
Leak Testing
After purging and before introducing the process gas, the column is leak-tested.
The most common leak-testing technique is pressuring the column up with inert
gas (e.g. nitrogen), with all vents and drains closed, and monitoring the rate of
pressure loss.
At the start of the test, the pressure is usually about 50 - 60 psig, or about 10 psig
below the safety valve setting, whichever is lower. All joints, flanges, drains, and
vents are checked using soap solution, or an ultrasonic leak detector.
Alternative techniques involve hydrostatic testing of the column or pressuring it
up with steam. Steam or water makes leak detection easier, but these fluids
are more troublesome to use than nitrogen. Hydrostatic testing requires that the
column and its support structures can handle the hydrostatic loads; while steaming
has its own disadvantages as previously described.
Washing
Columns are often washed during startup or shut down for one or more of the
following reasons:
To remove scale, mud, solids, and/or corrosion products
To uncover leaks and check the operation of pumping system prior to startup
To cool the column

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To dissolve undesirable materials such as acid, caustic, polymer, oil, or sticky

deposits at shutdown
To remove water or other undesirable materials prior to startup
To coat column internals with a protective film (e.g. to inhibit corrosion or
polymerization)
A water wash is effective for the first 3 reasons (and sometimes the fourth), while
the last 2 require a chemical wash. If none of the above reasons prevails, it is best
not to wash the column.
Some of the potential problems with washing include the following:
Washing may pick up debris resting in the column piping and deposit them
inside the column or distributors or other delicate internals
Washing may shake loose rust and scale adhering to column walls, leading to
persistent post-startup plugging of filters or pump strainers
Water can carry air into the system
Water should be drained from the column as soon as washing is
completed. Drying by hot gas is often recommended. In the case of a chemical
wash, the wash agents should be thoroughly removed from the column and its
piping after the wash, particularly if the washing agent has the potential of
reacting, interacting, or causing foaming problems during normal column
operation.
Dry-out
Dry-out removes water from the column. Dry-out can be done using hot air or
liquid.
Purging with hot gas, e.g. air, inert gas or superheated steam evaporates
water from the column. The operation can be initiated under a slight positive
pressure for blowing out pockets of water in connecting lines. The process is then
switched to vacuum (if practicable) to enhance the evaporation of water.
Dry-out by liquid circulation is used in hot services, e.g. at temperature of 200 250 oF (95 - 120 oC). It has the added advantage of heating up the column at the
same time.
The circulation liquid must be compatible with the chemicals which are normally
in the column. The circulation needs to be done under a positive pressure to ensure
that water can be drained from low points. The process is usually carried out
in steps of cold, warm, and then hot circulation. The cold circulation (at
approximately 100 oF (or 38 oC) sweeps water to low points in the system, from

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where it is drained. A warm circulation at a temperature of about 180 oF (82 oC) is

used to vapourise the remaining pockets of water. A final hot circulation is used for
column operating at temperatures greater than 200 - 250 oF (95 - 120 oC).
Blinding and Unblinding
Blinds and/or slip plates ("spades") are usually installed in all lines which leave or
enter a column in order to positively eliminate leakage of materials into the column
when air is introduced. During commissioning and startup, these blinds and/or slip
plates are removed.
The sequence of blinding and unblinding must be carefully planned prior to startup
or shutdown. A checklist ("blind list") of all the blinds to be installed and removed
should be made. Blinds should be properly tagged, and the tag ID must be reflected
on the checklist.
The pressure and temperature ratings as well as the material specifications of each
blind should be checked to ensure compatibility with the column or line. A blind
that was left in position over a long period of time can become corroded right
through.
The possibility of reverse flow into the column must be considered when preparing
the blinding schedule. Equally important, the possibility of reverse flow from the
column into utility lines upon startup must be considered.
Extreme caution must be exercised when cracking flanges for inserting blind or
removing blind. This can be particularly hazardous when the upstream isolation
valve is plugged. Deposits trapped in the valve seat may prevent complete valve
closure. When the flange is cracked, the deposits may loosen and break free,
leading to potential hazardous situation.
Useful Startup / Shutdown Lines
Besides the "normal" piping for continuous operation, column piping often
contains lines whose primary purpose is to minimize material loss or speed up
startups and shutdowns. These lines are not normally used during normal
operations.
While such lines may be extremely useful at times of startup or
shutdown, leakage across their valves during normal operation may cause severe
operating problems. In addition, they become dead legs in which plugging or
corrosion may occur. It is therefore good practice to ensure that these lines
are isolated, blinded and left free of any hazardous materials during normal
operation.
Startup and shutdown lines also increase the complexity of the system and open
up new routes for chemicals to travel back and forth through the plant. It is good

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practice to limit the installation of such lines to those that are absolutely necessary.
When not in use, these lines should be properly blinded and isolated.
Some of the most common lines at startup and/or shutdown are include the
following:
Pressuring up (or back-pressuring) lines
These lines enable the column to be pressured up with the desirable materials prior
to starting up. This is especially required for pressure distillation, where the
column needs to be brought close to its operating pressure before liquid feed
introduction. This is because a pressurized liquid will have a higher boiling
point at a higher pressure, i.e. greater than its boiling point at atmospheric
condition. The liquid will chill upon flashing to atmospheric pressure, and if the
flash temperature is lower than the minimum safe working temperature of the
column metal, a brittle failure may occur.
Column pressuring prior to liquid introduction also eliminates the large thermal
stresses that can be cause by liquid flashing to excessively low pressure. Such
thermal stresses can cause unnecessary joint or flange leaks, metal fatigue and
shorten the column's service life. Furthermore, excessive flashing of feed upon
entry into the column can cause excessively high velocities in the feed section,
which may damage or erode column internals.

The column is best pressured up with one (or more) of the condensable
components of the feed mixture, rather than an inert gas.
Depressuring a column containing a liquid whose atmospheric boiling point is
lower than 32 oF (0 oC) should be avoided until all the liquid has been drained.
Column bypass line
These are essential if the column is in a compressor train and may be sensitive
to surging.
Recycling line for top and/or bottom products to feed tank (slop)
These lines are useful for minimizing the amount of off-specification materials
produced.

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Lines for circulating liquid

This is used for circulating liquid at startup. Often, a jump-over from the column
bottom to the reflux line is used, but other lines may also be used.

Line for introducing feed at the reboiler inlet

This line goes directly to the bottom of the column into the sump, i.e. inlet to the
reboiler. This is used when column heating is performed solely by reboil action, so
as to speed up the heating process.
Other lines: process vents (high point)and drains (low point), vessel vent and
drains
All vent and drain valves should be closed and properly isolated. Process vents and
drains are smaller (3/4" or 1") and are normally plugged, while vessels vents and
drains are usually much larger (2" or 3") and need to be blinded.
Startup: Total Reflux Operation
Columns are often started up on total reflux. It is usually carried out using one or
more of the feed components. It is one of the least troublesome startup techniques
because:
There is no interference from upstream disturbances
On-specification products are easy to achieve at high reflux ratios
Column startup is off the critical path, allowing for more time to establish
good column action

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Other Considerations
Plugging of Internals
During normal operation, liquid down flow sweep solids across the trays and
through down comers, while vapour up flow prevents solids from settling in small
perforations and in valve units. During startups, liquid and vapour rates tend to
be low, and solids may settle in the column, rapidly plugging trays and other
internals and causing "sticking" of valve units.
Some precautions that can be taken include: filtering of feed, preheat of column
and/or feed (for temperature-dependent feed that causes solidification at low
temperature), use of high vapour and/or liquid flow (total reflux).
Down comer plugging can be reduced by high liquid flow, while tray plugging can
be reduced by high vapour flow.
Vacuum Operation
In vacuum services, it is best to draw vacuum before introducing the feed. If
the feed is introduced first, the reboiler needs to be started up to avoid liquid
accumulation in the column bottom.
Starting the reboiler before the column is brought to its normal operating vacuum
is likely to cause excessive bottom temperatures leading to possible
polymerization, product degradation, or coking. This in turn may lead to plugging,
capacity loss and maldistribution in packed column.
By similar consideration, it is best to shutdown the reboiler and drain liquid before
re-pressuring. This is especially important if the column contains hot, flammable
liquids and air is likely to enter during re-pressuring.
Liquid Drainage
Liquid is drained during washing, startup, shutdown or dumping when the column
is flooded. Excessively fast liquid draining leads to the creation of a vapour
gap that results in tray damage. This situation is described below.
When the bottom trays are flooded, and the rate of liquid withdrawal fro the
column exceed the rate of liquid down flow from the down comer to the column
bottom (sump), a vapour gap may form below the bottom tray. The presence of the
vapour gap results in the bottom tray supporting all the liquid above it. This may
lead to failure of the bottom tray.
Once the bottom tray fails and liquid drains from it, the vapour gap moves to the
space below the next higher tray. This tray now attempts to support the liquid
column. This tray may fail as well, leading to a cascade of collapsing trays up the
column.

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Valve trays are most vulnerable to vapour gap problems, in particular if their down
comers and/or down comer clearances are small. The valves allow only little liquid
down flow, and almost all liquid must flow down through the down comer.
This is shown schematically in the Figures below: left and right.

Reverse Flow (Back-flow)

Flow of material into or out of a column in the opposite direction to that intended
usually takes place during startups and shutdowns, and even during normal
operations. Special attention should be paid to outages of rotating equipment under these conditions, reverse flow is most likely to occur.
For those lines that are used intermittently or when there is a shutdown, blinding,
double-block-and-bleed and line disconnection can be used back-flow prevention.
For normal operation, check valves, trips and alarms, are often used for prevention
of undesirable back-flow. See the Figure below.

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Heating and Cooling

Column heating is usually carried out either by steaming, by circulating hot
liquid or by hot gas blowing. Heating the column prior to startup is essential when
the column separates materials which at ambient temperatures are viscous. Heating
is also essential where condensations of heavier components from the gas are
undesirable. If it is decided not to heat up the column prior to startup, it will act
like a large heat sink when the reboiler is started. In this case, reboil must be
slowly applied until the column heats up. Excessive reboil rates during this period
may cause premature flooding or even damage to internals. Columns containing
hot, condensable materials must be cooled slowly at shutdown. Rapid cooling may
cause the problems of vacuum creation, water hammer or thermal stresses as
described previously. The cooling rate must be slow enough to
permit quenching of any trapped heat pockets, which may catch fire once exposed
to air. An inert or process gas can often be admitted into the column to keep
pressure up and prevent vacuum while the column is cooled.
As much liquid as possible should be drained out of a hot column prior to and
during the initial cooling period. This is particularly important if the liquid
solidifies or becomes highly viscous as it cools.
Excess Sub cooling or Superheat
Excess feed sub cooling can leads to increased condensation and liquid load in the
column. This needs to be offset by reduced reflux and condenser duty. If reflux
cannot be cut back, reboiler duty will need to be increased to compensate for the
excess sub cooling. The higher vapour and liquid loading below the feed tray (i.e.
stripping section) will lower the column feed capacity. Premature flooding may
result. If lower capacity or higher reboiler duty cannot be tolerated, feed
preheating may be required. The converse applies to excess feed superheat. Excess
feed superheat will have only a slight effect on column vapour and liquid load
unless boil-up cannot be cut back. In that case, liquid and vapour traffic above the
feed and condenser duty will rise and effectively lower column feed capacity.
Premature flooding may result. Excess superheat may be removed by precooling or by injecting sub cooled quench liquid into the feed. The liquid injected
must be sufficiently sub cooled; otherwise it will vaporize and add to the vapour
traffic instead of reducing it.

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Chapter-4
Column Internals
Distillation Coloumn
In the simplest case of continuous distillation, a single feed liquid mixture of 2
components (i.e. binary mixture) is separated into 2 products: known as
the overhead product or top product or distillate, and the bottom product or simply,
the bottoms. A typical set-up for continuous distillation operation is shown in
the Fig-1. The main equipment where separation occurs is the distillation column
and reboiler. The liquid feed enters the distillation column after preheat. The liquid
flows to the reboiler where steam is used as the heating medium. The reboiler
provides the initial vaporization of liquid phase to create the vapour phase. Part of
the liquid in the reboiler is vaporized and the vapour is returned to the distillation
column. The remaining liquid leaves the reboiler as bottoms and provides the heat
source to preheat the feed. The vapour flows up the column and leaves as overhead
vapour. The overhead vapour is condensed by the overhead condenser and
collected in the overhead accumulator.
Part of the liquid from the overhead accumulator is withdrawn as the distillate, and
the rest is returned to the column as reflux liquid. The reflux liquid flows down the
column, combining with the feed stream in the column, and the combined liquid
continues to flow down the column. Normally, the section of the column above the
feed entry is known as the rectifying section, and the section below the feed entry
is known as the stripping section. Inside the column, the down-flowing liquid
comes into contact with the up-flowing vapour. The distillation column is equipped
with trays and/or packings, devices to facilitate the vapour-liquid contact. During
the vapour-liquid contact, the vapour is enriched further in MVC (and stripped of
LVC) while the reserved is true for the liquid. An example of VL contact on a tray
is shown in the Fig-2

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Fig-1

Fig-2

Column Internals
Trays and packings are column internals that serve as contacting devices that
improves the vapour-liquid contact in the column. The operating principles and
functions of the some of the following internals shall be discussed.
Trays - Components, Types (Sieve, Valve and Bubble Caps ) and Characteristics
Packings - Random & Structured, characteristics
Other Internals, e.g. liquid distributor, packing support, etc.
Column main nozzles (inlet, outlet): top, intermediate, and bottom
There are also some guidelines on using tray or packed columns.

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Tray Types
A. Sieve Tray

Fig-1
Fig-2
In a sieve tray as shown in the Figure-1, the vapour passes through a large number
of "holes" known as perforations (sieves) and emerges through the liquid in a
vertical direction. The sieve tray has the simplest design among the various tray
types. There are no mechanical moving parts. There is no liquid seal and it is the
passage of vapour that effectively prevents the loss of liquid through the sieves. A
phenomenon known as weeping - as shown in the Figure-2 can occur at low
vapour flow and/or high liquid rates when the liquid height on the tray exceeds the
tray pressure drop. Typical layout for sieve tray follows either a square hole pitch
or equilateral triangular hole pitch. Hole pitch is the centre-to-centre hole spacing.
Typical sieve sizes used industrially range from as small as 1/16-inch to 1-inch.
Small sieves are not suitable for fouling or corrosive services as they may be
susceptible to blockage, leading to excessive pressure drop and premature
flooding. Small holes have better turndown characteristics because they reduce tray
weeping and therefore increase tray capacity. In terms of cost, larger holes are
cheaper as the holes can be punched, and there are fewer holes to be punched.
Smaller holes are more expensive as drilling may be required.
Tray Blanking In certain applications, there can be varying vapour and liquid
loadings in the column, and the hole area requirements can vary at different
sections of the column. Rather than manufacturing different trays to meet these
needs, it is usual practice to use the same tray layout, but the required hole area is
adjusted by means of blanking strips.
Advantages

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Sieve trays are made from a flat perforated plate which allows the passage of
vapor through the liquid.
They are the most economical tray option when low turndown is required.
They have better anti-fouling characteristics and lower pressure drop than
valve or bubble cap trays.

B.Valve Tray

Fig-1

Fig-2

Fig-3

Fig-4

Valve tray is a flat perforated plate, with each perforation fitted with a movable
disk (the "valve"). See the Fig-1&2 .The perforations and disks may be circular or
rectangular. The disks (valves) are the movable component of the tray. The valves
will move up or down in response to changing vapour flow rates. At normal flow
rate, the valve is roughly in the middle position (See Fig-3). At low vapour rates
the disk settles over the perforation and covers it to avoid liquid weeping. The
valves should be heavy enough to prevent excessive opening at low vapour flow
rates. As the vapour rate is increased, the disk rises vertically (Fig-4). The upward
movement of the disk is restricted either by retaining legs or a cage. Weeping may
result if excessive valve opening occurs prematurely. This will reduce the tray
turndown. In dirty or fouling services, the valves may get stuck due to the build-up
of sludge or corrosion products around the valve. "Sticking valves reduce the tray
open area and can lead to premature flooding. Valve trays offer larger operating

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range and greater capacity compared to sieve trays. In terms of cost, valve trays are
more expensive than sieve trays.
Bubble-Cap Tray

Fig-1

Fig-2

The bubble-cap consist a slotted cap on a central riser. The gas flows up through
the riser, reverses flow under the cap, passes downward through the annulus
between riser and cap, and finally passes into the liquid through a series of
openings or "slots" in the lower side of the cap. See the Fig-1. This device has a
built-in liquid seal (i.e. the riser) which prevents weeping at low gas rates. This
design does not rely on the velocity of the upcoming vapour to hold the liquid on
the tray. Because of its high cost and complexity, most modern column designs
favor the use of sieve or valve trays over bubble-cap trays. Bubble-caps should
only be used where very low vapour rates have to be handled, or adequate
residence time is necessary for separation and/or chemical reaction, or in
applications where a positive liquid seal is essential at all flow rates.
Packings
Packings - Basic Requirements
Briefly, the principal requirements of a packing material are:
chemically inert to the fluids
strong but without excessive weight
contain adequate passages (void volume) for both streams without excessive
liquid hold-up or pressure drop

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Provide good contact between the liquid and the gas. An important measure
here is the parameter 'a', having the unit m2/m3 or ft2/ft3, which we will
looked at in greater detail later (for example, see Table below)
reasonable in cost

Besides tray column, distillation (as well as other unit operations such as gas
absorption, liquid-liquid extraction, etc.) can also be carried out using packed
column filled with packings. Various types of packings made of different types of
materials of construction are available, and both random and structured packings
are commonly used. Examples of random packings as shown in the Figures below
left and right - are Raschig rings, Pall rings, Berl saddles, etc.

Most random packings are available in nominal diameters ranging from -inch to
31/2-inch. Typical information provided are as shown in the Table below

From the table, it can be seen that packings can be made of different materials of
construction, e.g. metal, plastic, ceramic, stoneware, carbon, etc. Metal packings
are usually preferred because of their superior strength and good

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wettability. Plastic packings (usually polypropylene) are inexpensive and have

sufficient strength, but have poor wettability particularly at low liquid
rates. Ceramic packings are useful for resisting corrosion at elevated temperatures,
where plastic may not be suitable. Ceramic packings also have good wettability,
but inferior strength than metal packings. Also from the table, it can be seen that as
the packing size increases, the total area available (ft2/ft3) decreases. This
parameter measures the available interfacial surface area per unit volume. As
packing size increases, the mass transfer efficiency decreases. Note also that
the porosity (or void volume) is larger for larger-size packings, and the pressure
drop will correspondingly decreases.
Random vs. Stacked
Random packings, as the name implied, are dumped into a column during
installation and allowed to fall in random. Small packings poured randomly into a
vessel is certainly the more popular and commonly employed form of packedtower design. However, in certain instances where exceptionally low pressure drop
and very high flow rates are involved, stacked or oriented packings have also been
used. See the Figure below. However, only those packings of cylindrical shape and
with a diameter larger than 3-inch would be practical to install in a stacked form.
Two types of arrangement are possible: triangular (diamond) pitch or square pitch.

Dry vs. Wet Random Packing

In dry packing application, the packings are allowed to drop into the column via
the (a) chute-and-sock method, or (b) rope-and-bucket method. Dry packing avoids
high hydrostatic liquid head, and prevents the introduction of water into a dry
process. It is also quicker and less expensive than wet packing, and it minimizes
rusting of metal packings. In any case, it is not suitable for plastic packings, as
plastic typically floats on water. Wet packing applications are preferred when the
packings are constructed of breakage-prone materials, such as ceramic or carbon.

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The column is first filled with water and the packings are gently poured down the
column. The water cushions the fall and promotes randomness of settling. This
tends to increase column capacity and improve the column pressure drop
characteristics. Wet packing also minimizes compression and mechanical damage
to packing materials. The main disadvantage is the need to remove the water after
loading and dry the packings
Structured Packing
Structured packings are considerably more expensive per unit volume than random
packings. They come with different sizes and are neatly stacked in the column.
Structure packings usually offer less pressure drop and have higher efficiency and
capacity than random packings.2 examples are shown in the Figures below
- left and right.

Other Column Internals

Internals common to Tray and Packed Columns.4 items shall be discussed here:
(a) Liquid Distributor
As the name implies, its function is to distribute liquid evenly across the tray
or packings (e.g. at the reflux inlet). However, some degree of
maldistribution is unavoidable, as liquid can only be divided into a limited
number of streams. From these point sources the liquid spreads. Liquid
distributors are generally classified into pressure distributors (e.g. ladder
pipe, spray) and gravity distributors (e.g. weir type and orifice type). 2
designs are shown below: left for a typical column, and right for a large
diameter column.

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(b)Liquid Re-distributor
These are used whenever an intermediate liquid feed needs to be introduced
into a packed column or between packed sections (of tall columns), or pumparound return to a tray column, or wherever liquid re-distribution is required.
Examples include the orifice re-distributors and weir re-distributors.
Besides re-distribution of liquid, the device also helps to distribute vapour flow in
the column. Re-distributors also help to mix and equalize the liquid and vapour
composition throughout the column cross section. An example is shown in
the Figure below.

(c) Vapour Distributor

These devices are required for introduction of vapour feed from the bottom of the
column, or for the reboiler vapour return to the column. A sparger pipe or chimney
tray or vapour distributor with support may be used. Some act as support for the
packed bed as well.

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(d) Mist Eliminator (Demister)

This device is located at the top of the column before the vapour leaves. It removes
liquid droplets entrained in the vapour stream before the stream leaves the top of
the column.

Other Packed Column Internals

The following internals are unique to packed columns:
(a) Packing support
The main function of packing support as shown in the Figure below is to
physically support the packed bed and prevent the downward migration of
packing pieces. Packing support should have sufficient open area to permit
unrestricted flow of liquid and vapour. Grid supports and corrugated
supports are commonly used. A layer of structured packing can sometimes
be used as support.

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(b) Retaining devices (Hold-down Plate or Bed Limiter)

The 2 types are shown below: (1) Hold-down plates on the left and (2) Bed
limiter on the right. Hold-down plates are used with ceramic or carbon
random packing to prevent fluidization of the packings and restrict packing
movement, which may break the packing particles. The hold-down plate
rests directly on the packing. It is not used with metal or plastic packings to
avoid crushing the metal or compressing the plastic. For these packing
materials, bed limiter is used. Bed limiters do not rest on packing, instead
they are secured to the column wall by support ring or bolting clips.

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Chapter-5
Operational difficulties
Changes in Feed Rate
Operating a distillation column involves maintaining an equilibrium (or balance)
between the rising vapour and the falling liquid in the column. One aspect of
column operation that can affect this balance is the column feed rate.
The feed rate is the rate at which feed mixture (liquid, vapour or mixture of both) is
pumped into the column. The flow of feed into a column can affect the quantity
(moles/hr) and quality (concentration - mole fraction more volatile component or
MVC) of the overhead product (overhead product or distillate) and bottom product
(or just simply, bottoms).
The optimum feed rate is often determined when the system is being designed. A
range of acceptable variation is usually specified as well. For example, a
distillation may be designed for a feed rate of 400 m3/hr, with an operating range of
360 - 440 m3/hr. Feed rate is usually kept under simple flow control.
High feed rate may lead to increase in column bottom level or flooding in the
column.
If the feed rate is too high, over-loading can occur. Over-loading is a condition in
which the vapour rising up a column is impeded by the liquid flowing down the
column.
When the liquid level on the trays rises, the hydrostatic pressure of the liquid
increases. The increase in pressure restricts the vapour rising through the liquid.
If over-loading continues, more and more liquid backs up in the column, and the
rising vapour becomes severely blocked. This condition is known as flooding.
High Liquid Level at Column Bottom
If the liquid level at the bottom of the column rises above the vapour inlet line (or
reboiler return line), the vapour is forced to travel upward through a layer of liquid.
The liquid may be carried over into the bottom-most tray leading to
premature flooding.
For shallow liquid level, the vapour will bubble through the liquid. For deep liquid
level, the vapour essentially travels through in slugs, which may damage trays or

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lift them off the support. Once a vapour slug passes through a deep liquid layer, the
vapour space previously occupied by the slug is left empty and turns into a vapour
gap under the bottom tray. This vapour gap may cause dislodging ("bumping") of
trays as described previously. Packing supports may collapse and packings drop to
the bottom of the column.
A reliable indication of column bottom level is imperative for preventing liquid
level from rising above the reboiler return nozzle. The following are some
guidelines for preventing tray damage due to excessive liquid levels:
Pump liquid out from the column rather than attempting to reduce it
by boiling off the liquid.
Install high level alarms, and/or provide a liquid level differential pressure
measurement. Steam shutoff can be initiated at high column level. See
the Figure below.
Provide facilities for easy diversion of bottom liquid to either offspecification tank or feed tank so that liquid level can be readily reduced.

Low Liquid Level at Column Bottom

When bottom level is low, vapour can flow out from the column bottom. If the
column is operating under high pressure, such vapour blow-through can rupture the
bottom product storage tank. Low bottom levels can also
cause cavitation and overheating of bottoms pump. When a low level can cause
such hazards, it is good practice to install low-level alarms or trips. An example is
shown in the Figure above.
Improper Reflux
Reflux is the liquid that is returned to the column. Reflux ratio is the ratio of reflux
to the product withdrawn (i.e. distillate). A ratio of 4 means that 4 times as much
liquid is returned to the column as is sent out as product. Reflux helps improve
separation by condensing the heavier components from the vapour stream. Reflux
also helps to cool the top of the column and keep it within a specified temperature
range.

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Whether a reflux ratio is high or low depends on the design of the column and the
mixture that is being separated. A mixture whose components are difficult to
separate generally requires a higher reflux ratio, and vice versa.
Maintaining a proper reflux ratio for a system is important, because it can affect
the equilibrium between the rising vapour and the falling liquid in the column.
The reflux flow in a distillation column may be regulated by a simple temperature
controller or analyzer-flow cascade controller as shown in the Figure below.

If the reflux rate is too high, too much liquid will flow down the column, and the
column top will be cooled too much. Over-condensation may occur, and too much
vapour will condense inside the column before reaching the top, leading
to flooding.
Over-loading or flooding can also occur if the reflux temperature is too low. A low
reflux temperature leads to too much condensation of the rising vapour, again
increasing the liquid level and the hydrostatic pressure.

Water Problems
Water may be present in the feed stream, or as a result of chemical reaction. Water
may also be present due to incomplete draining or trapped water pockets during
tray leak-test, column steam-purging, pre-startup wash, or leakage from heat
exchanger (reboiler, condenser, etc). Water may also be carried over by upstream
process operation, e.g. wash water from crude desalter unit to the crude distillation
column.
Entry by slugs of water into a column can cause pressure surges, a potentially most
damaging and hazardous condition. Slugs of cold water entering a hot column will
result in rapid vapourization of the water. This will lead to a large vapour
expansion in the column, generating a rapid and impulsive pressure surge. Such
surges can damage or dislocate trays, packings and supports.
Other problems with water include poor separation efficiency (e.g. in hydrocarbonseparating columns, whereby water become trapped on trays, with the hydrocarbon

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floating above, reducing vapour-liquid contact), freezing (at low temperatures)

and corrosion.
The following are some guidelines for preventing water-induced pressure surges:
Avoid feeding the column from the bottom of feed tank. The tank outlet
nozzles should be at least 1-ft (or more) above the tank bottom to prevent
drawing in water. Water should also be routinely drained from the bottom of
the tank to prevent it from reaching the suction point.
Install a conductivity probe in the column feed line. Water (or oil-water
emulsions) conducts electricity far better than oil. A high conductivity
signals implied presence of water and preventive action can be taken, e.g.
shutting down the feed pump.
All water from stripping steam lines should be drained before starting (or restarting after interruption) stripping steam to the column. The stripping
steam should be superheated.
Block valves on lines feeding the column should be located so that the
piping sections upstream of the valve drain back to the upstream unit. On the
other hand, any feed lines connected to the column and downstream of the
block valve, should be sloping toward the column and free of low points.
Ensure proper dry-out during commissioning and start-up. All water
pockets must be drained from the system. It is best to always assume that
water is present on the other side of any valve which is about to be opened
during operation. Such a line must be drained before the valve connecting it
to the column is opened. Pressure surge may also occur if light materials are
suddenly introduced into a hot column.
Impurity Accumulation
Column feed can contain components whose boiling points are in-between the light
and heavy key components. In some situations, the column top temperature may
be too cold to allow these components to leave as top product, while the
column bottom temperature is too hot to allow these components to leave
as bottom product.
With nowhere to go, these components accumulates in the column may cause
problem like flooding, cycling and slugging. They may also interfere with the
control system. For instance, a component trapped in the upper part of the column
may warm up the control tray. The controller will increases reflux, which pushes
the component down, and the warming subsides. But the component may gradually
accumulates again, and the control tray will warm up again and reflux will increase
again. The column may eventually flood.

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If the intermediate component is water, and if the materials processed in the

column is water-insoluble, the water will form a second phase that will tend to
dissolve small quantities of acidic impurities, and this acidic solution can severely
corrode column internals.
Some guidelines to overcome these problems are as follows:
Avoid refluxing the component back into the column
A typical example is the reflux drum boot technique, shown in the Figure below,
for separating water (the impurity) from the hydrocarbon. The water may also have
been introduced intentionally upstream, for example, for washing of fin-fan
condensers in the case of a hydrocracker plant.

Plugging may be a problem in the water outlet line from the boot because of low
flow rates and because solids and corrosion products tend to entrap in the boot and
the water stream.
The converse of plugging is leakage across the control valve, especially when there
is a high pressure difference across the control valve. This makes maintaining the
boot level difficult and causes loss of product in the water stream. A vapour blowthrough may also damage downstream equipment.
Reducing the column temperature difference
This can be done by either reducing the top temperature or the bottom temperature
or both. In this way, the accumulating component can escape with one of the
product streams. However, this method can also cause product losses.
For example, an impurity needs to be removed from the top. To provide an outlet
for this component, a venting from the reflux drum can be introduced, and product
losses may occur through this vent.
Changing column feed temperature
Lowering the feed temperature may prevent accumulation of the component in
the top section, while raising the feed temperature may prevent accumulation of the

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component in the bottom section. This technique also has the disadvantage of
potential product losses.
Foaming
Foaming in the column can drastically lower capacity and lead to premature
flooding, liquid carry-over, and solvent losses. Foaming is a common problem with
columns using high molecular weight organic solvents such as amine, glycol and
potassium carbonate solutions. In such applications, presence of compounds such
as liquid hydrocarbon and organic acids often promotes or induces foaming. The
problem is usually aggravated by impurities, low pressure and high gas
velocities. Corrosion inhibitors are often surface-active agents and generally severe
foamers. Suspended solids and polymers generally tend to stabilize foams. One
example is iron sulfide particles in amine solutions.
Foaming is more common in tray columns than packed column. In a moderately
high foam regime, liquid will be carried up by the gas into the next tray.
Alternatively, foam can carry vapour down to the tray below. In extreme cases the
downcomers are filled with foam and flooding occurs, much like in a packed
column.
Foam inhibitors can be added to reduce the foaming tendency. These are always
insoluble materials, usually liquid, but some solids such as waxes or soaps are
used.

Flooding
Excessive vapour can also lead to over-loading of trays, due to high column
bottom temperature. In this situation, too much vapourisation of the bottom liquid,
producing a higher vapour flow. The increased vapour flow forces liquid up the
column, flooding trays in an upward progression.
If the problem continues, the pressure if the vapour can increase to a point where
it forces liquid out of the top of the column. This condition is known as puking.
When the pressure is relieved, liquid flows back down the column, and the
pressure build-up may begins again. The alternate surging of liquid up and down a
column can sometimes damage the internal structures of the column.
Over-loading and flooding can also occur when vapour and liquid flows
become restricted by scale accumulation or damage to trays or packing.
Over-loading or flooding can be identified by changes in column pressure
difference or temperature. Build-up of liquid on the trays cause the pressure below

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the flooding point to rise, As a result, a differential pressure can be observed across
the column. And since the reboiled vapour is blocked from rising, the temperature
at the bottom of the column may increase.
Some of the more common methods used to eliminate flooding involve temporarily
decreasing the feed rate, the reflux rate, or both, to reduce the amount of liquid in
the column, and decreasing the vapour in the column by reducing the reboiler
steam. In extreme cases, it may be necessary to shut down the column so that the
problem can be corrected.
Flooding can occur in both Tray Column and Packed Column.
Flooding Determination
Flooding can be recognized by one or more of the following symptoms:
Excessive column differential drop, sharp rise in column differential pressure
Loss of bottoms - this may not be a reliable indication if flooding occurs in the
rectifying section.
Rapid rise in entrainment - this is often recognized by a large rise in reflux or
product rate for a small or no increase in reboil
Loss of separation - as flooding lowers separation efficiency, laboratory analysis
of the products is also a good indicator
Reboiler Problems
The common types of reboilers used are: shell-and-tube thermo siphon (vertical or
horizontal) reboilers, forced-circulation reboilers, kettle reboilers and fired
reboilers.
Fouling is common to all heat exchangers. Foulants such as corrosion products,
dirt, etc, either form scale on heat transfer surfaces or plug tubes, or both. In
fouling services where continuous on-line operation must be maintained, the
reboiler is frequently spared to facilitate cleaning while the column is in operation.
The following sections discuss some operating problems associated with the
various reboiler types.

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Vertical Thermosiphon Reboiler

Some of the common operating problems are:

Excessive circulation occurs when reboiler sump level is too high and cannot be
lowered (e.g. the level is set by the top of the preferential baffle in the bottom
sump).
Insufficient circulation is usually caused by plugging of the tubes, or insufficient
liquid head. This will result in poor heat transfer, and possible tube over-heating.
Surging (or "burping") may occur if the reboiler temperature difference is
small and column pressure is poorly controlled. When the column pressure rises, it
increases the bottom temperature. Boiling decreases or stops, and this cause the
bottom liquid level to build up and dumping will occur, and causing the pressure to
fall. This in turn increases the boiling and the pressure increases again.
Oscillations cause reboiler instability. This may be caused by a pressure drop
limitation in the reboiler outlet or outlet piping system. The generated vapour
cannot find its way out in sufficient quantity, and some accumulates as a pocket
near the top of the reboiler. Expansion of the vapour pocket can momentarily
reverse the process flow, leading to a drop in pressure, which in turn causes liquid
to rush back in (the "U-tube" phenomenon).
Thermosiphon failure caused by low heat fluxes. This is common at start-ups for
multi-component mixture with small reboiler temperature difference. If flow is not
adequately started, the reboiler may only vapourises off some of the lighter
components in the liquid and leaving behind a residue too heavy to lift or too
heavy to boil.
Horizontal Thermosiphon Reboiler

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Besides sharing common problems with vertical thermosiphon reboilers, the

following are some operating problems experienced with horizontal units:
Liquid distribution must be uniform in the shell, in particular when boiling a
multi-component mixture. Uneven distribution may result in uneven heating,
localized loss of lighter components, etc. Liquid mal-distribution can also lead to
accelerated corrosion.
Liquid entering at excessive velocities may impinge on the tubes and damage
them.
Flow-induced vibration may occur with high shell velocities perpendicular to
tube spans, leading to tube failure.
Forced-Circulation Reboiler

Forced-circulation reboilers are similar to vertical thermosiphon reboilers, except

that these units use pumps as the driving force for liquid movement. A major
consideration with these reboilers is the pump-system compatibility. Since the
liquid is near its boiling point, and liquid head is costly, the NPSH (net positive
suction head) becomes critical. Using an over-sized pump may result in the
available NPSH lower than required NPSH, causing pump cavitation.
When the process temperature and the heat duty are high, a fired heater is
occasionally used as a forced-circulation reboiler.
In a typical fired reboiler, fuel gas and/or fuel oil is burned in a furnace to heat and
vaporize the bottom liquid. An example is shown in the Figure below.

When using a fired heater, maintaining even distribution of liquid among heater
passes is essential. Uneven distribution can lead to fouling, metal over-heating, and

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poor heat transfer. Having a proper pump selection to match the system is also
important.
Kettle Reboiler

Some of the following operating problems are commonly encountered with kettle
reboilers:
When liquid level falls below the top of the bundle, unflooded tubes heat vapour
rather than liquid. Heat transfer suffers as the heat transfer coefficient is lower in
vapour than in liquid. It will also lead to higher temperature on the exposed tubes,
leading to metal over-heating. It is important to ensure that the tubes are always
flooded by liquid set by the overflow weir.
Sufficient disengagement space need to be provided above the tube bundle to
remove any entrained liquid droplets. Demisters can be used to improve
disengagement.
Poor liquid distribution in kettle reboiler will also results in problems as
previously described.
Some other common reboiler problems - Heating Side:
Accumulation of inerts can drastically reduce heat transfer, particularly in steam
reboilers. Acidic inerts such as CO2 can also cause corrosion. Inerts can be
removed by venting. The vents must be located at the end of the vapour flow path.
Adequate removal of condensate is essential to prevent flooding of the tube
surface. A submerged surface transfers sensible heat only and achieves a lower
heat transfer than condensing. Condensate accumulation can be due to: undersized
steam trap, dirty or plugged steam traps.
Loss of condensate seal: When this occurs, the uncondensed vapour blows
through the reboiler and out from the condensate drain line. This will reduce heat
transfer.

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Condenser Problems
The function of the overhead condenser is to remove heat from the overhead
vapour and converts it into a liquid. 2 types of condensers are commonly
used: water-cooled horizontal shell-and-tube heat exchangers and air-cooled finfan condensers. Many condenser problems are related to the flow of cooling
medium.
Water-Cooled Condensers
Problems with the cooling tower system (e.g. pump failure), insufficient header
pressure, etc can lead to problems with the cooling water supply.A low cooling
water flow will lead to a higher temperature in the reflux liquid. As a result, less
cooling is attained in the column, and the heavier components may not be
adequately stripped from the overhead vapour.
Inerts accumulation, condensate removal and condenser fouling can adversely
affect condenser operation. Accumulation of non-condensables as gas pockets in
the shell side can significantly reduce heat transfer. If the condenser traps
condensate, heat transfer area will become flooded and heat transfer rates will be
lowered. Fouling reduces heat transfer efficiency and less cooling is achieved
Air-Cooled Condensers
In air-coolers, a jammed louver can restricted air flow through the tubes. Other
problems include incorrect valve setting, fouling or plugging in the condenser
tubes and/or fins. All these will lead to insufficient condensation of the overhead
vapour. Uniform distribution is important when the vapour entering the condenser
is split into parallel streams, for example, in typical air fin-fan condensers. Vapour
mal-distribution is more a problem with total condensers than with partial
condensers, especially when the condensers are of parallel flow configuration.
Fog Formation
Fog formation can take place if the vapour mixture is cooled below its saturation
temperature. Fog droplets in the range of 3 -5 mm tend to remain in the vapour and
difficult to separate. Fog formation is favoured by slow mass transfer rates and
high heat transfer rates. The common way to reduce fog formation is to reduce the
temperature difference in the condenser.

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Instrument Problems
Instrument problems are common during start-ups but also occur during normal
operation. Some of the most common problems encountered include:
(1) False Signals
When an instrument indicates an unexpected reading, it should be adequately
checked rather than ignored, as it may truly indicate abnormal process condition.
(2) Incorrect Level Indication
Level instrument readings should always be compared against sight
glass indications. Some of the problems include plugging of the tap-off point due
to dirt or corrosion products.
(3) Incorrect Bottom Temperature Indication
This can be due to faulty thermocouple, or fouling of the thermowell. A bottom
temperature sensor measuring liquid temperature may read vapour temperature
instead when the liquid level drops.
(4) Controller Cycling
This is usually due to inadequate tuning.
(5) Faulty Control Valve Action
Common causes include a faulty air or power supply, a leaky or ruptured
diaphragm, a malfunctioning positioner, a sticking valve stem, or a faulty I/P
converter.
(6) Wet Instrument Air Supply This may cause erratic controller action and/or
incorrect signals, and may one or several instruments.
(7) Interface Controllers
This is especially troublesome for displacer-type devices when levels change
rapidly and frequently.

Other Operational Problems

(1) Liquid Maldistribution:Trays containing a more than 2 liquid passes are
prone to liquid maldistribution. Varying heights of liquid across the tray resulting
in non-uniform gas flows and, in extreme cases result unstable, cyclic
oscillations in liquid and gas flows (alternate blowing and dumping).
In packed column, maldistribution is detrimental to packing efficiency and
turndown. Maldistribution occurs at low liquid and/or vapour flows, or if the
liquid feed is not distributed evenly over the packings. Maldistribution delivers
less liquid to some area than to others, resulting in reduced mass transfer. For
example, the column wall directly under the distributor is poorly irrigated. Down

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in the bed, the liquid tends to flow toward the wall. This condition is also known as
channeling. At very low flow rates, there may be insufficient liquid to wet the
surface of the packings.
(2) Weeping:This occurs in perforated (sieve) trays or other tray types that rely
solely on gas pressure to hold liquid on the tray, whereby the liquid leaks
through the sieves at low gas rates. At very low gas rates none of the liquid reaches
the downcomer, and this extreme weeping is called showering or dumping.
(3) Coning:A condition that occurs at low liquid rates, when the gas rising through
the perforated holes of the tray pushes the liquid away.
(4) Cooking:This may occur if the feed consists mainly of light components and
a small amount of heavy residue. In the column, the base will contain the heavy
residue and a small amount of lights, which will vapourise out over time. Thus the
materials in the column base and reboiler loop will "thicken" and bottom
temperature as well as viscosity will increase. This will results in plugging of
tubes. Draining a large portion of the column base inventory so that it is replaced
by lighter liquid can reduce cooking tendency.
(5) Hydrates Formation: Hydrates are loosely bonded chemical compounds of
hydrocarbons or similar substances with water. Hydrates formation are promoted
by low temperatures and high pressures. Hydrates behaves like ice and can
cause plugging. To reduce hydrates formation, proper drying of column feeds is
essential when column temperature is less than 30 - 50 oF.
(6) Precipitation: Dissolved solids often enter with the column feed. As the various
feed components are separated out, the dissolved solids may be precipitated out,
and causing plugging of the internals. The problem is most common in aqueous
distillation system where the water contains dissolved solids.
(7) Chemical Reactions: Undesirable chemical reactions are frequently
encountered in distillation and absorption columns, especially when organic
materials are involved. An undesirable reaction may cause an explosion, produce
compounds that contaminate the desired products, interfere with the distillation
process (e.g. formation of an azeotrope), and plug or corrode column internals.
Some important considerations are:
Feedstock impurities, or chemicals left over in the system from a previous
operation, are often the cause of undesirable reactions. Impurities in the feed, even
introduced in small quantities, may build up in some section of the column and
eventually cause an undesirable reaction.

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Many organic reactions are catalysed by presence of even small quantities of

certain oxidizing or reducing agents, e.g. corrosion or polymerization
inhibitors.
Many organic reactions are temperature sensitive, and tends to be favoured
by high temperature. Lowering the bottom temperature by about 30 - 40 oF
can prevent the occurrence of a reaction.
Chemicals that are thermally unstable may decompose exothermically,
leading to excessive temperature and a "runaway" reaction, and sometimes
leading to an explosion.
Presence of water in the system can affect the course of the reactions, and
formation of azeotropes.
Catalysts or metal fines carried over from a reactor may finds its way into
the column, converting it into a "secondary reactor".
At low turndown condition, an undesirable reaction may occur either
because of excessive reagents or because of longer residence time.

Column Overpressure Relief

A distillation column (like many other equipment) needs to be protected from
damage caused by excessive pressure beyond what the column is designed for.
The following provides a checklist for identifying sources and possible causes of
overpressure. The nomenclature matches the ones used in the Figure below:

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(Note that the list is not exhaustive, and that these can vary from column to
column, and each column must be thoroughly studied to determine its own
overpressure sources)
A. Utility failure
1. Loss of coolant (cooling water, fin-fan louver failure)
2. Loss of electric power (fin-fan motor, reflux pump)
3. Loss of steam (reboiler, preheater)
4. Loss of instrument air (control valve failure)
B. Controller failure
5. Failure of steam controller
6. Failure of pressure controller
7. Failure of feed controller (including stripping steam)
8. Failure of reflux controller
C. Extraneous sources
9. Valve opening to an external pressure source
10. Loss of heating in an upstream column (The upstream column will sent more
liquid to the distillation column, which simultaneously increase feed rate and light
components to the column)
11. Failure of heat exchanger tube (e.g. reboiler)
12. External fire
D. Internal sources
13. Accumulation of non-condensables
14. Chemical reaction
15. Closed column outlets
E. Transient Sources
These include pockets of water which expanded, steam hammer, and internal
explosion
Locating column relief devices
Column can be protected against overpressure by means of pressure relief devices,
such as pressure relief valves, bursting discs or vents. The Figure below showed 3
typical locations labelled 'A', 'B' and'C'.

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Location 'A'
at column overhead, upstream of condenser
best location for columns operating above atmospheric pressure
prevent downward vapour flow (as compared to lowly placed relief valve) which
might damage the trays
avoids discharging liquid when column become flooded - may upset
downstream relief header and impede the ability of the relief valve to reduce
column pressure
Location 'B'
at the vapour space in the column bottom, just below the bottom tray or packing
supports
much less common
prevents trays from being uplifted under large discharge rate
avoids possibility of overpressure due to plugged trays
Location 'C'
at the reflux drum (overhead accumulator)
when a partial condenser is used
reflux drum must be large enough to avoid liquid discharge

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Secondary Relief System

A relief device is usually sized to accommodate the failure that is expected to
generate the largest relief discharge rate. This failure may rarely occur. Once the
device is sized for this largest discharge rate, it will discharge at this flow rate each
time it opens.
A secondary relief device, set at a pressure of about 10 psi less than the main relief;
can reduce the probability, frequency, and duration of discharge through the main
relief device to such an extent that the main relief device would practically never
open.
An example of a secondary relief device consisting of a pressure control vent to
flare is shown in the Figure above. This system permits quick operator intervention
to control the discharge rate. The system is also useful for sweeping noncondensable gases out from the column.

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Chapter-6
Glossary of terms
Rectifying Section
It is the name given to the section above feed point where the concentration of
more volatile component
(capable of readily changing from a solid or liquid form to a vapour; having a high
vapour pressure and a low boiling point) increases in both liquid and vapour.
Stripping Section
It is the name given to the section below feed point where the concentration of
more volatile component
(capable of readily changing from a solid or liquid form to a vapour; having a high
vapour pressure and a low boiling point) decreases in both liquid and vapour.
Reflux
Is the product going back to the column to support the condensation process. This
is very critical if the amount of reflux increases the flooding inside the column
occurs.
Vapour pressure and Boiling Point
The vapor pressure of a pure substance is the pressure exerted by the substance
against the external pressure which is usually atmospheric pressure. Vapor pressure
is a measure of the tendency of a condensed substance to escape the condensed
phase. The larger the vapor pressure, the greater the tendency to escape. When the
vapor pressure of a liquid substance reaches the external pressure, the substance is
observed to boil. If the external pressure is atmospheric pressure, the temperature
at which a pure substance boils is called the normal boiling point.

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NDT

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What Is Nondestructive Testing?

Nondestructive testing (NDT) is the process of inspecting, testing, or evaluating
materials, components or assemblies for discontinuities, or differences in
characteristics without destroying the serviceability of the part or system. In other
words, when the inspection or test is completed the part can still be used.
In contrast to NDT, other tests are destructive in nature and are therefore done on a
limited number of samples ("lot sampling"), rather than on the materials,
components or assemblies actually being put into service.
These destructive tests are often used to determine the physical properties of
materials such as impact resistance, ductility, yield and ultimate tensile strength,
fracture toughness and fatigue strength, but discontinuities and differences in
material characteristics are more effectively found by NDT.
Today modern nondestructive tests are used in manufacturing, fabrication and inservice inspections to ensure product integrity and reliability, to control
manufacturing processes, lower production costs and to maintain a uniform quality
level. During construction, NDT is used to ensure the quality of materials and
joining processes during the fabrication and erection phases, and in-service NDT
inspections are used to ensure that the products in use continue to have the
integrity necessary to ensure their usefulness and the safety of the public.
It should be noted that while the medical field uses many of the same processes,
the term "nondestructive testing" is generally not used to describe medical
applications.
NDT Test Methods
Test method names often refer to the type of penetrating medium or the equipment
used to perform that test. Current NDT methods are: Acoustic Emission Testing
(AE), Electromagnetic Testing (ET), Laser Testing Methods (LM), Leak Testing
(LT), Magnetic Flux Leakage (MFL), Liquid Penetrant Testing (PT), Magnetic
Particle Testing (MT), Neutron Radiographic Testing (NR), Radiographic Testing
(RT), Thermal/Infrared Testing (IR), Ultrasonic Testing (UT), Vibration Analysis
(VA) and Visual Testing (VT).
The six most frequently used test methods are MT, PT, RT, UT, ET and VT. Each
of these test methods will be described here, followed by the other, less often used
test methods.

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Magnetic Particle Testing (MT)

Magnetic Particle Testing uses one or

more magnetic fields to locate surface and near-surface discontinuities in
ferromagnetic materials. The magnetic field can be applied with a permanent
magnet or an electromagnet. When using an electromagnet, the field is present
only when the current is being applied. When the magnetic field encounters a
discontinuity transverse to the direction of the magnetic field, the flux lines
produce a magnetic flux leakage field of their own as shown in Figure 1. Because
magnetic flux lines don't travel well in air, when very fine colored ferromagnetic
particles ("magnetic particles") are applied to the surface of the part the particles
will be drawn into the discontinuity, reducing the air gap and producing a visible
indication on the surface of the part. The magnetic particles may be a dry powder
or suspended in a liquid solution, and they may be colored with a visible dye or a
fluorescent dye that fluoresces under an ultraviolet ("black") light.
MT Techniques

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Yokes Most field inspections are performed using a Yoke, as shown at the

right. As
shown in Figure 2(a), an electric coil is wrapped around a central core, and when
the current is applied, a magnetic field is generated that extends from the core
down through the articulated legs into the part. This is known as longitudinal
magnetization because the magnetic flux lines run from one leg to the other.
When the legs are placed on a ferromagnetic part and the yoke is energized, a
magnetic field is introduced into the part as shown in (b). Because the flux lines
do run from one leg to the other, discontinuities oriented perpendicular to a line
drawn between the legs can be found. To ensure no indications are missed, the
yoke is used once in the position shown then used again with the yoke turned
90o so no indications are missed. Because all of the electric current is contained in
the yoke and only the magnetic field penetrates the part, this type of application is
known as indirect induction.
Prods Prod units use direct induction, where the current runs through the part and
a circular magnetic field is generated around the legs as shown in Figure
3. Because the magnetic field between the prods is travelling perpendicular to a
line drawn between the prods, indications oriented parallel to a line drawn between
the prods can be found. As with the yoke, two inspections are done, the second
with the prods oriented 90o to the first application.
Coils Electric coils are used to generate a longitudinal magnetic field. When
energized, the current creates a magnetic field around the wires making up the coil
so that the resulting flux lines are oriented through the coil as shown at the
right. Because of the longitudinal field, indications in parts placed in a coil are
oriented transverse to the longitudinal field.
Heads Most horizontal wet bath machines ("bench units") have both a coil and a
set of heads through which electric current can be passed, generating a magnetic
field. Most use fluorescent magnetic particles in a liquid solution, hence the name
"wet bath." A typical bench unit is shown at the right. When testing a part
between the heads, the part is placed between the heads, the moveable head is
moved up so that the part being tested is held tightly between the heads, the part is

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wetted down with the bath solution containing the magnetic particles and the
current is applied while the particle are flowing over the part. Since the current
flow is from head to head and the magnetic field is oriented 90o to the current,
indications oriented parallel to a line between the heads will be visible. This type
of inspection is commonly called a "head shot."
Central Conductor When testing hollow parts such as pipes, tubes and fittings, a
conductive circular bar can be placed between the heads with the part suspended
on the bar (the "central conductor") as shown in Figure 6. The part is then wetted
down with the bath solution and the current is applied, travelling through the
central conductor rather than through the part. The ID and OD of the part can then
be inspected. As with a head shot, the magnetic field is perpendicular to the
current flow, wrapping around the test piece, so indications running axially down
the length of the part can be found using this technique.

Liquid Penetrant Testing (PT)

The basic principle of liquid penetrant testing is that when a very low viscosity
(highly fluid) liquid (the penetrant) is applied to the surface of a part, it will
penetrate into fissures and voids open to the surface. Once the excess penetrant is
removed, the penetrant trapped in those voids will flow back out, creating an
indication. Penetrant testing can be performed on magnetic and non-magnetic
materials, but does not work well on porous materials. Penetrants may be
"visible", meaning they can be seen in ambient light, or fluorescent, requiring the

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use of a "black" light. The visible dye penetrant process is shown in Figure
7. When performing a PT inspection, it is imperative that the surface being tested
is clean and free of any foreign materials or liquids that might block the penetrant
from entering voids or fissures open to the surface of the part.
After applying the penetrant, it is permitted to sit on the surface for a specified
period of time (the "penetrant dwell time"), then the part is carefully cleaned to
remove excess penetrant from the surface. When removing the penetrant, the
operator must be careful not to remove any penetrant that has flowed into voids. A
light coating of developer is then be applied to the surface and given time
("developer dwell time") to allow the penetrant from any voids or fissures to seep
up into the developer, creating a visible indication. Following the prescribed
developer dwell time, the part is inspected visually, with the aid of a black light for
fluorescent penetrants. Most developers are fine-grained, white talcum-like
powders that provide a color contrast to the penetrant being used.
PT Techniques
Solvent Removable penetrants are those penetrants that require a solvent other
than water to remove the excess penetrant. These penetrants are usually visible in
nature, commonly dyed a bright red color that will contrast well against a white
developer. The penetrant is usually sprayed or brushed onto the part, then after the
penetrant dwell time has expired, the part is cleaned with a cloth dampened with
penetrant cleaner after which the developer is applied. Following the developer
dwell time the part is examined to detect any penetrant bleed-out showing through
the developer.
Water-washable penetrants have an emulsifier included in the penetrant that
allows the penetrant to be removed using a water spray. They are most often
applied by dipping the part in a penetrant tank, but the penetrant may be applied to
large parts by spraying or brushing. Once the part is fully covered with penetrant,
the part is placed on a drain board for the penetrant dwell time, then taken to a
rinse station where it is washed with a course water spray to remove the excess
penetrant. Once the excess penetrant has been removed, the part may be placed in
a warm air dryer or in front of a gentle fan until the water has been removed. The
part can then be placed in a dry developer tank and coated with developer, or
allowed to sit for the remaining dwell time then inspected.
Post-emulsifiable penetrants are penetrants that do not have an emulsifier included
in its chemical make-up like water-washable penetrants. Post-emulsifiable

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penetrants are applied in a similar manner, but prior to the water-washing step,
emulsifier is applied to the surface for a prescribed period of time (emulsifier
dwell) to remove the excess penetrant. When the emulsifier dwell time has
elapsed, the part is subjected to the same water wash and developing process used
for water-washable penetrants. Emulsifiers can be lipophilic (oil-based) or
hydrophilic (water-based).

Radiographic Testing (RT)

Industrial radiography involves exposing a test object to penetrating radiation so
that the radiation passes through the object being inspected and a recording
medium placed against the opposite side of that object. For thinner or less dense
materials such as aluminum, electrically generated x-radiation (X-rays) are
commonly used, and for thicker or denser materials, gamma radiation is generally
used.
Gamma radiation is given off by decaying radioactive materials, with the two most
commonly used sources of gamma radiation being Iridium-192 (Ir-192) and
Cobalt-60 (Co-60). IR-192 is generally used for steel up to 2-1/2 - 3 inches,
depending on the Curie strength of the source, and Co-60 is usually used for
thicker materials due to its greater penetrating ability.

The recording media can be industrial x-ray film or one of several types of digital
radiation detectors. With both, the radiation passing through the test object
exposes the media, causing an end effect of having darker areas where more
radiation has passed through the part and lighter areas where less radiation has
penetrated. If there is a void or defect in the part, more radiation passes through,
causing a darker image on the film or detector, as shown in Figure 8.

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RT Techniques
Film radiography uses a film made up of a thin transparent plastic coated with a
fine layer of silver bromide on one or both sides of the plastic. When exposed to
radiation these crystals undergo a reaction that allows them, when developed, to
convert to black metallic silver. That silver is then "fixed" to the plastic during the
developing process, and when dried, becomes a finished radiographic film.
To be a usable film, the area of interest (weld area, etc.) on the film must be within
a certain density (darkness) range and must show enough contrast and sensitivity
so that discontinuities of interest can be seen. These items are a function of the
strength of the radiation, the distance of the source from the film and the thickness
of the part being inspected. If any of these parameters are not met, another
exposure ("shot") must be made for that area of the part.
Computed radiography (CR) is a transitional technology between film and direct
digital radiography. This technique uses a reusable, flexible, photo-stimulated
phosphor (PSP) plate which is loaded into a cassette and is exposed in a manner
similar to traditional film radiography. The cassette is then placed in a laser reader
where it is scanned and translated into a digital image, which take from one to five
minutes. The image can then be uploaded to a computer or other electronic media
for interpretation and storage.

Computed tomography (CT) uses a computer to reconstruct an image of a cross

sectional plane of an object as opposed to a conventional radiograph, as shown in
Figure 9. The CT image is developed from multiple views taken at different
viewing angles that are reconstructed using a computer. With traditional
radiography, the position of internal discontinuities cannot be accurately
determined without making exposures from several angles to locate the item by
triangulation. With computed tomography, the computer triangulates using every
point in the plane as viewed from many different directions.

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Digital radiography (DR) digitizes the radiation that passes through an object
directly into an image that can be displayed on a computer monitor. The three
principle technologies used in direct digital imaging are amorphous silicon, charge
coupled devices (CCDs), and complementary metal oxide semiconductors
(CMOSs). These images are available for viewing and analysis in seconds
compared to the time needed to scan in computed radiography images. The
increased processing speed is a result of the unique construction of the pixels; an
arrangement that also allows a superior resolution than is found in computed
radiography and most film applications.
Ultrasonic Testing (UT) Ultrasonic testing uses the same principle as is used in
naval SONAR and fish finders. Ultra-high frequency sound is introduced into the
part being inspected and if the sound hits a material with a different acoustic
impedance (density and acoustic velocity), some of the sound will reflect back to
the sending unit and can be presented on a visual display. By knowing the speed
of the sound through the part (the acoustic velocity) and the time required for the
sound to return to the sending unit, the distance to the reflector (the indication with
the different acoustic impedance) can be determined. The most common sound
frequencies used in UT are between 1.0 and 10.0 MHz, which are too high to be
heard and do not travel through air. The lower frequencies have greater
penetrating power but less sensitivity (the ability to "see" small indications), while
the higher frequencies don't penetrate as deeply but can detect smaller indications.

The two most commonly used types of sound waves used in industrial inspections
are the compression (longitudinal) wave and the shear (transverse) wave, as shown
in Figure 10. Compression waves cause the atoms in a part to vibrate back and
forth parallel to the sound direction and shear waves cause the atoms to vibrate
perpendicularly (from side to side) to the direction of the sound. Shear waves
travel at approximately half the speed of longitudinal waves.
Sound is introduced into the part using an ultrasonic transducer ("probe") that
converts electrical impulses from the UT machine into sound waves, then converts
returning sound back into electric impulses that can be displayed as a visual

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representation on a digital or LCD screen (on older machines, a CRT screen). If

the machine is properly calibrated, the operator can determine the distance from
the transducer to the reflector, and in many cases, an experienced operator can
determine the type of discontinuity (like slag, porosity or cracks in a weld) that
caused the reflector. Because ultrasound will not travel through air (the atoms in
air molecules are too far apart to transmit ultrasound), a liquid or gel called
"couplant" is used between the face of the transducer and the surface of the part to
allow the sound to be transmitted into the part.
UT Techniques

Straight beam inspection uses longitudinal waves to interrogate the test piece as
shown at the right. If the sound hits an internal reflector, the sound from that
reflector will reflect to the transducer faster than the sound coming back from the
back-wall of the part due to the shorter distance from the transducer. This results
in a screen display like that shown at the right in Figure 11. Digital thickness
testers use the same process, but the output is shown as a digital numeric readout
rather than a screen presentation.

Angle beam inspection uses the same type of transducer but it is mounted on an
angled wedge (also called a "probe") that is designed to transmit the sound beam
into the part at a known angle. The most commonly used inspection angles are
45o, 60o and 70o, with the angle being calculated up from a line drawn through the
thickness of the part (not the part surface). A 60o probe is shown in Figure 12. If
the frequency and wedge angle is not specified by the governing code or

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specification, it is up to the operator to select a combination that will adequately

inspect the part being tested.
In angle beam inspections, the transducer and wedge combination (also referred to
as a "probe") is moved back and forth towards the weld so that the sound beam
passes through the full volume of the weld. As with straight beam inspections,
reflectors aligned more or less perpendicular to the sound beam will send sound
back to the transducer and are displayed on the screen.
Immersion Testing is a technique where the part is immersed in a tank of water
with the water being used as the coupling medium to allow the sound beam to
travel between the transducer and the part. The UT machine is mounted on a
movable platform (a "bridge") on the side of the tank so it can travel down the
length of the tank. The transducer is swivel-mounted on at the bottom of a
waterproof tube that can be raised, lowered and moved across the tank. The bridge
and tube movement permits the transducer to be moved on the X-, Y- and Zaxes. All directions of travel are gear driven so the transducer can be moved in
accurate increments in all directions, and the swivel allows the transducer to be
oriented so the sound beam enters the part at the required angle. Round test parts
are often mounted on powered rollers so that the part can be rotated as the
transducer travels down its length, allowing the full circumference to be
tested. Multiple transducers can be used at the same time so that multiple scans
can be performed.

Through transmission inspections are performed using two transducers, one on

each side of the part as shown in Figure 13. The transmitting transducer sends
sound through the part and the receiving transducer receives the sound. Reflectors
in the part will cause a reduction in the amount of sound reaching the receiver so
that the screen presentation will show a signal with a lower amplitude (screen
height).
Phased array inspections are done using a probe with multiple elements that can
be individually activated. By varying the time when each element is activated, the

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resulting sound beam can be "steered", and the resulting data can be combined to
form a visual image representing a slice through the part being inspected.
Time of Flight Diffraction (TOFD) uses two transducers located on opposite
sides of a weld with the transducers set at a specified distance from each
other. One transducer transmits sound waves and the other transducer acting as a
receiver. Unlike other angle beam inspections, the transducers are not
manipulated back and forth towards the weld, but travel along the length of the
weld with the transducers remaining at the same distance from the weld. Two
sound waves are generated, one travelling along the part surface between the
transducers, and the other travelling down through the weld at an angle then back
up to the receiver. When a crack is encountered, some of the sound is diffracted
from the tips of the crack, generating a low strength sound wave that can be picked
up by the receiving unit. By amplifying and running these signals through a
computer, defect size and location can be determined with much greater accuracy
than by conventional UT methods.
Electromagnetic Testing (ET)
Electromagnetic testing is a general test category that includes Eddy Current
testing, Alternating Current Field Measurement (ACFM) and Remote Field testing.
While magnetic particle testing is also an electromagnetic test, due to its
widespread use it is considered a stand-alone test method rather as than an
electromagnetic testing technique. All of these techniques use the induction of an
electric current or magnetic field into a conductive part, then the resulting effects
are recorded and evaluated.
ET Techniques
Eddy Current Testing uses the fact that when a an alternating current coil induces
an electromagnetic field into a conductive test piece, a small current is created
around the magnetic flux field, much like a magnetic field is generated around an
electric current. The flow pattern of this secondary current, called an "eddy"
current, will be affected when it encounters a discontinuity in the test piece, and
the change in the eddy current density can be detected and used to characterize the
discontinuity causing that change. A simplified schematic of eddy currents
generated by an alternating current coil ("probe") is shown in Figure 14-a. By
varying the type of coil, this test method can be applied to flat surfaces or tubular
products. This technique works best on smooth surfaces and has limited
penetration, usually less than ".

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Encircling coils (Figure 14-b) are used to test tubular and bar-shaped products. The
tube or bar can be fed through the coil at a relatively high speed, allowing the full
cross-section of the test object to be interrogated. However, due to the direction of
the flux lines, circumferentially oriented discontinuities may not be detected with
this application.
Alternating Current Field Measurement (ACFM) uses a specialized probe that
introduces an alternating current into the surface of the test piece, creating a
magnetic field. In parts with no discontinuities this field will be uniform, but if
there is a discontinuity open to the surface, the magnetic field will flow around and
under the discontinuity, causing a disruption of the field that can be detected by
sensors within the probe. The resulting feedback can then be fed to software that
can determine the length and depth of the discontinuity. ACFM provides better
results on rough surfaces than Eddy Current and can be used through many surface
coatings.
Remote Field Testing (RFT) is most commonly used to inspect ferromagnetic
tubing due to the presence of a strong skin effect found in such tubes. Compared
to standard eddy current techniques, remote field testing provides better results
throughout the thickness of the tube, having approximately equal sensitivity at both
the ID and OD surfaces of the tube. For non-ferromagnetic tubes, eddy current
tends to provide more sensitivity.
Visual Testing (VT)
Visual testing is the most commonly used test method in industry. Because most
test methods require that the operator look at the surface of the part being
inspected, visual inspection is inherent in most of the other test methods. As the
name implies, VT involves the visual observation of the surface of a test object to
evaluate the presence of surface discontinuities. VT inspections may be by Direct
Viewing, using line-of sight vision, or may be enhanced with the use of optical
instruments such as magnifying glasses, mirrors, boroscopes, charge-coupled
devices (CCDs) and computer-assisted viewing systems (Remote
Viewing). Corrosion, misalignment of parts, physical damage and cracks are just
some of the discontinuities that may be detected by visual examinations.
Acoustic Emission Testing (AE)
Acoustic Emission Testing is performed by applying a localized external force
such as an abrupt mechanical load or rapid temperature or pressure change to the

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part being tested. The resulting stress waves in turn generate short-lived, high
frequency elastic waves in the form of small material displacements, or plastic
deformation, on the part surface that are detected by sensors that have been
attached to the part surface. When multiple sensors are used, the resulting data can
be evaluated to locate discontinuities in the part.
Guided Wave Testing (GW)
Guided wave testing on piping uses controlled excitation of one or more
ultrasonic waveforms that travel along the length of the pipe, reflecting from
changes in the pipe stiffness or cross sectional area. A transducer ring or exciter
coil assembly is used to introduce the guided wave into the pipe and each
transducer/exciter . The control and analysis software can be installed on a laptop
computer to drive the transducer ring/exciter and to analyze the results. The
transducer ring/exciter setup is designed specifically for the diameter of the pipe
being tested, and the system has the advantage of being able to inspect the pipe
wall volume over long distances without having to remove coatings or
insulation. Guided wave testing can locate both ID and OD discontinuities but
cannot differentiate between them.

Laser Testing Methods (LM)

Laser Testing includes three techniques, Holography, Shearography and
Profilometry. As the method name implies, all three techniques user lasers to
perform the inspections.
LM Techniques
Holographic Testing uses a laser to detect changes to the surface of a part as it
deforms under induced stress which can be applied as mechanical stress, heat,
pressure, or vibrational energy. The laser beam scans across the surface of the part
and reflects back to sensors that record the differences in the surface created by
that stress. The resulting image will be a topographical map-like presentation that
can reveal surface deformations in the order of 0.05 to 0.005 microns without
damage to the part. By comparing the test results with an undamaged reference
sample, holographic testing can be used to locate and evaluate cracks,
delaminations, disbonds, voids and residual stresses.

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Laser Shearography applies laser light to the surface of the part being tested with
the part at rest (non-stressed) and the resulting image is picked up by a chargecoupled device (CCD) and stored on a computer. The surface is then stressed and
a new image is generated, recorded and stored. The computer then superimposes
the two patterns and if defects such as voids or disbonds are present, the defect can
be revealed by the patterns developed. Discontinuities as small as a few
micrometers in size can be detected in this manner.
Laser Profilometry uses a high-speed rotating laser light source, miniature optics
and a computer with high-speed digital signal processing software. The ID surface
of a tube is scanned in two dimensions and the reflected light is passed through a
lens that focuses that light onto a photo-detector, generating a signal that is
proportional to the spot's position in its image plane. As the distance from the laser
to the ID surface changes, the position of the focal spot on the photo-detector
changes due to parallax, generating a high resolution three-dimensional image of
the part surface that represents the surface topography of the part. This technique
can be used to detect corrosion, pitting, erosion and cracks in pipes and tubes.
Leak Testing (LT)
Leak Testing, as the name implies, is used to detect through leaks using one of the
four major LT techniques: Bubble, Pressure Change, Halogen Diode and Mass
Spectrometer Testing. These techniques are described below.
LT Techniques

Bubble Leak Testing, as the name implies, relies on the visual detection of a gas
(usually air) leaking from a pressurized system. Small parts can be pressurized and
immersed in a tank of liquid and larger vessels can be pressurized and inspected by

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spraying a soap solution that creates fine bubbles to the area being tested. For flat
surfaces, the soap solution can be applied to the surface and a vacuum box (Figure
15) can be used to create a negative pressure from the inspection side. If there are
through leaks, bubbles will form, showing the location of the leak.
Pressure Change Testing can be performed on closed systems only. Detection of
a leak is done by either pressurizing the system or pulling a vacuum then
monitoring the pressure. Loss of pressure or vacuum over a set period of time
indicates that there is a leak in the system. Changes in temperature within the
system can cause changes in pressure, so readings may have to be adjusted
accordingly.
Halogen Diode Testing is done by pressurizing a system with a mixture of air and
a halogen-based tracer gas. After a set period of time, a halogen diode detection
unit, or "sniffer", is used to locate leaks.
Mass Spectrometer Testing can be done by pressurizing the test part with helium
or a helium/air mixture within a test chamber then surveying the surfaces using a
sniffer, which sends an air sample back to the spectrometer. Another technique
creates a vacuum within the test chamber so that the gas within the pressurized
system is drawn into the chamber through any leaks. The mass spectrometer is
then used to sample the vacuum chamber and any helium present will be ionized,
making very small amounts of helium readily detectable.
Magnetic Flux Leakage (MFL)
Magnetic Flux Leakage detects anomalies in normal flux patterns created by
discontinuities in ferrous material saturated by a magnetic field. This technique can
be used for piping and tubing inspection, tank floor inspection and other
applications. In tubular applications, the inspection head contain is made up of
drive and sensor coils and a position transducer that are connected by cable back to
the power source and signal processing computer. This head is placed around the
pipe or tube to be inspected and the drive coil is energized, creating a magnetic
field in the part. As the head travels along the length of the part, variations in the
wall thickness due to corrosion, erosion, pitting etc., will cause a change in the
magnetic flux density can be picked up by the sensor and sent back to the
computer. The location of this signal is sent by the position transducer so that the
area detected can be marked for further evaluation. This technique can be done
without removing the insulation, resulting in a fast, economic way to inspect long
runs of pipe or tubing.

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Tank floor inspection applies the same principle, but uses a series of magnetic field
generators ("bridges") and sensors (as shown in Figure 16) located side by side
across the front of a vacuum sweeper-like machine. The bridges generate a
magnetic field that saturates the tank floor, and any reduction in thickness or loss
of material due to pitting or corrosion will cause the field to "leak" upwards out of
the floor material where it can be picked up by the sensors. On very basic
machines, each sensor will be connected to an audio and/or visual display that lets
the operator know there is an indication; more advanced machines can have both
visual displays and recording capability so that the results can be stored, analyzed
and compared to earlier results to monitor discontinuity growth.
Neutron Radiographic Testing (NR)
Neutron radiography uses an intense beam of low energy neutrons as a
penetrating medium rather than the gamma- or x-radiation used in conventional
radiography. Generated by linear accelerators, betatrons and other sources,
neutrons penetrate most metallic materials, rendering them transparent, but are
attenuated by most organic materials (including water, due to its high hydrogen
content) which allows those materials to be seen within the component being
inspected. When used with conventional radiography, both the structural and
internal components of a test piece can be viewed.
Thermal/Infrared Testing (IR)
Thermal/Infrared Testing, or infrared thermography, is used to measure or map
surface temperatures based on the infrared radiation given off by an object as heat
flows through, to or from that object. The majority of infrared radiation is longer
in wavelength than visible light but can be detected using thermal imaging devices,
commonly called "infrared cameras." For accurate IR testing, the part(s) being
investigated should be in direct line of sight with the camera, i.e., should not be
done with panel covers closed as the covers will diffuse the heat and can result in

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false readings. Used properly, thermal imaging can be used to detect corrosion
damage, delamination, disbonds, voids, inclusions as well as many other
detrimental conditions.
Vibration Analysis (VA)
Vibration analysis refers to the process of monitoring the vibration signatures
specific to a piece of rotating machinery and analyzing that information to
determine the condition of that equipment. Three types of sensors are commonly
used: displacement sensors, velocity sensors and accelerometers.
Displacement sensors uses eddy current to detect vertical and/or horizontal motion
(depending on whether one or two sensors are used) and are well suited to detect
shaft motion and changes in clearance tolerances.
Basic velocity sensors use a spring-mounted magnet that moves through a coil of
wire, with the outer case of the sensor attached to the part being inspected. The
coil of wire moves through the magnetic field, generating an electrical signal that
is sent back to a receiver and recorded for analysis. Newer model vibration sensors
use time-of-flight technology and improved analysis software. Velocity sensors
are commonly used in handheld sensors.
Basic accelerometers use a piezoelectric crystal (that converts sound waves to
electrical impulses and back) attached to a mass that vibrates due to the motion of
the part to which the sensor casing is attached. As the mass and crystal vibrate, a
low voltage current is generated which is passed through a pre-amplifier and sent
to the recording device. Accelerometers are very effective for detecting the high
frequencies created by high speed turbine blades, gears and ball and roller bearings
that travel at much greater speeds than the shafts to which they are attached.

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Welding

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Gas tungsten arc welding

Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), also known as tungsten inert
gas (TIG) welding, is an arc welding process that uses a nonconsumable tungsten electrode to produce the weld. The weld area is protected
from atmospheric contamination by an inert shielding gas (argon or helium), and
a filler metal is normally used, though some welds, known as autogenous welds, do
not require it. A constant-current welding power supply produces energy which is
conducted across the arc through a column of highly ionized gas and metal vapors
known as a plasma.
GTAW is most commonly used to weld thin sections of stainless steel and nonferrous metals such as aluminum, magnesium, and copper alloys. The process
grants the operator greater control over the weld than competing processes such
as shielded metal arc welding and gas metal arc welding, allowing for stronger,
higher quality welds. However, GTAW is comparatively more complex and
difficult to master, and furthermore, it is significantly slower than most other
welding techniques. A related process, plasma arc welding, uses a slightly different
welding torch to create a more focused welding arc and as a result is often
automated.[1]
Operation

Manual gas tungsten arc welding is often considered the most difficult of all the
welding processes commonly used in industry. Because the welder must maintain a
short arc length, great care and skill are required to prevent contact between the
electrode and the workpiece. Similar to torch welding, GTAW normally requires
two hands, since most applications require that the welder manually feed a filler
metal into the weld area with one hand while manipulating the welding torch in the
other. However, some welds combining thin materials (known as autogenous or

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fusion welds) can be accomplished without filler metal; most notably edge, corner,
and butt joints.
To strike the welding arc, a high frequency generator (similar to a Tesla coil)
provides an electric spark; this spark is a conductive path for the welding current
through the shielding gas and allows the arc to be initiated while the electrode and
the workpiece are separated, typically about 1.53 mm (0.060.12 in) apart. This
high voltage, high frequency burst can be damaging to some vehicle electrical
systems and electronics, because induced voltages on vehicle wiring can also cause
small conductive sparks in the vehicle wiring or within semiconductor packaging.
Vehicle 12V power may conduct across these ionized paths, driven by the highcurrent 12V vehicle battery. These currents can be sufficiently destructive as to
disable the vehicle; thus the warning to disconnect the vehicle battery power from
both +12 and ground before using welding equipment on vehicles.
An alternate way to initiate the arc is the "scratch start". Scratching the electrode
against the work with the power on also serves to strike an arc, in the same way as
SMAW ("stick") arc welding. However, scratch starting can cause contamination
of the weld and electrode. Some GTAW equipment is capable of a mode called
"touch start" or "lift arc"; here the equipment reduces the voltage on the electrode
to only a few volts, with a current limit of one or two amps (well below the limit
that causes metal to transfer and contamination of the weld or electrode). When the
GTAW equipment detects that the electrode has left the surface and a spark is
present, it immediately (within microseconds) increases power, converting the
spark to a full arc.
Once the arc is struck, the welder moves the torch in a small circle to create a
welding pool, the size of which depends on the size of the electrode and the
amount of current. While maintaining a constant separation between the electrode
and the workpiece, the operator then moves the torch back slightly and tilts it
backward about 1015 degrees from vertical. Filler metal is added manually to the
front end of the weld pool as it is needed.[9]
Welders often develop a technique of rapidly alternating between moving the torch
forward (to advance the weld pool) and adding filler metal. The filler rod is
withdrawn from the weld pool each time the electrode advances, but it is never
removed from the gas shield to prevent oxidation of its surface and contamination
of the weld. Filler rods composed of metals with low melting temperature, such as
aluminum, require that the operator maintain some distance from the arc while

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staying inside the gas shield. If held too close to the arc, the filler rod can melt
before it makes contact with the weld puddle. As the weld nears completion, the
arc current is often gradually reduced to allow the weld crater to solidify and
prevent the formation of crater cracks at the end of the weld.[10][11]
Gas metal arc welding
Gas metal arc welding (GMAW), sometimes referred to by its subtypes metal
inert gas (MIG) welding or metal active gas (MAG)welding, is a welding
process in which an electric arc forms between a consumable wire electrode and
the workpiece metal(s), which heats the workpiece metal(s), causing them to melt,
and join. Along with the wire electrode, a shielding gas feeds through the welding
gun, which shields the process from contaminants in the air. The process can be
semi-automatic or automatic. A constant voltage, direct currentpower source is
most commonly used with GMAW, but constant current systems, as well
as alternating current, can be used. There are four primary methods of metal
transfer in GMAW, called globular, short-circuiting, spray, and pulsed-spray, each
of which has distinct properties and corresponding advantages and limitations.
Originally developed for welding aluminum and other non-ferrous materials in the
1940s, GMAW was soon applied to steels because it provided faster welding time
compared to other welding processes. The cost of inert gas limited its use in steels
until several years later, when the use of semi-inert gases such as carbon
dioxide became common. Further developments during the 1950s and 1960s gave
the process more versatility and as a result, it became a highly used industrial
process. Today, GMAW is the most common industrial welding process, preferred
for its versatility, speed and the relative ease of adapting the process to robotic
automation. Unlike welding processes that do not employ a shielding gas, such
as shielded metal arc welding, it is rarely used outdoors or in other areas of air
volatility. A related process, flux cored arc welding, often does not use a shielding
gas, but instead employs an electrode wire that is hollow and filled with flux.

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Operation

GMAW weld area. (1) Direction of travel, (2) Contact

tube, (3) Electrode, (4) Shielding gas, (5) Molten weld metal, (6) Solidified weld
metal, (7) Workpiece.
For most of its applications gas metal arc welding is a fairly simple welding
process to learn requiring no more than a week or two to master basic welding
technique. Even when welding is performed by well-trained operators weld quality
can fluctuate since it depends on a number of external factors. All GMAW is
dangerous, though perhaps less so than some other welding methods, such
as shielded metal arc welding.[18]
Technique
The basic technique for GMAW is quite simple, since the electrode is fed
automatically through the torch (head of tip). By contrast, in gas tungsten arc
welding, the welder must handle a welding torch in one hand and a separate filler
wire in the other, and in shielded metal arc welding, the operator must frequently
chip off slag and change welding electrodes. GMAW requires only that the
operator guide the welding gun with proper position and orientation along the area
being welded. Keeping a consistent contact tip-to-work distance (the stick
out distance) is important, because a long stickout distance can cause the electrode
to overheat and also wastes shielding gas. Stickout distance varies for different
GMAW weld processes and applications.[19][20][21][22] The orientation of the gun is
also importantit should be held so as to bisect the angle between the workpieces;

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that is, at 45 degrees for a fillet weld and 90 degrees for welding a flat surface. The
travel angle, or lead angle, is the angle of the torch with respect to the direction of
travel, and it should generally remain approximately vertical. However, the
desirable angle changes somewhat depending on the type of shielding gas used
with pure inert gases, the bottom of the torch is often slightly in front of the upper
section, while the opposite is true when the welding atmosphere is carbon
dioxide.[23]
Welding Joint

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How an electrode is named?

There are many different types of electrodes used in the shielded metal arc
welding, (SMAW) process.
ELECTRODE IDENTIFICATION
Arc welding electrodes are identified using the A.W.S, (American Welding
Society) numbering system and are made in sizes from 1/16 to 5/16 . An example
would be a welding rod identified as an 1/8" E6011 electrode.
The electrode is 1/8" in diameter
The "E" stands for arc welding electrode.
Next will be either a 4 or 5 digit number stamped on the electrode. The first two
numbers of a 4 digit number and the first 3 digits of a 5 digit number indicate the
minimum tensile strength (in thousands of pounds per square inch) of the weld that
the rod will produce, stress relieved. Examples would be as follows:
E60xx would have a tensile strength of 60,000 psi E110XX would be 110,000 psi
The next to last digit indicates the position the electrode can be used in.
EXX1X is for use in all positions
EXX2X is for use in flat and horizontal positions
EXX3X is for flat welding
The last two digits together, indicate the type of coating on the electrode and the
welding current the electrode can be used with. Such as DC straight, (DC -) DC
reverse (DC+) or A.C.
I won't describe the type of coatings of the various electrodes, but will give
examples of the type current each will work with.
ELECTRODES AND CURRENTS USED
EXX10 DC+ (DC reverse or DCRP) electrode positive.
EXX11 AC or DC- (DC straight or DCSP) electrode negative.
EXX12 AC or DC-

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EXX13 AC, DC- or DC+

EXX14 AC, DC- or DC+
EXX15 DC+
EXX16 AC or DC+
EXX18 AC, DC- or DC+
EXX20 AC ,DC- or DC+
EXX24 AC, DC- or DC+
EXX27 AC, DC- or DC+
EXX28 AC or DC+
CURRENT TYPES
SMAW is performed using either AC or DCcurrent. Since DC current flows in one
direction, DC current can be DC straight, (electrode negative) or DC reversed
(electrode positive). With DC reversed,(DC+ OR DCRP) the weld penetration will
be deep. DC straight (DC- OR DCSP) the weld will have a faster melt off and
deposit rate. The weld will have medium penetration.
Ac current changes it's polarity 120 times a second by it's self and can not be
changed as can DC current.
SOME ELECTRODE TYPES
This section will briefly describe four electrodes that are commonly used for
maintenance and repair welding of mild steel. There are many other electrodes
available for the welding of other kinds of metals.
Check with your local welding supply dealer for the electrode that should be used
for the metal you want to weld.
E6010 This electrode is used for all position welding using DCRP. It produces a
deep penetrating weld and works well on dirty,rusted, or painted metals
E6011 This electrode has the same characteristics of the E6010, but can be used
with AC and DC currents.
E6013 This electrode can be used with AC and DC currents. It produces a medium
penetrating weld with a superior weld bead appearance.
E7018 This electrode is known as a low hydrogen electrode and can be used with
AC or DC. The coating on the electrode has a low moisture content that reduces
the introduction of hydrogen into the weld. The electrode can produce welds of xray quality with medium penetration. (Note, this electrode must be kept dry. If it
gets wet, it must be dried in a rod oven before use.)

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It is hoped that this basic information will help the new or home shop welder
identify the various types of electrodes and select the correct one for their welding
projects.

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