MINERALOGY AND CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

1.1 LECTURE OUTLINE

Principles of Elementary Mineralogy and Crystallography. At this level, you are now ready to be
introduced to more advanced knowledge in the subject matter through this unit entitled Principles of
Mineralogy. As the unit title suggests, we shall begin the lecture by asking ourselves the allimportant question What is mineralogy? Mineralogy is basically the science of minerals, which
includes their crystallography, chemical composition, physical properties, genesis, their
identification and their classification. You will be interested to know that mineralogy is
closely allied to mathematics (especially geometry), chemistry and physics. Mineralogy is
a fundamental part of the science of geology and other closely related subjects such as
agronomy, ceramic engineering, medical science, and metallurgy.
In this lecture we shall review the definition of a mineral, the historical perspective of
mineralogy, its importance in science and application in society, and a more in-depth
study of a minerals crystallographic symmetry elements.
1.2 WHAT IS A MINERAL?
The definition of the term mineral range from the historical perspective (any material
that is neither animal nor vegetable) through the legalistic perspective (something valuable
that may be extracted from the earth and is subject to depletion) to the scientific
perspective (a naturally occurring solid, generally formed by inorganic processes with an
ordered internal arrangement of atoms and a chemical composition and physical properties
that are either fixed or that vary within some definite range).
1.3 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE OF MINERALOGY
Prehistoric uses of rocks and minerals predate the written language. The evidence of such
prehistoric uses include the following: the red and black mineral pigments (hematite and
pyrolusite) that were used in cave paintings and the diverse hard or tough minerals and
rocks (e.g., jade, flint, and obsidian) that were shaped into tools and weapons. In Kenya,
such prehistoric tools dating 500,000 years have been located at an archaeological site
within the Rift valley, at Olorgesaille, in Narok district. In addition, mining and smelting
of metallic minerals to produce gold, silver, iron, copper, lead, and bronze are also known
to have predated written records.
The written records are considered to have began with the philosopher Aristotle (384-322
BC) who in his book (Meteorologica) included a section about stones (minerals, metals
and fossils). Theophrastus (ca. 372-287 BC), who was a pupil of Aristotle, prepared a
book dealing with the substances of the mineral kingdom.
A major milestone in the development of mineralogy was provided by the Danish scientist
Niels Stensen, better known by the Latinized version of his name, Nicolaus Steno. In
1669, Steno showed that the interfacial angles of quartz crystals are constant, no matter
what the shape and size of the crystals. This discovery drew attention to the significance
of crystal form and ultimately led to the development of the science of crystallography.

Robert Boyle, an English philosopher (1627 1691), was the first to refer to the word
mineralogy whose origin was centered on Celtic civilization. Warner A.G., a German professor
(1750-1817), made a noteworthy contribution in standardizing the nomenclature
and description of minerals.
James D. Dana (1813 1895) articulated a feasible classification of minerals based on the
chemistry that had previously been proposed by Bezzelius (1779-1848). Although the
microscope was used to study minerals early in the 19th century, it was not until after
1828, when the British physicist William Nicole (1768-1828) invented the polarizer that
optical mineralogy took its place as a major investigative procedure in mineralogy. The
first great development in the 20th century came as a result of experiments made to
determine how crystals can affect X-rays. Presently, X-rays and electron microscopes are
in use as a result of experiments advanced by Bragg (1890 1971). In the recent past, the
advances made in the introduction and widespread use of electron microscopes, X-ray
diffractometers, and other sophisticated instruments and procedures (e.g., Mossbauer and
infrared spectrometry), aid in the determination of certain characteristics of minerals and
other crystalline materials.
1.4 IMPORTANCE OF MINERALOGY
Minerals and consequently mineralogy are extremely important to economics, aesthetics
and science. Economically, the utilization of minerals is necessary if we have to maintain
the current standard of living. Aesthetically, minerals shine as gems, enriching our lives
with their inherent beauty, especially as we view them in museum displays. Gems in
jewelry, crown-jewel collections, and other displays attract the attention of millions of
people annually. As you may be aware, museums do more, however, than just displaying
outstanding gems and mineral specimens. They also have assumed the function of
collecting and preserving mineral specimens for posterity. Although a few minerals are
common, many occur at only a few localities, and some occur within only a single deposit.
Therefore, whenever possible, originally described specimens and other
noteworthy specimens need to be preserved.
Scientifically, minerals comprise the data bank from which we can learn about our
physical earth and its constituent materials. This knowledge enables us to understand how
those materials have been formed, where they are likely to be found, and how they can be
synthesized in the laboratory. As far as the scientific importance of minerals is concerned,
attention is geared to the fact that each individual mineral documents the chemical and
physical conditions, and consequently the geological processes that existed in the specific
place at the particular time the mineral was formed.
Thus, the science of mineralogy plays a fundamental role in geological interpretations
and, in many cases, both its data and its methods are also applied in several other related
fields of scientific and technological endeavor.
In addition, mineralogy is fundamental to the geological sciences, and its principles are
basic to the understanding of a number of diverse aspects of several other disciplines, such
as the agricultural sciences, the material sciences (ceramic engineering and metallurgy), as
well as medical science.

1.5 ELEMENTS OF CRYSTALLOGRAPHY AND MINERALOGY

A short review in definition of some important crystallographic terminologies that will be
used in this section is presented here below:
1.5.1 Definition of Crystallographic Terms
In descriptive mineralogy, a crystal is defined as a solid body bounded by plane natural
surfaces, which are the external expression of a regular arrangement of its constituent atoms
or ions (Berry, Mason and Dietrich 1983).
Crystal structure: This is the orderly arrangement of atoms or group of atoms (within a
crystalline substance) that constitute a crystal (Figure 1.1).

Figure 1.1. Crystal structure of Halite. Left: Ions drawn proportional to their sizes. Right:
Expanded view to show the interior of the unit cell.
Morphological crystals are finite crystallographic bodies with finite faces that are parallel to
lattice planes.
Lattice This is an imaginary three-dimensional framework that can be referenced to a
network of regularly spaced points, each of which represents the position of a motif (Figure 1.2).
Unit Cell This is a pattern that yields the entire pattern when translated repeatedly without
rotation in space. The repetition yields infinite number of identical unit cells and the pattern is
regular. In order to fill space without gaps, the unit cell must at least be a parallelogram in 2D
(2-dimensional) space.

Figure 1.2. The crystal lattice with a unit cell defined by the cell edges a, b, c, and the interedge
angles. The set of planes XYZ has miller indices (321).
Motif This is the smallest representative unit of a structure. It is an atom or group of atoms
that, when repeated by translation, give rise to an infinite number of identical regularly
organized units.
1.5.2 CRYSTAL STRUCTURE
Lattices and Unit Cell
A crystal is a three-dimensional repetition of some unit of atoms or molecules. It would be
convenient for the atomic scale structure to consider a set of imaginary points which has a
fixed relation in space to the atoms of the crystal. In other words, we choose points in the
crystal so that they have identical surroundings. These points are called lattice points.
Because of the three dimensional periodicity in the crystal, the points constitute a three
dimensional lattice which is called a point lattice (For example, see Figure 1.3).

Figure 1.3 Point lattice

Now let us define a parallelpiped by connecting any neighboring lattice point in the point
lattice. This parallelpiped is called a unit cell. For example, heavily outlined ones in
Figure 1.3. The size and shape of the unit cell can be described by the three vectors a, b, c
and the three angles between them , , as shown in Figure 1.4. The magnitudes of
these three vectors ao, bo, co are called lattice constants or lattice parameters of the unit
cell.

Figure 1.4 A Unit Cell.

1.5.3 CRYSTAL SHAPE

The key features of crystal boundaries are such that (a) the angles between them are
determined only by the internal crystal structure, and (b) the relative sizes of the crystal
boundaries depend on the rate of growth of the crystal boundaries. The crystal shape of some
common minerals is presented in Figure 1. 3.

Figure 1.3. Crystal shapes of some common minerals.

Although crystals of a particular chemical and structural species tend to grow with a particular
shape (e.g., cube for Halite (NaCl) and octahedron for Spinel (MgAl2O4)), the shape may vary
(but not the angles) for some species (e.g. orthoclase feldspar in Fig 1.4). The causes of
variations are not well understood and several factors are probably involved, namely: (a)
absorption of impurity atoms that may hinder growth on some boundary faces, and (b) atomic
bonding that may change with temperature etc.

Figure 1.4 Two crystal shapes of orthoclase feldspar.

However from mathematical crystallography, such variations are unimportant, the key feature
is the constancy of angles between crystal boundaries with the same indices for all crystals of
a particular chemical and structural type. Different structural materials will have different
angles between the crystal boundaries, and the angles can be related to the symmetry and
shape of the unit cell (hence the Law of Constancy of Angles proposed by Steno 1669
which states that the angles between corresponding faces on different crystals of a
substance are constant).
1.5.4 CLASSIFICATION OF CRYSTALS
A crystal structure is like a 3-dimensional design with infinite repetition of some motif (a
group of atoms). It is a periodic space pattern (studies have shown that there are 230 different
kinds of space patterns). Each crystal belongs to one of these 230 types; hence elementary
crystallography is vitally concerned with the characteristics of the patterns. Since, therefore,
repetition is a fundamental property of the patterns, it has reasonably based the classification
of crystals on the repetition (symmetry) operations that yield them. In developing the
classification of crystals, the elements of symmetry are subdivided into three categories:
translation (parallel periodic displacement)
point group symmetry (rotations, rotation inversion axes, reflection planes)
space-group symmetry (screw axes, glide planes).
1.5.3.1 The Translation Lattices
Lattice This is an array of points with the same vectorial environment (i.e. a collection of
equipoints that portray the translational periodicity of the structure hence the term
translation lattice) as exemplified in Figure 1.5. A lattice must be infinite and the lattice points
must be spaced regularly. A primitive unit cell for a single lattice is a unit cell containing only
one lattice point.

Figure 1.5. Regular arrangement of circles (e.g. atoms) in one dimension with a repeat
translational period c.
The names of some of the systems reflect the nature of the metrical properties: triclinic three
inclined axes; monoclinic one inclined axis; orthorhombic axes mutually perpendicular;
isometric (cubic) three mutually perpendicular equal axes (Figure 1.6). The remaining
names, tetragonal and hexagonal, reflect the dominant symmetry of crystals belonging to
these systems. Hence a repeat unit of a lattice is known as the unit cell.

Figure 1.6. The crystallographic axes (A) for the cubic, tetragonal, and orthorhombic systems,
(B) for hexagonal system, (C) for the monoclinic system, and (D) for the triclinic system.
1.5.3.2 Notation of Lattice Points, Rows and Planes
The diagram presented in Figure 1.7 illustrates the characteristic notations on the basis of the
coordinate systems described. With reference to Figure 1.7 it can be noted that:
Lattice points are specified without brackets 100, 101, 102; etc
Lattice rows are identified by brackets [100] the a axis, [010] the b axis, [001]
the c axis.

Lattice planes are defined in terms of the Miller indices. Miller indices are prime
integers proportional to the reciprocals of the intercepts of the planes on the
crystallographic coordinate axes (e.g. in Figure 1.7), the plane illustrated has
intercepts 1a, 1b, 2c. The Miller indices are obtained by taking the reciprocals of
the intercepts and clearing the fractions such that the indices are co-prime integers.
Therefore this results to: 1/1a, 1/1b, 1/2c = 2a 2b 1c. The letters are usually
omitted and the indices are enclosed in parentheses; thus (221).

Figure 1.7. Notation of lattice points, rows and planes.

If the calculations result in indices that have a common factor, e.g. (442), the factor is
removed to give the simplest set of integers: (221). The symbol (221) therefore applies
equally to all individuals of a stack of identical, parallel planes related by a simple
translation operation. Braces {} are used to designate a family of planes related by the
symmetry of the lattice. The notation of hexagonal planes requires special attention.
Hexagonal crystals are usually referred to the Bravais-miller axes a1, a2, a3 and c.
Table 1.1. An exercise on derivation of Miller indices.
Face
Intercepts
Reciprocals
RDE
FGH
KLQ
CD

2, 3, 6
6, 4,
,4,
5/2, 3/5,

Miller Indices

1.5.5 ZONES IN CRYSTALS

A zone in a crystal consists of a collection of a set crystal faces that are parallel to a
particular line (or direction) termed as the zone axis (see Figure 1.8 (a)). On the other
hand, a zone plane occurs at right angles to the zone axis (Figure 1.8 (b)).

(a)

(b)

Figure 1.8. (a) Faces a, b, c, and d belong to one zone. (b) The zone plane is perpendicular
to the zone axis.

1.5.6 SYMMETRY ELEMENTS

Symmetry is the most important of all properties in the identification of crystalline
substances. In this section we shall be concerned with the symmetrical arrangement of
crystal faces, an arrangement which reflects the internal symmetry of the lattice.
Symmetry may be described by reference to symmetry planes, axes, and the centre of
symmetry as discussed here below.
Plane of Symmetry This is defined as a plane along which the crystal may be cut
into exactly similar halves each of which is a mirror image of the other. A crystal
can have one or more planes of symmetry. A sphere for example has infinite planes
of symmetry. The different planes of symmetry for a cube are illustrated in Figure1.9

Figure 1.9. The nine symmetry planes of the cube indicated by the dashed lines.

Axis of Symmetry This is a line about which the crystal may be rotated so as to
show the same view of the crystal more than once per revolution, e.g. a cube.
Alternatively it can be defined as a line along which the crystal may be rotated such
that the crystal assumes a position of congruence i.e. the crystal presents the same
appearance to a fixed observer. If a position of congruence occurs after every 180
How many planes of symmetry does a cube have degrees of rotation, the axis is said to be a
diad or two-fold symmetry axis. Other axes may be called triad, tetrad or hexad (three-fold, fourfold, or six-fold) axes depending on whether congruence is attained every 120, 90, or 60 degrees
respectively. Symmetry axes for a cube are shown in Figure 1.10. Note also the symbols used to
denote axes in diagrams.

Figure 1.10 The thirteen symmetry axes of the cube.

Center of Symmetry Center of symmetry is the point from which all similar faces
are equidistant. It is a point inside the crystal such that when a line passes through it,
youll have similar parts of the crystal on either side at same distances. A cube
possesses a centre of symmetry, but a tetrahedron (e.g., Figure 1.11) does not.

Figure 1.11 The tetrahedron, a crystal showing no centre of symmetry.

Examples of the main crystal systems and symmetry classes are shown in Figures 1.12 (a) & (b).

Figure 1.12. (a) The crystal systems and symmetry classes.

Figure 1.12. (b) The crystal systems and symmetry classes.

1.5.7 THE LAW OF CONSTANCY OF INTERFACIAL ANGLES

The plane surfaces that bound natural crystals (i.e., the crystal faces) develop parallel to
certain sets of net-planes (Figure 1.13) in the crystal lattice of any specific substance or
mineral. Each edge between any pair of nonparallel faces is parallel to a lattice row. If the
lattice for a substance has certain linear and angular dimensions, the angles between
corresponding planes in each lattice domain for the given substance will be identical as
long as they are measured under conditions of constant temperature and pressure. This
condition is in agreement with the Law of Constancy of Angles, which states that:
The angles between corresponding faces on different crystals of a substance are constant.

18

Figure 1.13. A planer net of a crystal lattice with shortest rows a, b, and a third axis c
emerging perpendicularly from the plane of the drawing. The lines RDE, EF, etc. are the
traces of lattice planes which are taken as parallel to c in the text.
1.5.8 MEASUREMENT OF INTERFACIAL ANGLES
The measurement of the interfacial angles in crystal is done using an instrument termed as
a goniometer. There are two types of goniometer:
1.5.8.1 Contact Goniometer
Contact goniometer consists of a printed protractor to which is attached an arm swiveling
plastic that is pivoted at the center and with a hairline mark that can be read against the
scale (Figure 1.14). The goniometer is held with the straight edge of the protractor in
contact with one face, the straight edge of the plastic strip in contact with the other face
and with the plane surface of the protractor and the strip perpendicular to both crystal
faces.
Two values of the interfacial angle, which total 180o, can be read from the protractor (see
Figure 1.14). One is the internal angle DBC; the other is the external angle ABC between
one face and the other face extended. This latter angle, which is equal to the angle COD
between the perpendiculars to the two faces (since ODA = OCB = 90o), is generally called
the polar angle.

Figure 1.14. A contact goniometer on which the interfacial angle CBD = 148.5o (or the polar
angle COD = ABC = 32.5o) can be read directly for the example shown in (b).
1.5.8.2 Reflecting Goniometer
Interfacial angles for small crystals are more conveniently measured with a reflecting
goniometer. This instrument has a wider application than the contact goniometer because, for
most minerals, small crystals occur more commonly than large ones.
In its simplest form, a reflecting goniometer consists of a rotating spindle, a collimator, and a
telescope. The spindle is located at the center of a divided circular scale; the collimator and
telescope are in a plane perpendicular to the spindle and have their axes intersecting the axis
of the spindle. The crystal is mounted at the point of intersection. The collimator and
telescope are separate, and the angle between them is usually set at about 60o. The crystal is
mounted so that a prominent zone axis is parallel to the spindle axis. The angular position at
which each face of the zone reflects the collimated beam into the receiving telescope is easily
read on the divided circle. The difference between any pair of readings from adjacent faces is
the interfacial (polar) angle.

LATTICES, SYMMETRY AND CRYSTAL SYSTEMS

INTRODUCTION
Crystalline substance has ordered arrangement of atoms or ions in the crystal structure.
Crystal is a homogeneous solid possessing 3-D internal order (FIG. 4.10). This is reflected in
the external form and sometimes creates regular geometric smooth plane surfaces(FIG. 4.11).
The ordered patterns can be considered as groups of atoms, Eg., cations such as Na +, Ca2+, Mg2+,
Fe3+, etc.; anionic groups such as Cl-, (SiO4)4-, (CO3)2-, (PO4)3-, (OH)-, etc., or as molecules such
as H2O repeatedly and periodically placed on a lattice (FIG. 4.12 & FIG. 4.13).
TRANSLATION OPERATIONS
Periodic repetitions along vectors or translations of ions can be achieved in 1-D, 2-D and
3-D producing row-lattices, plane-lattices and space-lattices, respectively. These are internal
symmetry operations and do not occur as symmetry element.
Row-Lattices: are produced by translation along single vector. Here ions are repeated
with constant distances along a line. (FIG. 4.14)
Plane-Lattices: are produced by translations along two vectors. Here ions are repeated
with constant distances and angles that produce 5 unique plane-lattices. (FIG. 4.15)
Space-Lattices: are produced by translations along three vectors. Here ions are repeated
again with constant distances and angles in 3-D that produce 14 unique space-lattices, which are
also known as Bravais Lattices (FIG. 4.16). They are compatible with 6 symmetry systems and
32 symmetry classes. Principally there are five kinds of space lattices. They are:
1. Primitive lattice (P): atoms are at the corners; found in all symmetry systems.
2. Body centered lattice (I): additional atom at the centre.
3. Face centered lattice (F): all 6 faces have an atom at their centre.
4. Top and bottom face centred lattice (C): only (001) faces are centered.
5. Rhombohedral lattice(R): primitive lattice of rhombohedral 'sub-system' of hexagonal
system

Following Bravais lattices occur in the 6 symmetry systems:

1. Isometric or Cubic; P, I, F.
2. Tetragonal; P, I.
3. Hexagonal; P (or C).
Rhombohedral: R.

4, Orthorhombic: P, I, C, F.
5. Monoclinic: P, I (or C).
6. Triclinic: P
CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC AXES AND SYMMETRY SYSTEMS
14 unique space-lattices produced by 3-D translation operation to can be described
belonging 6 group of crystal systems when these geometrical object are grouped according to
Cartesian Principle Axes, intersecting in the center of the space-lattice or crystals formed from
the repetitions of them. Each two crystallographic axes define a crystallographic plane. They
are generally taken parallel to the intersection edges of major crystal faces. They are named as
a-, b-, c-axes, where c-axis is always vertical. In hexagonal system there are four axes a1, a2, a3
(horizontal with 120 between them), and c (vertical). From the origin the length of the axes are
designated as (+ or -), The length of crystallographic axes and axial angles , , between them
may vary in different symmetry (FIG. 4.17).
Symmetrv Svstems
1. Cubic
(Isometric)
2. Tetragonal
3. Hexagonal
Rhombohedral
4. Orthorhombic
5. Monoclinic
6. Triclinic

Crvstallographic Axes
a: a: a

Axial Angle
===90

a: a: c
a: a: a: c
a: a: a: c
a: b: c
a: b: c
a: b: c

===90
==90, =60-120
==90, =60-l20
===90
==90, >90
90

OTHER SYMMETRY OPERATIONS AND SYMMETRY ELEMENTS

With a simple orderly repeat mechanism in 3-D known as symmetry operations
different shapes may result. (FIG. 4.18) The steps on crystal faces are invisible
because unit cell dimensions are levelfaces appear as smooth plane surfaces.
Because crystal faces have a direct relationship to the internal structure, it follows
that the faces have a definite relationship to each other. In 1669 Nicolaus Steno
pointed out that the angles between corresponding faces on crystals of Qua are
always the same. (FIG. 4.19) Steno's Law of the constancy of interfacial angles
states: The angles between equivalent faces of crystals of the same substance,
measured at the same T; are constant.
A crystal is created by repetition of unit cells with internal symmetry
operations. The resulting crystal has external symmetry that reflects its internal
symmetry. Internal symmetry operations always involve translations along
certain directions. It is important that during internal symmetry operations there is
no empty space left among unit cells. External symmetry operations are without
translations, and are also called symmetry elements.

REFLECTION OR MIRROR OPERATIONS

It is both internal and external symmetry operation. It
reflects the lattices internally across a mirror plane (m) also called reflection plane (FIG. 4.20).
Another internal symmetry operation is Glide. It is
combination of reflection and translation. The plane is called glide plane (FIG. 4.21).
As an external symmetry operation operation it is called Symmetry Plane. It is a reflection
operation. It acts as a mirror plane (m). All corners, edges, and planes are repeated on both sides
of the m (FIG. 4.22). Symmetry plane may or may not be perpendicular to rotation axis. In
international notation it is symbolized as mm2 when parallel to rotation axis; and as 2/m when
perpendicular to rotation axis. If there is a plane perpendicular to inversion axis it is not indicated
symbolically. Mirror planes are shown on stereograms as a solid continuous line when present
and as dashed line when absent (FIG. 4.23).
ROTATIONAL OPERATIONS
There are three types of rotational symmetry operations.
Rotation. (Internal & External) Rotation of a point or a face around axes which are called
rotation axes. Rotation may be 360, 180, 120, 90, 60 and the axes are called 1-, 2-, 3-, 4-,
6-fold axis, respectively. In this operation at each-degree turn same point is found in the crystal
structure or a face on a crystal. (FIG. 4.24). Due to the principle not to allow empty space among
unit cells 5-, 7-fold axes are not possible (FIG. 4.25).
In international notation if symmetry axes and mirrors present they are symbolized as 4mm
when parallel to rotation axis; and as 4/m2/m2/2 when perpendicular to rotation axis. If only symmetry
axes are present they are symbolized as 422 (FIG. 4.26).

Inversion. (Internal & External) It produces an inverted object. inversion means to make
it up side down. It involves drawing imaginary lines from every point on the object through the
inversion center and out an equal distances on the other side of the inversion center. (FIG. 4.27)
This operation is also called rotary inversion (=rotoinversion) A point or a face is rotated
around an inversion axis and inverted through the inversion center (FIG. 2.8). Inversion axes
are called 1, 2, 3, 4 and 6. They are equivalent to some other symmetry operations or
combinations of them. 1C, 2m, 33-fold+C, 63/m (FIG. 4.28). Some crystal forms
developed by rotoinversion are given in the FIG. 4.29.
Screw. (Internal) It is combination of rotation and translation. The axis is called screw
axis. It can be 2-, 3-, 4-, 6- fold screw axes and rotation direction may be clockwise or
anticlockwise (FIG. 4.30 &FIG. 4.31).

As an external symmetry operation, rotational axes are called collectively as Symmetry

axes. Here, both rotations and rotoinversions are considered together. It may acts as a rotation
axis or inversion axis (A or A). On stereograms they are indicated by different symbols:
Rotation Axes
1-fold
2-fold
3-fold
4-fold
6-fold

Symbol
A2
A3
A4
A6

Rotation angle
360
180
120
90
60

Inversion Axes
A2
A3
A4
A6

Equivalence
1C
2m
33-fold+C
63/m

Third kind of symmetry element is called Center of Symmetry. It is an inversion

operation with 360 rotation and inversion through a center (FIG. 4.32). It is equivalent to 1
and exists in most of the symmetry classes (TABLE 4.2). In modern crystallography it is not
mentioned separately as a symbol. Some crystal forms with and without centre of symmetry are
given in FIG. 4.33 and some crystal classes with centre of symmetry in FIG. 4.34.
Symmetry of crystals is described in terms of symmetry plane, rotation and inversion
axis. These symmetry elements have different written and graphic symbols (FIG. 4.34). They are
very helpful in constructing stereographic projections (FIG. 4.35).
FACE INTERCEPTS
Crystal faces are defined by indicating their intercepts on the crystallographic axes. Thus, in
describing a crystal face it is necessary to determine whether it is parallel or intersects the
crystallographic axes. In addition, the relative distance of intersections must be known.
Parameters or Weiss Indices: If the unit lengths on crystallographic axes are known as in
unit cells (FIG. 4.36) number of unit intercept lengths Eg., 1, , 15, is written in front of the
axis which the face intersects. Also + & - portions of the axes must be considered Eg., -la: b:
15c. This expression of indices is called the parameters or Weiss Indices. If a plane is parallel
tocrystallographic axes its intercept would be at (FIG. 4.36).
On crystals actual unit lengths are not known. Thus, parameters are assigned arbitrarily. The
largest face that cuts all three axes which is referred as the unit face, is arbitrarily assigned with
the parameters 1a; lb; 1c. The intercepts of smaller faces that cut all three crystallographic axes
can now be estimated by extending the edges of these faces in the directions of a, b, c axes (FIG.
4.37).
Miller Indices: The Miller Indices of a face consist of a series of whole numbers. They are
derived from parameters by their inversion and subsequent clearing of fractions. Letters that
indicate the different axes are omitted, but the order of numbers indicate intersections
corresponding axes (a, b, c or a1, a2, a3, c as in hexagonal system) Intercepts on negative
segments of the crystallographic axes are indicated by a bar (FIG. 4.38)

Parameters
Reciprocals
Equalize Devisors
(Weiss Indices)
1a: 1b: 1c
1/1: 1/1: 1/1
1/1: 1/1: 1/1
2a: 2b: 2/3c
1/2: 1/2: 3/2
1/2: 1/2: 3/2
-1/4a: 2/3b: c -4/1: 3/2: 1/
(X2) -8/1: 3/1: 2/
5/2a: 3b: -3/4c 2/5: 1/3: -4/3 (X15) 6/1: 5/1: -20/1

Dividents
(Miller Indices)
(111)
(113)
(830)
(6,5,20)

To obtain Weiss Indices from Miller Indices operation is reversed. Eg., To obtain
parameters of (125) face, lowest common factor of the indices is found, which is 10. They are
then written as fraction 1/10: 2/10: 5/10. Then their reciprocals are found 10/1: 10/2: 10/5.
Parameters are then 10a: 5b: 2c. Therefore in Miller Indices high values mean smaller intercept
values, and vice versa.
General symbol of Miller Indices is (hkl) for a face cutting all three axes. If it is
parallel to one axis then (0kl), (h01) or (hk0). In hexagonal system general symbol is (h ki l),
where h+k+i=0. Eg., (1121), 1+1-2=0 (FIG. 4.39).
FORM
A form consists of a group of crystal faces. All faces have same relation to the
elements of symmetry. They display the same chemical and physical properties because all are
underlined by like atoms in the same geometric arrangement. Eg., development of a form from a
face with Miller Indices (111) in 1 and the 4/m32/m crystal classes (FIG. 4.40).
Name of the Common Faces
In naming of the common faces in tetragonal, hexagonal, orthorhombic, monoclinic and
triclinic classes following rules are used:
Base, basal: planes intersecting c-axis and parallel to a and b (001) (001).
Pinacoidal: two parallel faces, parallel to two of the crystallographic axes (includes also
basal planes) (100) (010) (001).
Dome: two intersecting planes, parallel to one of the horizontal axis (0kl) (h0l).
Prism, prismatic: vertical planes (3, 4 or 6) parallel to c-axis. If these planes intercept
both horizontal axes 1st order prism faces (hk0). If parallel to one horizontal axis 2nd order
prism faces (h00), (0k0).
Pyramid, pyramidal: inclined planes that intercept all of the three axes. These are
common faces existing in all of the symmetry systems. (hkl).
Except in certain cases in cubic, tetragonal and rhombohedral classes naming are
different (FIG. 4.41). Obviously, combination of various forms also exists on the same crystal
(FIG. 4.42).

SYMMETRY CLASSES
Symmetry classes are based on the external forms of crystals. There are 32 symmetry
classes grouped into 6 symmetry systems (FIG. 4.43). Normal class of each system has the
maximum number of symmetry elements, and hence maximum number of faces. In the
subclasses some of the symmetry elements are missing (FIG. 4.43). In each crystal system there
may be:
Holohedral or normal class: with maximum number of symmetry elements and faces.
Hemihedral class: half of the faces of the holohedral class are present.
Tetartohedral class: quarter of the faces of the normal class are present.
Hemimorphic class: only faces belonging to one symmetry axis is present.
HABIT
Habit is the general shape of the crystals of a mineral species and may be expressed by
crystal form, cubic, octahedral, prismatic etc., or particular textural terms like equant, acicular,
nodula; colloform etc., (FIG. 4.44). Habit is controlled by the environment in which crystal
grow. Trace elements and impurities may also affect crystal habit.
EXTERNAL FORMS (MORPHOLOGY)
The study of the external shape of minerals is called Morphology. Shape, size and degree
of development of various froms on the crystal are important.
Shape: The faces of crystals may exist in various stages of development:
Euhedral or Idiomorphic: all of the crystal faces are present,
Subhedral or Hypidiomorphic: some faces are present,
Anhedral or Xenomorphic: none of the crystal faces are developed.
On the other hand, an aggregate of anhedral crystals are called massive. They can be:
Crystalline: seen by naked eye,
Microcrystalline: seen under microscope only,
Cryptocrystalline: crystallinity of the mineral is detected only by X-rays or
electron microscope, Eg., clay minerals.
Size: Mineral grain sizes are classified as:
Very coarse grained
>30 mm
Coarse grained
5-30 mm
Medium grained
1-5 mm
Fine grained
<1 mm
The crystal size is related firstly to the surface energy and the critical size and secondly to
the crystallization conditions such as T, P, Conc., presence of minor or trace elements acting
as catalysts, low cooling rate, presence of volatiles for transportation of ions. Large crystals are
formed in pegmatite, Eg. Qua >1.5 m long, about 50 cm in diameter (in Beypazar granitoid);
A-Feld with 2 by 4 by 10 m dimensions, Mus 11 m long, and 4 m in diameter.

Ideal and Distorted Crystals: A euhedral crystal showing equally well-developed crystal faces
is called an ideal crystal. Sometime a crystal may have a rapid growth in certain directions and
therefore some faces may be larger than others, and crystals may have peculiar shapes and due to
external stresses crystals may have curved and bent faces. Hence, crystal symmetry may not be
obvious. Such crystals are called distorted crystals. On such distorted faces luster of the mineral
may be slightly lost. Irregular cavities due to leaching by chemical reagents or abrasion during
transportation, also form distorted crystals (FIG. 4.45).
Periodical alternative growth of two faces is another cause for the formation of distorted
crystal. Here crystals may have lineation on their faces, which are also called striations, Eg.,
Tou, Qua, Pyt, Sti etc. (FIG. 4.45).
TWINNING
A twin is a symmetrical intergrowth of two (or more) crystals of the same mineral. The
two or more individuals of the twinned aggregate are related to each other by a new symmetry
element (twin element) that is absent in a untwinned crystal. Twin elements or twin operations
that may relate a crystal to its twinned counterpart are:
Twin plane: reflection by a mirror plane.
Twin axis: rotation about a crystal direction that is common to both, generally 180 (FIG.
4.46).
The surface on which two individuals are united is known as composition surface. If this
surface is a plane it is called composition plane. These simple twins are also called contact
twins. If composition surface is irregular and twins are made up of interpenetrating individuals
penetration twins results.
Repeated or multiple twins are made up of three or more individuals twinned according
to same twinning law. If all the successive composition surfaces are parallel, it is called
polysynthetic twin, if not parallel but radial cyclic twin forms (FIG. 4.46).
Various types of twins on crystals of minerals crystallizing in different symmetry systems
are displayed in the FIG. 4.47.

1.5.9 TWINNING IN CRYSTALS

Minerals generally occur in certain amounts of symmetry referred to us twinning. Composite
crystals of a single substance in which the individual parts are related to one another in a
definite crystallographic manner, are known as twinned crystals.
The nature of the relationship between the parts of the twinned crystal is expressed in a twin law.
Twin laws are often given specific names that are related to:
The characteristic shape of the twin,
A specific locality where such twin crystals were first found,
A mineral that commonly displays the particular twin law etc.
Many important rock-forming minerals, such as orthoclase, microcline, plagioclase, and
calcite, commonly occur as twinned crystals. Most twinned crystals appear to consist of two
or more crystals that are united with a symmetric interrelationship.
In some crystals, the orientation of two individuals of a twinned crystal may be related by reflection
across a lattice
plane that is common to both individuals. The lattice plane, referred to as twin plane, is a
plane of symmetry that divides twinned crystals into two symmetric parts.
If the two individuals of a twin meet along a plane, the plane is referred to as the composition plane.
Twinned crystals (e.g., see Figure 1.15) may be described as follows:
Simple twins composed of only two parts
Multiple twins composed of more than two orientations
Contact twins this occur if a definite composition plane is present
Penetration twins occur if two or more parts of a crystal appear to interpenetrate
each other with the surface between the parts being indefinable and irregular (Figure 1.16).
Polysynthetic twinning occurs when three or more individuals are repeated
alternately on the same twinned plane. If the individuals of polysynthetic twins are
thin plates, the twinning is called lamellar e.g. plagioclase feldspars.

Figure 1.15. Twinned crystals. (a) Simple contact twin (spinel), (b) Multiple (cyclic) twins
(chrysoberyl), (c) Penetration twin (orthoclase Carlsbad twin), (d) Polysynthetic twinning
(albite twinning in plagioclase).

Figure 1.16. Interpenetration twins of (a) staurolite (orthorhombic); and (b) fluorite (cubic).

1.5.9.1 Effects of twinning

Many substances tend to break readily along twin planes. Twinning is one of the causes of
parting, which resembles cleavage, in minerals. Twinning and twinning tendencies may either
promote or preclude the use of a mineral or other material in industry. For example, twins are
desired in some metals because they enhance plastic deformation capabilities. On the other
hand, twinning according to certain laws - e.g., the Brazil twins and Dauphine twins
(electrical twins) - preclude the use of quartz as either lenses or oscillators.

The Brazil twins in particular combine a right- and left-handed

crystal in a complex penetration twin typically with plane
composition surfaces, which render the crystals useless for
optical, and electrical purposes.
The Dauphine twin reverses the direction of the a-axes in the two
parts of the twin. The Dauphine twins cannot be recognized in
polarized light because it combines two crystal orientations with
identical optical properties.
SUMMARY
In this lecture, we have learnt the definition of the term mineral, ranging from the
historical perspective through the legalistic perspective to the scientific perspective. We
have reviewed the historical perspective of the science of mineralogy, cited some of the
evidences for the prehistoric uses of minerals and rocks, and described some of the
principle applications of the science of mineralogy. In the subject of crystallography, we
have learnt the definition of some of the important crystallographic terms and studied the
crystal structure in terms of its lattice points, rows and planes, unit cell, crystal shape,
Miller and Bravais indices, and zones in crystals. In classification of crystals we have
learned the seven crystal systems and their various symmetry elements, and understood
that symmetry is the most important of all properties in the identification of crystalline
substances. We have learnt about the Law of constancy of interfacial angles in crystals
and how to measure those angles using a goniometer. Finally we did learn about the
phenomenon of twinning in crystals and showed how twinning may promote or preclude
the use of a mineral or other material in industry. For example we learnt how the presence
of Brazil twins or Dauphine twins (electrical twins) in quartz crystals may precludes its
use either as lenses or oscillators.
BRAVAIS LATTICES
The concept of space lattices was a fundamental step in the understanding of the crystal
structure of minerals. A space lattice was thought of as the smallest cell, which
represented a particular crystal structure. By stacking cells of the same shape together the
structural pattern of the whole crystal could thus be obtained. It was Auguste Bravais who
in 1848 first demonstrated that there can be only 14 different space lattices and these are
now named after him.
Bravais lattices forms can be defined by reference to three axes, a, b, and c, and their
enclosing angles , , and . The cells are in some cases simple, but in other cases they
have additional lattice-points either in the centre of the lattice or in the centres of some or
all of the faces of the lattice.

A NOTE ON THE INTERPRETATION OF ETCH FIGURES

Ercan T. Wnonnv, Philadelphia, Pennsylaania. One of the first principles learned by the
student of crystallography is that the 32 crystal classes differ primarily in their general
f.orm (hkl) or (hknl), and except in the triclinic system and a few special cases in other
systems, the remaining six forms are morphologically identical through two or more
classes. In several recent publications on etch figures
this principle has, however, been overlooked, leading to some misunderstandings which
deserve an attempt at clearing up. In an interesting paper by Honess and Jonesl it is
shown that the etch figures on several forms of calcite produced by certain solvents
exhibit a lower degree of symmetry than that usually ascribed to this mineral, yet the
basal pinacoid (0001) in their experiments yielded only frgures possessing the full
crystallographic symmetry. These authors consider this as in some way connected with
the arrangement of atoms in the structure, and recommend more extended study. Their
diagram on page 684 shows, however, that the figures in question are not bounded by a
general form, but by a rhombohedron (\hhl), a form which occurs in several classes and
accordingly is incapable of revealing merosymmetry at all. Further study of the matter is
indeed desirable, but it may well be of practical character, consisting of trying additional
etch media until one is found which produces on the base figures bounded by the
general Iorm (hknl). Only in this way can it be ascertained whether or
not the basal pinacoid of calcite is in fact anomalous with respect to the other forms.
Two suggestions may be made as to the lines along which search for such etch media
might be profitable. It has been observed that the symmetry of etch figures may become
lessened when the etching liquid is made more concentrated. (According to the principle
above discussed,
this merely means that the more dilute solutions yield figures bounded by some of the 6
forms other than the general one.) No doubt the critical concentration for the
appearance oI (hkl) or (hhi'l) bounding faces on the figure varies from one form to
another, and is higher for the base than for any other form. Its maximum value may
conceivably be attained by the use of more soluble etching compounds. On the other
hand, the appearance of modifying faces on crystals is often stimulated by the presence
of impurities, both crystalloids and colloids, in the solutions. Perhaps small amounts of
accessory substances might lead to the development of complex, and ultimately
general, bounding faces on etch figures as well. The contradictory results which have
been obtained by workers on the etch figures of sylvite and other halides may well be
connected with the principle here under discussion. One worker may have used an
etching medium which yields only (111) pits, and since this form is geometrically
the same in all five classes of the cubic system, he reports holosymmetry. Another may
have chanced upon a medium capable of producing (hkl) pits, and finds them
asymmetric. I have sought in vain
in the controversial papers on the etching phenomena of halides of the past 20 years for
a recognition of this elemental principle. Perhaps our textbooks are to blame, in that
they do not emphasize the point, and
the diagrams of etch figures they give are often misleading in this very respect.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS I

INTRODUCTION
Physical properties of minerals are important and useful diagnostic parameters. They are
used to identify minerals macroscopically. These properties are also important for the use of
minerals in industry eg. Tal is the softest mineral and used as talcum powder for skin care; Cor
is a very hard mineral and used as abrasive, Mus has a very low electrical conductivity and
hence is used as insulator, etc.
ISOTROPISM
Minerals are grouped according to their physical properties, which may be direction
dependent.
Isotropic: physical properties are same in all directions. Gases, liquids, amorphous and
cubic minerals crystallizing in isometric system are isotropic.
Anisotropic: physical properties vary with crystallographic directions. Minerals
crystallized in tetragonal, orthorhombic, hexagonal, monoclinic and triclinic systems are
anisotropic. Anisotropy is best displayed in optical properties, which will be dealt with later in
optical mineralogy. Macroscopic anisotropy may not be obvious in hand specimens. However,
Kya shows distinct variation of hardness in different directions (// to c-axis 5.5; perpendicular to
c-axis 7).
POLYMORPHISM
Physical properties of minerals are directly related to their atomic structure, bonding
forces and chemical composition. Bonding forces as electrical forces exist between the atoms
and ions are related to the type of elements, and the distance between them in the crystalline
structure. Thus, minerals having same chemical composition may show different crystal structure
(as a function of changes in P & T or both) (FIG. 2.1). So, being crystallized in different
Symmetry Systems they exhibit different physical properties, this is called polymorphism. These
minerals are said to be polymorphous. They may be Dimorphic, Trimorphic or Polymorphic
according to the number of mineral species present in their group.
Dimorphic
Diamond
Graphite

Comp.
C
C

SG.
3.51
2.23

System
Cubic
Hex.

Hardness
10
1-2

Calcite
Aragonite

CaCO3
CaCO3

2.71
2.95

Rhomb.
Ortho.

3
3.5-4

Trimorphic
Rutile
Anatase
Brookite

TiO2
TiO2
TiO2

~ 4.2
~ 3.9
~ 4.0

Tetr.
Tetr.
Orth.

6-6.5
5.5-6
5.5-6

Andalusite
Al2SiO5
Kyanite
Al2SiO5
Sillimanite
Al2SiO5
Polymorphic
Comp.
(FIG. 2.2)
Low Quartz
SiO2
high Quartz
SiO2
High Tridymite SiO2
High Cristobalite SiO2
Coesite
SiO2
Stishovite
SiO2

3.13-3.16
3.53-3.65
3.23-3.27
SG.

Orth.
Tri.
Orth.
System

6.5-7.5
5.5-7.0
6.5-7.5
Hardness

2.65
2.53
2.26
2.32
3.01
4.35

Hex.
Hex
Mono; Orth.
Cubic; Tetr.
Mono
Tetr

7
7
7
6.5
7.5
7

I. Characters Depending upon Cohesion and Elasticity

Cohesion: The force of attraction existing between molecules. It shows resistance to any
external influence that tends to separate them, eg., breaking or scratching the surface of a solid
mineral. Cohesion force is related to bonding force.
Elasticity: The force that tends to restore the molecules of a body into their original
position from which they have been disturbed. The result of cohesion and elasticity in a mineral
appears as cleavage, parting, fracture, hardness and tenacity.
CLEAVAGE
Cleavage is tendency of a crystalline mineral to break in certain directions yielding more
or less smooth planar surfaces. These planes of lowest bond energy have minimum value of
cohesion (FIG. 2.3). An amorphous body of course has no cleavage.
a. Cleavage planes are usually // to the crystallographic planes. Exceptions: Cal, Flu.
(FIG. 2.4)
b. Cleavage is always consistent with the symmetry. Eg., in cubic cleavage {001 }, if one
cubic face develops cleavage, it follows that other faces // to other two directions also show it.
c. Compared with other atomic planes, distance between cleavage planes must be large
electrical forces small cohesion less.
d. Cleavage planes often show pearly luster due to partial separation of crystal into
parallel plates and reflection of light from these plates. If plates are wedge shaped then
interference colours may be seen.
Being related to the atomic structure of the mineral, cleavage may be in several directions
and depending on the force of cohesion some of them may be more developed than the others. So
they are classified according to their distinction and smoothness:
1. Good, distinct, perfect,
2. Fair, indistinct, imperfect,
3. Poor, in traces, difficult.
PARTING

Parting is obtained when the mineral is subjected to external force. The mineral breaks
along planes of structural weakness. The weakness may result from pressure, twinning or
exsolution. Composition planes of twinning and glide planes are usually the direction of easy
parting. Parting resembles cleavage. However, unlike cleavage, parting may not be shown by all
individuals of the mineral species (FIG. 2.5). Parting is not continuous on crystals.
FRACTURE
In some crystals structures and amorphous solids the strength of the bonds are
approximately the same in all directions. Breaking of such crystals or massive minerals in a
direction other than the cleavage or parting planes yield generally irregular surfaces. Different
kinds of fractures are:
1. Conchoidal: smooth fracture (Qua,glass ) (FIG. 2.6)

2.
3.
4.
5.

Fibrous and splintery: sharp pointed fibers (Asbestos, Serpentine),

Uneven or irregular: rough and irregular surfaces,
Even: more or less smooth surfaces, may resemble cleavage,
Hackly: jagged fractures with very sharp edges (Mat).

HARDNESS
The resistance that a smooth surtace of a mineral offers to scratching is its hardness (H).
It is mineral's "scratchability". It is related to the attraction force between atoms. The degree of H
is determined by observing comparatively the relative ease or difficulty with which one mineral
is scratched by another, or by a finger nail, file or knife.
A series of 10 common minerals were chosen by Austrian mineralogist F. Mohs in 1824
as a scale. It is a relative scale Mohs scale of hardness.
1. Talc,
2. Gypsum,
Finger nail >2
3. Calcite,
4. Fluorite,
5. Apatite,
Knife >5
Window glass 5
6. Orthoclase,
File 6
7. Quartz,
8. Topaz,
9. Corundum,
10. Diamond.
Variation in the Mohs scale is not linear when compared with absolute hardness
measurements (FIG. 2.7). Eg., Cor is 4 times harder than Qua.

Relation between H and chemical composition is very characteristic and useful in

identification of minerals in hand specimens. These are:
1. Native Minerals (Au, Ag, Cu) are soft max. 3.
2. Sulphides are mostly soft max. 4 (Exceptions are minerals with Fe, Co, Ni).
3. Carbonates, sulphates and phosphates are soft max. 5
4. Most hydrated minerals are soft max. 5.
5. Oxides and silicates are hard more than 6 (Few exceptions like Tal).
TENACITY
The resistance that a mineral offers to breaking, crushing, bending, cutting, drawing or
tearing is its tenacity. It is mineral's cohesiveness.
1. Brittle: A mineral that breaks and powders easily (Sulfides, Carbonates, Silicates and
Oxides),
2.Malleable: A mineral that can be hammered out without breaking, into thin sheets.
They are plastic (Native metals),
3. Sectile: A mineral that can be cut with a knife into thin shavings (Native metals),
4. Ductile: A mineral that can be drawn into wire (Native metals),
5. Flexible: A mineral that bends but retains it bent form. Does not resume its original
shape permanent deformation (Asb, clay minerals, Chl, Tal)
6. Elastic: A mineral that after bending springs back and resumes its original position.
(Mus).

II. Characters Depending upon Specific Gravity

Specific gravity (SG) or relative density is a unitless number that expresses the ratio
between the weight of a substance and the weight of an equal volume of water at 4 (Max. ).
Density () is the weight of a substance per volume= g/cm3. It is different than SG, and
varies from one locality to another (max. at poles, min. at equator).
SG is measured with a simple balance by weighing the specimen in air (Wa) then in water
(ww) Then SG=wa/(wa-ww). Here (wa-ww) gives the volume of the substance. Specimen must be
clean and free of any air bubbles and cavities or erroneous value might be obtained. (FIG. 2.8a
& FIG. 2.8b)
Relation between SG and other physical and chemical properties:
1. Minerals with non-metallic luster have average SG between 2.6-3.0, (Qua=2.65,
Cal=2.72, Felds=2.60-2.75).
2. Hydrated and soft minerals have SG<2.6.
3. Hard minerals with heavy elements (Sr, Ba, Fe, W, Cu, Ag, Pb, Hg) have SG>3 .5.
4. Minerals with metallic luster have SG>=5 (Pyt=5, Gal=7.5, Mat=5.18)
5. In isostructural compounds, those with heavy element have higher SG.
Mineral
Composition Atomic Wt.SG
Aragonite
CaCO3
40.08
2.94
Strontianite
SrCO3
87.62
3.78

Witherite
BaCO3
137.34
4.31
Cerussite
PbCO3
207.19
6.58
6. In solid solution series, there is a continuous change in SG with change in chemical
composition. (Eg., Fos=3.3 Fay=4.4)
7. In polymorphous compounds those with closest atomic packing have higher SG. (eg.
Gra=2.23 Dia=3.5)

LECTURE 2 (Cont. 2hours): PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS II

III. Characters Depending upon Light

REFRACTIVE INDEX
Refractive index (RI) of a mineral is the ratio of velocity of light in the vacuum (or air) to
the velocity of light in the mineral. (n=c/v)
In isotropic media there is only one RI, whereas in anisotropic media RI changes with
crystallographic directions fiom a min. value to a max. Due to the inequality of RIs, the light
ray entering into a anisotropic mineral is split into two rays with different velocities and
directions. This is known as double refraction, numerically it is equal to the difference between
the RIs (eg., Cal=0. 143; double-dot exp., Qua=0.009).
DIAPHENEITY
Diapheneity is the amount of light transmitted or absorbed by a solid. It is used strictly
for hand specimens because most minerals that are opaque as hand specimen becomes
transparent when very thin.
1. Transparent: object behind it can be seen clearly, Eg., Qua, Cal, Flu. Size
affects diaphenity thicker specimens may become translucent.
2. Translucent: light transmitted but the object cannot be seen, Onyx marble, and
impure and thicker tarnsparent minerals.
3. Opaque: light is wholly absorbed, Eg., Mat, Hem.
COLOUR
Colour: is the of the visible light region which is reflected or transmitted from the
mineral (FIG. 2.9). Human eye is sensitive in the region between 4200-7500 . The mineral
must be observed in the white light. If monochromatic light is used the colour of the mineral may
change completely.
When light waves interacts with a mineral, those s whose energies correspond exactly
to the energy difference between the electronic levels of the atom, will be absorbed. This results
in electrons being excited from one level to another. Thus, which is not absorbed, interfere on
each other and forms the colour of the mineral. The most common chromophoric (colour
causing) transition metals with unfilled electron shells are. Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu. In
ionically bonded crystals whose ions have noble gas configuration next energy level of
unoccupied orbital is much greater than the energy of visible light, thus no absorption and they
appear white or colourless.
Other causes of colour are the impurities. Chl green Qua; Mn oxide or C black
Cal; Hem red Feld, Cal, Qua (Jasper).

STREAK
Streak is the colour of the mineral powder. Colour of a mineral may vary but streak is
usually constant. It is obtained by rubbing a mineral on a hard (H~7), white, unglazed porcelain.
Eg: Mat; colour: black, streak: black; while Hem colour: black or red, but streak: red.
LUSTER
Luster is the general appearance of a mineral surface in reflected light. It is the degree of
reflected light and directly related to optical properties (mainly RI) and surface conditions.
Metallic luster: strictly belongs to opaque minerals, where light is completely reflected
from the surface. Most of the ore minerals having high content of metals shows metallic luster.
Eg., Gal, Mat, Pyt, Cpy. Imperfect metallic luster sub metallic.
Non-metallic luster: other luster types are collectively known as non-metallic luster. It
may be brilliant or faint where reflection is poor which is due to scattering of light from the
mineral surface.
Adamantine: an exceptionally brilliant luster shown by minerals having very
high RI. Eg., Dia, Zir, Cor (Rub, Sapp). These minerals are used as valuable gem stones.
Vitreous: shown by broken glass. Eg., Silicates (Q, Feld), Carbonate (Cal) with
relatively low RI.
Resinous: shown by resins. Eg., Sph, S.
Greasy: shown by oily glass. It results from light scattered by a microscopically
rough surface. Eg. Nep (due to surface hydration having different RI), massive Qua.
Pearly: pearl-like. It is due to reflection from successive layers, such as cleavage
surfaces. Eg., Tal, Mus.
Iridescent: reflection of brilliant spectral colours due to diffraction from regularly
spaced planes. Eg., precious Opa (FIG. 2.10 & FIG. 2.11).
Silky: silk-like. It is due to the reflection from fibrous structure of minerals. Eg.
Gyp, Asb, Mal.
Earthy: luster of a surface from which there is little or no reflection. It is due to
the porous and fine-grained nature of mineral. Eg., Lim, Kaol.
IV. Characters Depending upon Magnetism
Magnetism: The basic cause of magnetism is the orbital and spin motions of electrons.
Charged particle in motion creates magnetic moment. Thus spin and orbital motion of electrons
produce magnetism. The resultant of these two moments is the magnetic moment of the atom,
Eg., un-paired eleetrons in transition metals (TABLE 2.1).
Ferromagnetism: Generally the magnetic moments of atoms are randomly oriented. But
in ferromagnetic substances they become aligned in domains due to exchange interactions
between neighbouring atoms (FIG. 2.12). They become permanent magnets in a magnetic field.

Ferrimagnetism: The ionic spin moments are anti-parallel. Thus, magnetic moment of
some of the neighbouring atoms may align themselves in opposite direction, and cancel each
other (FIG. 2.13). They also become permanent magnets. (Eg., Mat Fe3O4-Ulvospinel Fe2TiO4;
Hem Fe2O3-Ilm FeTiO3, Franklinite (Zn,Fe,Mn)(FeMn)204, Maghemite -Fe203, native Pt, and
Pyrrhotite Fel-xS).
The permanent magnetism of ferrimagnetic minerals in various rock types allows for the
study of the ancient geomagnetic fields of the earth paleomagnetism.

V. Characters Depending upon Senses

TASTE:

Most minerals have no taste.

1. Asterigent: Taste of vitriol HCl.
2. Saline: Taste of salt, Hal NaCl.
3. Alkaline: Taste of soda NaCO3.
4. Cooling: Taste of Saltpeter or Niter KNO3.
5. Bitter: Taste of Epsomsalt MgSO4.7H20.
6. Sticky: Taste of clay minerals. Due to hygroscopic character adhere to the tongue.

ODOUR:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Most minerals have no odour.

Garlic: Minerals with As.
Horseradish (kara turp) :when heated, minerals with Se,
Bituminous: asfaltite, petroleum products.
Sulphurous: when heated, minerals with S.
Fetid: minerals with S. When heated H2S (rotten eggs) evolves.
Argillaceous: Moistened clay minerals.

FEEL:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
the tongue.

Smooth: Sepiolite.
Greasy: Tal.
Harsh: Most minerals have rough surface and harsh feel.
Cold: Cor A12O3.
Sticky feel to the tongue: Clay minerals due to hygroscopic character adhere to

VI. Characters Depending upon CRYSTAL and AGGREGATES HABITS

Special terms are used for habit or general form or the appearance of single crystals
(FIG. 2.14) as well as the manner in which crystals grow together in aggregates: (FIG. 2.15)
1. Isolated or distinct crystals:
Acicular: slender, needle-like. Rut.
Capillary and filiform: hair-like or thread-like. Sid.
Bladed: elongated, flattened knife-like. Kya.

2. Groups of distinct crystals:

Dendritic and arborescent: slender divergent branches, plant-like. Native Cu, Ag,
Au, and Pyrl.
Reticulated: lattice-like slender crystals.
Divergent or radiated: Strontianite.
Drusy: A surface covered with a layer of small crystals.
3. Parallel or radiating groups of individual crystals:
Columnar: stout, column-like, Qua.
Bladed: aggregate of flattened blades, Stibnite.
Fibrous: aggregate of slender fibers, radiating or parallel, Rut, Asb.
Stellated: radiating individuals forming star-like, circular groups.
Globular: radiating individuals forming small sphericalhemispherical groups, Hem.
Botryoidal: same as globular, resembling bunch of grapes, Hem.
Reniform: same as globular, but in kidney shaped masses.
Mammillary: same as globular, but in mammae shaped masses.
Colloform: same as globular~mammillary, Agate.
4. Aggregate composed of scales or lamellae:
Foliated: as thin plates and leaves.
Micaceous: same as foliated but splits into exceedingly thin sheets, Micas.
Lamellar or tabular: flat, plate-like.
Plumose: fine scales, with divergent or feather-like structure.
5. Aggregate composed of equant grains:
Granular:equal sized anhedral grains (fine, medium or coarse), Cal in marble.
6. Miscellaneous:
Stalagtitic:successive layer in cylinder or cone shapes, Cal.
Concentric:spherical layers around a common centre.
Pisolitic:rounded masses about pea-sized, Bauxite.
Olitic: same as pisolitic about fish roe sized, Cal.
Banded: narrow band of different texture and colour, Chromite.
Massive: compact minerals without form or distinguishing faetures. Most minerals.
Amygdaloidal: almond shaped, Zeolites, Cal in basalt.
Geode: a rock cavity wholly or partly filled with same or different minerals. Banded or
with crystals projecting from walls, Agate.
Concretion: deposition aroud a nucleus. Spherical or irregular shapes.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS

INTRODUCTION
The chemical composition of a mineral is of fundamental importance. Many of mineral
properties depend on its chemistry and its crystalline structure.
Atom: smallest subdivision of an element. From 1H to 103Lr. (FIG. 3.1)
Atomic Number: number of p.
Atomic Mass: (p + n).
Atomic Weight: (p + n) of an element which is a whole number and its elemental
abundance compared to that of O=16.
Isotope: Same atomic number but different atomic mass and therefore different n. Eg.,
238
235
U
,
92
92U
Ion:
charged atoms. Cl- anion; Na+ cation.
Valence: number of electron lost or gained. O2- Fe3+ (FIG. 3.2)
Molecule: combined atoms with different bonds.
Molecular Weight: total atomic weights of its components.
Radical: strong bonding between two or more atoms. (NH4)+, (OH)-, (SiO4)4-,
(CO3)2-.
Acid: compound of H+ with an anion like Cl- (HCL) or a negative radical (C03)2(H2CO3)
Base: compound of cation like Na+ with a negative radical (OH)- (NaOH)
Salt: formed by a reaction of an acid and a base. HCI + NaOH NaCl+H2O
Water of Crystallization: some minerals contain free H2O molecule or (OH)- radical or both
within its crystal structure. Gyp CaSO4. 2H2O, Col CaB3O4(OH)3 H2O. This water is shown as
+H2O in chemical analyses. Water absorbed as moisture on minerals shown as -H2O.
REPRESENTATION OF MINERAL FORMULA
Mineral formulas are expressed as elemental cation-anion pairs or sometimes are broken down to
simple compounds such as oxides.
Cal
CaCO3
CaO.CO2
Dol
CaMg(CO3)2
CaO.MgO.2CO2
Kya
Al2SiO5
Al2O3, SiO2
Ort
KAlSi3 O8
K2O.Al2O3.6SiO2
Oli
(MgFe)2 SiO4
MgO.FeO.SiO2
Apa
Ca5(PO4)3(F,Cl,OH)
9CaO.Ca(F,Cl,OH)2.3P2O5
Mat
Fe3O4
FeO.Fe2O3 or Fe2+O.Fe3+2O3
CALCULATION OF CHEMICAL FORMULA OF MINERALS
A quantitative chemical analysis of a mineral provides the basic information for the atomic or
molecular formula of the mineral. It is given as wt% in terms of elements or oxides and outlines
a listing of what elements or oxides are present.
A quantitative chemical analysis should add up close 1001%.

Steps in the calculation;

A. From Elemental Analysis
1. Compare the maximum wt% for possible anion (!) and name
the major mineral group as Sulphide Sulphate Silicate Carbonate Phosphate
etc.
2. Consider and group the cations according to their valency as
Na+, K+
Mg2+,Fe2+,Zn2+
Al3+, Fe3+
Si4+, Ti4+ etc. Because they may replace each other in the formula.
3. Divide wt% values by atomic weight given and mutiply by
1000 to avoid fractions.
4. Omit trace and minor elements or oxides.
5. Add atomic proportions of possible substitutions, i.e. Zn
Fe.
6. Determine atomic proportions as approximate whole
numbers.
7. Write chemical formula cations first anions last, (Zn,Fe)S.
8. If required recalculate atomic percentage of cations in the
formula.
9. Write chemical formula cations percentages first anion last,
(Zn87, Fe13) S.
Example 1.

Fe
Mn
Zn
Cd
In
S

Wt%
18.25
2.66
44.67
0.28
0.01
33.57
99.44

Atomic Weights
55.85
54.94
65.38
112.40
114.82
32.07

Atomic Proportions x 1000

327

48

683
1060
2

0.1 (omitted)
1047
1047

Atomic Ratios

1
1

It is a sulphide. General formula (Zn,Fe,Mn,Cd)S. Name SPHALERITE.

If atomic percentages of cations are required:
Fe
Fe

327 Mn
30.8 Mn

48 Zn
4.5 Zn

683 Cd
64.4 Cd

2
0.2

Total 1060

Now the formula is (Zn64.4Fe30.8Mn4.5Cd0.2)S

Factor l00/1060XAP

B. From Oxide Analysis

Steps 1 & 2 are same
3. Divide wt% values by molecular weights given and multiply by 1000 to avoid
fractions to obtain Molecular Proportions.
Steps 4 to 9 are same again but remember we are dealing with molecular
proportions of oxides.
Example 2.
Wt%
SiO2 34.96
TiO2 0.02
Al2O3 0.12
Fe2O3 0.03
FeO 36.77
MnO 0.52
MgO 27.04

99.46

Molecular Weights Molecular Proportions x 1000

60.09
582
582
79.90
0.3 (omitted)
101.96
1 (omitted)
159.70
0.2 (omitted)
71.85
512

70.94
7
1190
40.31
671

Molecular Ratios
1

It is a silicate. General formula 2(Mg,Fe,Mn)O.SiO2 or (Mg,Fe,Mn)2SiO4. Name

OLIVINE
If atomic percentages of cations are required:
FeO 512
FeO 43.0

MnO 7
MnO 0.6

MgO 671
MgO 56.4

Total 1190

Factor 100/1 1QOXMP

Now the formula is (Mg56.4Fe43.0Mn0.6)2SiO4 or Fos57Fay43

C. For Analysis of Mineral Mixtures
Steps 1 to 9 are the same again. But we have to make some assumptions about the
number of minerals and about whether their being pure end members. If there are same elements
present in different mineral phases than the calculations is very difficult, if not impossible.
Example 3
Wt%
Pb
4.43
Zn
11.56
Cu
26.54
Fe
23.84
In
0.01
S
33.57

100.54

Atomic Weights
207.20
65.38
63.55
55.85
114.82
32.07

Atomic Proportions x 1000

21

177

418

427

0.1 (omitted)
1065 -25=1044 -177=867

Atomic Ratios

1
1
2

Formulas of the minerals are PbS (Gal), ZnS (Sph) and CuFeS2 (Cpy).
If percentages of minerals are required
PbS 21X2
ZnS 177X2
CuFeS2
rest

42
2.0%
354 16.8%
1712 81.2%
2108 100,0
SOLID SOLUTION or ISOMORPHISM
Generally minerals are not pure substances. There is extensive variation in chemical
composition. This variation is result of substitution. In a solid solution, specific atomic sites of
the mineral structure are occupied in variable proportions by different atoms. This is controllcd
by thc (1) size of the atoms or ions (<15% in size difference), (2) valency of the substituting ions
(electric charge must be balanced, hence coupled substitution Si4+Al3++Na+), (3) at high
temperatures due to thermal vibrations atomic sites are larger and therefore greater possibility for
substitution. There are three types of solid solutions:
Substitutional Solid Solution.
Simple Cationic or Anionic substitutions. It occurs in most mineral structures.
Eg. Br- anion substitution of Cl in Sylvite (KCl) crystal structure. K(CI,Br).
Complete Binary Solid Solution Series.
In Oli (Mg,Fe)2SiO4 structure Mg2+Fe2+ substitution is complete. End members
are Fos Mg2SiO4 and Fay Fe2SiO4. (FIG. 3.3). Complete miscibility exists between these end
members. Early formed Oli crystals are Fos rich. As T falls they react with the silicate melt and
become richer in Fay component by taking Fe2+ ions into their crystal structure. If cooling is
rapid that prevents early formed portion of crystal to react with the liquid, zoning may form with
Fos rich portion occurring in the core of the zoned Oli crystal (FIG. 3.4).
In Plag series there is complete but coupled substitution. End members are Alb
NaAlSi3O8 and Ano CaAl2Si2O8. During coupled substitution Ca2++Al3+ Na++Si4+ (FIG. 3.5)
However, Feld group consists of two solid solution series. In A-Feld series at high
temperatures there is complete solid solution. But at low temperatures there is only limited solid
solution (FIG. 3.6). End members are Ort KAlSi3O8 and Alb NaAlSi3 O8 where Na+K+.
Therefore there exists a miscibility gap.
Interstitial Solid Solution. If holes or voids exist in the crystal structure, large ions or molecules can
enter into the crystal structure forming interstitial substitution. In Ber Be3 Al2Si6018 crystals
neutral H2O, CO2 molecules or large K+, Rb+, Cs+ ions can enters into large holes located
between silicate rings (FIG. 3.7). In the case of entrance of neutral H2O, CO2 molecules no
charge balance is needed, otherwise coupled substitutions occur Si4+Be2++2R+ or
Si4+Al3++R+ where R+ represents monovalent large ions which are to be accommodated.
Omission Solid Solution. When a highly charged cation replaces two or more cations in a crystal

structure a vacancy or omission occurs in one of the atomic sites.

Eg., Pb in Amazonite KAlSi3O8 which is a polymorph of K-Feld. Here,
K++K+Pb2++ creating a vacancy in the crystal structure.
Another example is Pyrrhotite Fe(l-x)S. Here x=0-0.2 and the mineral said to have a
defect structure. It is explained as Fe2++Fe2++Fe2+Fe3++Fe3++ (FIG. 3.8).
Common solid solution series:
1. Isometric (Cubic) system: Spinel group, Garnet group,
2. Tetragonal system: Rutile group, Scheelite group,
3. Hexagonal system: Apatite group, Corundum group,
4. Orthorhombic system: Aragonite group, Barite group,
5. Monoclinic system: Pyx group, Amp group,
6. Triclinic system; Feld group.
In solid solution series some physical properties of the mineral groups show more or less linear
variation from one end member to another (FIG. 3.9).
1. Melting point, boiling point, crystallization T,
2. Specific gravity,
3. Hardness,
4. Cell dimensions,
5. Optical properties RI, birefringence, extinction angle etc.
EXSOLUTION or UNMIXING
This process is the opposite of solid solution. Exsolution is due to
the substitution of atoms or ions having different size. Generally, at lower T
enlarged atomic sites at high T in the mineral structure, becomes smaller. Hence,
larger ions present in the structure leads to chemical disorder. Therefore at high T
initially homogeneous solid solution separates into two distinct minerals having
different chemical composition. The bulk composition remains same. Exsolution
lamellae that separates from the host crystal are generally crystallographically
oriented (FIG. 3.10).
Eg. In A-Feld Alb lamellae exsolved in OrtPERTHITE (FIG. 3.11); Ort lamellae solved
in AlbANTIPERTHITE.
Ca rich Cl-Pyx having Ca poor O-Pyx lamellae, or vise versa.
PSEUDOMORPHISM
If a crystal of a mineral is altered so that the internal structure or
chemical composition is changed but the external form is preserved it is called a
pseudomorph.

Eg. Lim FeO.OH nH2O after Pyt FeS2. Crystal form is that of Pyt but
composition is altered to amorphous Lim.
1.
Loss of a constituent Cuprite Cu2ONative Cu
2.
Gain of a constituent Anhydrite CaSO4Gyp CaSO4
2H2O
3.
Partial exchange of constituents Limonite FeO.OH
nH2OGoethite FeO.OH
4.
Complete exchange of constituents Flu CaF2Qua SiO2;
Silicified wood where organic compounds are replaced by silica (FIG. 3.12)

OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS

INTRODUCTION
The light has a dual nature. Firstly, light behaves like a particle. In this behavior light particle
known as photon act as a compact entity and can knock out loosely metalic bonded electrons
from large atoms like Cs and Rb. This effect is known as photoelectric effect.
Secondly, light behaves like a wave and bends around corners and passing through small holes
produces interference and diffraction patterns. In optical mineralogy most phenomena can be
explained by the wave nature of light.
In the wave theory of light, the light waves are defined by oscillating electric E and magnetic
H vectors perpendicular to each other and are also oriented perpendicular to the propagation
direction of light-ray (FIG. 5.1). So to simplify, we can consider an oscillating light vector; L
which is a resultant of the E and Hvectors. In this way a light wave forms a sine wave (FIG.
5.2). The light wave vibration has a characteristic wavelenght (). In fact considering the whole
electromagnetic spectrum including cosmic rays-X-rays at the short 's region to radio waves
and microwave radiation at long 's region; visible light is only a small part of this spectrum
(FIG. 5.3). The range of visible light is from approximately 390-710 nm (nanometer=10-9 m).
This range of light corresponds to 390-440 nm Violet; 440-500 nm Blue; 500-570 nm Green;
570-590 nm Yellow; 590-650 nm Orange; 650-710 nm Red.
Because light vector, L is actually an oscillating electromagnetic wave, it will interact with the
electric field produced by the nuclei and electrons of atoms that make up the matter. The more
nuclei and electrons there are in a given volume the more light wave is slowed down. Thus, light
travels fastest in perfect vacuum c=300.000 km/sec and slower in all substances. Eg., (1) In two
polymorph of Sil and Kya having same composition Al25i05 but different densities
Sil=3 .23 g/cm3, Kya=3.53 g/cm3 light will travel slower in denser medium
vSil=181.000 km/sec, vKya=175.000 km/sec. Eg. (2). If two minerals have approximately same
number of atoms per unit volume, the mineral that contains more electron per unit volume have
smaller velocity of light. Consider Per (MgO) and Wstite (FeO) which have similar molar
volumes. However, MgO has (12+8=20 electrons) whereas, FeO has (26+8=34 electrons). Hence
vPer =173.000 km/sec, vWs=129.000 km/sec.
OTHER WAVE PROPERTIES OF LIGHT WAVES
When light rays move away from a source in a medium, at a given moment these rays will have
traveled and define a 3-D surface known as Ray Velocity Surface (RVS). In isotropic minerals
these rays will have travelled same distance, independent of the direction they travel hence
spherical RVS forms. However, in anisotropic minerals, because the minerals have different
atoms along different directions, light will travel at different velocities along different
crystallographic direction, hence RVS surface is not spherical, but will form complex double
surfaces (FIG. 5.4).

Tangent to the RVS along any light ray is known as the wave front. Followed from above
discussion in isotropic minerals wave front is perpendicular to the ray (or propagation direction)
and its wave normal will be along the propagation direction. However, in anisotropic minerals
wave front is perpendicular to the propagation direction only at special directions, but will be at
an angle in other directions. Similarly, wave normal will be along the propagation direction only
at special crystallographic direction, but will be at an angle in other directions (FIG. 5.5).
REFLECTION-TOTAL REFLECTION-REFRACTION-INDEX OF
REFRACTION
When light ray travels from one isotropic medium into another isotropic medium certain
changes occur to the direction of propagation at the interface (FIG. 5.6a). If light travels from a
less dense isotropic medium to higher density isotropic medium some of the rays will be
reflected at the interface while others will enter into the denser isotropic medium. According to
law of reflection, the angle of the incident ray with the normal will be reflected with the same
angle back to the former isotropic medium-with the same velocity. However, light entering into
denser isotropic medium bends closer to the normal at the interface and the velocity of light will
drop. This is known as refraction. According to the Snell's Law sini/sinr=RI of the latter
isotropic medium. This can also be expressed as RImedium=velocity of light in vacuum/velocity of
light in the isotropic medium, RImedium=c/vnedium ie., RI of a medium is inversely proportional to
the speed of light in that medium. Higher RI means lower speed of light in that medium.
If light travels from a higher RI isotropic medium to lower RI isotropic medium same
laws apply, but in this case refracted ray moves away from the normal to the interface. At a
certain critical angle of incidence, no light will pass through the interface into low RI isotropic
medium (FIG. 5.6b). This is known as total reflection which is used to determine RI's of
isotropic media (FIG. 5.7a&b). Measured RI of minerals has a fundamental importance. This
parameter, especially in solid solution series is very important, as it may be used to determine the
composition of the solid solution species (FIG. 5.8). RIs of diffrent polymorphs also show
linear relationship when compared with density of the polymorphs (FIG. 5.9)
There is a direct relationship between the optic properties of minerals and their
symmetry, where light is affected similarly in the same crystal system. The specific parameter
that seems to control the interaction of light with solid matter is the number of unique
crystallographic axes within a crystal system. The six crystal systems can be divided into three
groups based on the number of the unique optical axes they have.
*Cubic-Isometric System; Isotropic: Isotropic crystals: 1 unique optical axis, and
1 RI=n; cubic crystals & amorphous substances (gases and liquids).
*Tetragonal-Hexagonal Systems; Anisotronic: Uniaxial crystals: 2 unique optical axes,
and 2 RI's= and .

*Orthorhombic-Monoclinic-Triclinic Systems: Anisotropic: Biaxial: 3 unique

optical
axes,and 3 RI's=, , and
RELIEF-TWINKLING-BECKE LINE
Relief is a function of the difference of a RI's of a crystal and those of its surroundings.
The effect of relief is to make the mineral to stand out from its surroundings. In most thin
sections which consist of a basal glass slide (1l 5 mm thick), a cover glass (0.17 mm thick) and
ground down mineral or rock chip (0.03 mm thick) that is sandwiched between these glasses and
glued with Canada Balsam CB (RI=1.537) or epoxy resins (RI=1.52l.54) (FIG. 5.10).
If the immediate surrounding of the mineral is the CB and if the RI contrast between the
mineral and CB is <0.04 low relief; 0.04-0.12 moderate relief; and >0.12 high relief is observed.
A crystal with low relief does not stand out from its surrounding and its cleavages and fractures
arc indistinct, whereas a crystal with high relief stands out strongly and its cleavages and
fractures are sharply defined.
In anisotropic minerals where there are more than one RI is
present, relief changes with respect to the crystallographic orientation. This effect
is most obvious with mineral having large difference in their RI's. Eg., Cal with
=1.486<CB and moderate relief (0.051); and
=1 .658>CB and high relief (0.121) (FIG. 5.11). Therefore, Cal mineral with its
cleavage and composition planes of its polysynthetic twinning seems to stands out
strongly and dissappears when observed under the polarizing microscope as the
stage is turned (FIG. 5.12). This is known as twinkling.
As we have seen in the above example gives a relief -0.051 while
gives +0.121 reliefs. To determine whether the mineral has a positive or
negative relief is important to distinguish various mineral species. The minerals
boundaries with the surrounding minerals or with CB forms interfaces between
two media with different RIs. Same laws of reflection-total reflection and
refraction applies (FIG. 5.13) when the interface is observed with relatively high
power objective and diaphram under the stage is partially closed. There appears a
bright fringe of light along the boundary. This fringe of light is called Becke
Line. Becke line moves when the microscope stage is lowered or raised (FIG.
5.14). The rule of thumb is: medium with higher RI acts like a bi-convex lense
and converges light towards its centre when stage is lowered away from the
objective lense. Therefore, Becke line test shows whether a mineral has negative
relief (<CB) or positive relief (>CB).
Mineral grains, mounted between the lamella and cover glass, is
submerged in various known RI-liquids, and Becke line test is applied until the
mineral disappears, ie, has the same RI as that of the RI-liquid. RI of liquids are

determined by Jelly-type (FIG. 5.15) or Abbe-type refractometer (FIG. 5.6 &

5.7). This method is used easily for determination of RI of an isotropic mineral or
substance with only one RI. However, for anisotropic minerals with more than
one RI orientation of the mineral must be determined before applying this
method.
DISPERSION
When natural white light consisting of different wavelenghts is
refracted at the interface of two isotropic media or minerals, refracted rays with
different s are seperated from red to violet with different refraction angles. Blue
rays refracted more appears closer to the normal whereas red rays is slightly away
from the normal (FIG. 5.16a & 5.16b). This is known as dispersion. Dia has the
highest dispersive power, on the other hand Flu has the least dispersive power
(TABLE 5.1).
Dispersion in anisotropic media resolves two different sets of red
and blue refracted rays, since anisotropic minerals have more than one RI (FIG.
5.17).

POLARIZATION AND POLARIZED LIGHT

Light vector of natural light vibrates perpendicular to the direction
of propagation, along all direction. If light is forced to vibrate along certain
direction than the light is said to be polarized, and the phenomenon is called
polarization.
The simplest polarization is produced when light is forced to
vibrate in a single plane containing the direction of propagation. This is called
plane polarization, or linear polarization. Here, light vector again vibrates
perpendicular to the propagation direction but confined to the polarization plane
(FIG. 5.18).
When two plane polarized lights vibrating along their plane of
polarizations meet along the same direction of propagation, where the planes of
vibrations are perpendicular to each other two different kinds of polarized light is
obtained, depending on the phase differences between them. If the phase
difference is equal to circular polarized light is obtained (FIG. 5.19). If the
phase difference is not equal to , and even multiples of s, then
elliptically polarized light (FIG. 5.20) is obtained. Both circularly-and
elliptically-polarized light can move clock-wise or anti clock-wise direction (FIG.
5.21).
There are three important methods of producing plane polarized
light:
1. By reflection and refraction: When natural light strikes the interface between
two media, it is split into plane polarized reflected light where the direction of vibration is

perpendicular to the plane that is defined by the normal to the interface and the incident ray.
Whereas the refracted ray is also plane polarized but vibrates along the same plane described
previously (FIG. 5.22). Best polarization is obtained when i+r=90 which is called the Brewster
Law (FIG. 5.23).
2. By absorbtion: Certain dichroic anisotropic minerals absorb light strongly in
one direction, and let it pass with minimum absorbtion in a direction perpendicular to this
direction (FlG. 5.24). Hence plane polarized light is obtained. Tou crystals display this property
best (FlG. 5.25). Synthetic substances like herapatite (iodocinchonidine-sulphate) also shows
this property (FlG. 5.26).
3. By double refraction: When natural light enters into anisotropic uniaxial
mineral like Cal, it splits into two rays which are plane polarized and their vibration planes are
perpendicular to each other (FIG. 5.27). Since they travel at different velocities, -fast (vibrating
//l to c-axis) & -slow (vibrating r to c-axis), they also have different propagation directions. A
Cal crystal suitably cut and glued together with CB (nicol prism) is used to separate and
completely, where is totally reflected at crystal-CB interface whereas is refracted into the
upper crystal (FIG. 5.28).
In a polarizing microscope (FIG. 5.29) there are two polarizers,
one below the stage converting natural light into E-W vibration plane called
polarizer and an upper polarizer above the objective known as analyser with N-S
vibration plane.

EXTINCTION-INTERFERENCE COLOURS-BIREFRINGENCE-RETARDATION
When natural light entering to the microscope passes through
polarizer it becomes polarized E-W direction. If there is a colourless isotropic
substance on the stage, ie, air, liquid, glass, or a mineral with only one RI, and if
analyser is out, the E-W vibrating plane polarized white light from the polarizer
passes through the ocular unchanged as a plane polarized white light. On the other
hand, if the analyser is in position, there will no light observed at the ocular since
there is no light available vibrating N-S direction to pass through the analyser.
This phenomenon is known as extinction, and as the microscope stage is turned
extinction is continuous and the mineral is said to be at continuous extinction
(FIG. 5.30).
Anisotropic minerals however behave differently since they have
more than one RI. In fact, anisotropic crystals split incident E-W polarized light
into two light waves that are constrained to vibrate perpendicular to one another.
The orientations of the vibration directions of the two light rays being fixed
relative to the crystal axes (FIG. 5.31). If the analyser is out, these two rays

passes through the ocular as two plane polarized white light. But if the analyser is
in position and and if the vibration direction of the mineral is at an angle to E-W
& N-S directions (FIG. 5.32)., a colourful disposition occurs on the mineral
surfaces. These colours are interference colours which are completely different
from normal colour of the mineral. Here the complementary phases of s are
allowed to pass through the N-S vibration plane and interact to produce the
interference colours (FIG. 5.33). The components of the two differently vibrating
white polarized lights are resolved along the N-S and E-W vibration directions.
Components perpendicular to N-S is absorbed while those components vibrating
parallel to the N-S analyser vibration direction is allowed to pass through the
analyser (FIG. 5.34). In the analyser, the components vibrating parallel to the
vibration plane of the analyser interfere to produce interference colours (FIG.
5.35 & PLATE 5.1). The strength of interference, also known as retardation is
proportional directly to the differnce of RIs indices of the relative
crystallographic orientation of the section of the crystal or inversely proportional
to the different ray velocities of corresponding ray velocities. Retardation is also
directly proportional to the thickness of the mineral section; therefore, =t (RI1RI2 ). Here retardation () is equal to the product of the thickness of the mineral
section and the absolute difference in the RIs related to that particular section.
The difference RI1-RI2 is called the birefringence of the mineral and has
maximum value when -or -, or for intermediate values of ' and the
minerals will have smaller value of birefringence (PLATE 5.1).
When unique vibration directions of the mineral is parallel to the
E-W and N-S vibration direction of polarizer and analyser one of the plane
polarized light rays emerging from the anisotropic crystal is absored completely at
the N-S vibrating plane of analyser. Therefore, there will no interference at
analyser, a single N-S vibrating light passes through, hence extinction occurs. At
every 90 of revolution of the microscope stage alternately extinction and
illumination are encountered, after the first extinction.
Sometimes high RI minerals and at other times minerals with
perfect cleavage cause reflection of light from below which appear as tiny specks
of illumination during extinction. This is called mottled extinction, a
characteristic feature of micas.

The colour of maximum retardation is presented in charts ranging

from first order to seventh order interference colours (PLATE 5.1). Retardation
orders are separated by the appearance of red (550 nm) colours. The colours
become pale beige as the order of retardation increases. There is no true blue or
green colour in the first order. When birefringence is very low anamolous
interference colours of navy blue and olive green or purple is observed in first
order.

If the composition or thickness of the crystal varies in the thin

section, different interference colors may occur on the same crystal surface
resulting a patchy birefringence, a characteristic feature of epidote.
COLOUR AND PLEOCHROISM
Colour of a transparent minerals in thin section is observed with analyser out position
which then depends on the absorbtion of certain 's of E-W vibrating plane polarized white light
emerging from the mineral. The 's that pass through the mineral interfere and produce
characteristic colour of the mineral. The colour due to transmission of light through the mineral
may be different from the colour of the mineral due to reflected light from the surface of the
mineral, in hand specimen.
If the colourful mineral is isotropic, there is no change of colours when the stage of
microscope is rotate, because the isotropic mineral has only one characteristic RI. However, if
the colourful mineral is anisotropic, absorption of different 's of E-W vibrating white plane
polarized light is direction dependent, hence different colours appear as the stage rotated,
because of anisotropic mineral's principle vibration direction is aligned alternatively parallel to
the E-W direction. This phenomenon is known as pleochroism. Hence uniaxial crystals with two
principle RI's will have maximum two different colours, on the other hand biaxial crystals with
three principle RI's will have maximum three different colours, depending on the orientation of
the section that is cut from the crystal (FIG. 5.36).
If the composition of the crystal changes from centre to its edge
roughly concentric colouring may occur which is called compositional zonning.
Colour of opaque minerals cannot be viewed with transmission polarizing microscopes.
Since opaque minerals do not transmit light, whatever thin the section is. Therefore they appear
black and collectively referred to as the opaque minerals, ie., Mat, Pyt, Ilm, etc. Opaque
minerals are studied by reflection polarizing microscopes, or ore microscopes.

Crystallography
A crystal is a solid object with a geometric shape that reflects a long-range regular internal structure
(commonly with some element of symmetry).

I- Space lattices

Definition: The regular internal structure of a mineral is manifested by the existence of a space
lattice, which is "an array of points in space that can be repeated indefinitely". All "points" in a
lattice have identical environments (Fig. 1). In the case of a mineral or crystal, these "points" (also
known as motifs) may be considered atoms, ions, or groups of atoms/ ions. Note that a lattice has
no origin.

A unit cell (Fig. 1) is the smallest number of "points" which completely define the space lattice. The
repetition of those points or unit cells in a space lattice is performed by certain operations which
build the space lattice.

Criteria used for the selection of unit cells:

1- The smallest sized unit that retains the characteristics of the space lattice (Fig. 1b).
2- Edges of the cell should coincide with symmetry axes (see below).
3- Edges of the cell related to each other by the symmetry of the lattice.

Building a space lattice: from motifs to lattices:

Motif Line lattice Plane lattice Space Lattice

Operations: (a) elements of symmetry; (b) translations; (c) glide planes; (d) screw axes

A- Elements of symmetry:
Types:
i- Axes of rotation (1, 2, 3, 4 or 6): If during the rotation of a crystal around an axis one of the
faces repeats itself two or more times, the crystal is said to have an axis of symmetry. Symmetry axes
may be two fold (digonal) if a face is repeated twice every 360, three fold (trigonal) if it is repeated
three times, four fold (tetragonal) if it is repeated four times, or six fold (hexagonal) if that face is
repeated 6 times. Figure 2a shows these relations.
ii- Center (n or i): If two similar faces lie at equal distances from a central point, the crystal is
said to have a centre of symmetry (Fig. 2e).
iii- Planes (m): When one or more faces are the mirror images of each other, the crystal is said
to have a plane of symmetry (Fig. 2f). Motifs related to each other by mirror planes are known as
enantiomorphs (Fig. 4).

iv- Axes of rotary inversion ( 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 or 6 ): When two similar faces are repeated 2, 3, 4 or 6
times when the crystal is rotated 360 around an axis, but in such a way that these faces appear
inverted. Therefore, if the face is repeated 2 times during a full rotation, the axis is known as a 2-fold
rotary inversion axis, 3 times 3-fold rotary inversion, ..... etc. Figure 3 shows the types of rotary
inversion axes. Note that axes of rotary inversion can also produce enantiomorphs (Fig. 4).

Equivalence of some symmetry elements:

1 n (i)
2 m
3 3+ 1

4 2 (note that this is not a perfect equivalency!)

6 3m
N.B. Only rotary inversion axes of odd order imply the presence of symmetry centers.

Rules for combinations of rotations and mirrors: (Table 1)

1234567-

Rotary axes at 90 or 5444

All operators must intersect at a point
Rotary axes & mirrors are either perpendicular or parallel
Intersection of 2 vertical mirror planes produces a digonal rotary axis
Intersection of 3 vertical mirror planes produces a trigonal rotary axis
Intersection of 4 vertical mirror planes at 45 produces a tetragonal rotary axis
Intersection of 6 vertical mirror planes at 30 produces a hexagonal rotary axis

It was found that there are only 32 possible combinations of the above listed symmetry elements. These
are known as point groups since the symmetry elements simply reproduce or repeat groups of points.

B- Translations ( t ; Fig. 5): Think of a translation as an operation by which new motifs are generated in a
new location; i.e. a means of reproduction for these motifs. Translations that reproduce a motif in that
direction towards the reader in the plane of the paper are labeled by the vector a , those moving to
the right of the original motif b , and those in a direction perpendicular to the plane of the paper c .
The lengths of these translation vectors are designated ao, bo, and co, respectively. The magnitude
of these translations is normally on the order of 1 - 10 .

C- Glide plane (g): Is a compound symmetry operation that results from the combination of a mirror
plane and a translation (Fig. 6; see Table 2 for compound symmetry).

D- Screw axes (xy): A screw axis forms by the combination of rotation and a translation. Depending on
the type of rotation, there will be several types of screw axes (e.g. 2, 3, 4 & 6). Any of these screw axes
will also be either right-handed or left-handed, and are given symbols as xy (e.g. 31) where if the ratio y/x
is < 0.5 the axis is right handed, and if y/x > 0.5 the axis is left-handed (Fig. 7). It is essential that the
rotational and screw axes have the same rotational angle (a phenomenon described as isogonal).

You will notice that there are no 5 - fold rotary, rotary inversion, or screw axes in crystals. This is simply
because points or motifs related by five-fold symmetry will produce objects that are incapable of
fitting together to produce closed space (Fig. 8).

The combination of the elements of symmetry with translations, glides and screw axes is what
ultimately produces all possible crystal lattices, known as the 230 space groups. Breaking down this
process into steps:

motifs translations in a plane> 5 (or 6) plane lattices symmetry in a plane>10 plane groups glide lines + mirror planes> 17 twodimensional point groups glide planes + mirror planes + screw axes + elements of symmetry> 230 space groups.

II-

Crystal Morphology

ACrystal Faces:
The regular internal structure of a mineral is manifested by the development of surfaces that define the
shape of the crystal, and which may be related to one another by certain elements of symmetry. These
surfaces are known as crystal faces.

12345

Bravais Law: Crystal faces are most likely to develop (fully, abundantly) along those planes with the
highest density of lattice points. Bravais Law therefore states that the frequency by which a face is
observed in a crystal is directly proportional to the number of points or nodes it intersects in a
lattice (Fig. 9).
Factors affecting the morphology of a crystal (conditions of growth):
T
P
solutions available
direction of solution flow
availability of open space.
Stenos Law: The angles between these faces (known as the interfacial angles) are always constant
for the same mineral (at the same temperature). Interfacial angles are measured using a goniometer
(actually, the goniometer measures that angle that is complimentary to the interfacial angle; Fig.
10).

B- Crystallographic Axes & Interaxial angles:

In addition to "crystal faces" and "elements of symmetry", crystals can be described and classified on
the basis of their "crystallographic axes" and "interaxial angles". Crystallographic axes are imaginary
lines of reference inside a crystal that intersect at a common point (the crystal centre), and to which
crystal faces can be referenced. Any crystal has either 3 or 4 crystallographic axes. The angles between
these axes are known as the interaxial angles. Figure 11 shows the three standard crystallographic axes
(a, b and c) and the nomenclature of the interaxial angles (, and ). Note that a, b and c are the
names given to the positive sides of the crystallographic axes, a , b , and c to the negative sides.
Similarly, , and apply only to those interaxial angles between the a, b and c (not a , b , and c ).

Criteria used for the selection of the crystallographic axes:

1- In crystals that lack sufficient symmetry, axes are selected to coincide with the lines of
intersection between the major (largest) crystal faces (Fig. 12).
2- Ideally, they should be parallel to the edges of the unit cell, and their lengths should be
proportional to the edges of the unit cell.
3- Either 3 or 4 in number.
4- Perpendicular wherever possible
5- As much as possible, they should coincide with the symmetry axes, and be perpendicular to the
symmetry planes.
6- For monoclinic systems (see below), +a is selected so that > 90. For triclinic systems, and
are each > 90.
7- In practice, crystallographic axes are determined from X-ray measurements!!

C- Relationship between crystal faces and crystallographic axes: Indexing the crystal faces
Intercepts: Points of intersection of the face with the crystallographic axes.
Coordinates: Actual distances of the intercepts of a face with the crystallographic axes expressed
in some unit of measurement (e.g. mm, cm, inches, etc.; Fig13)
Parameters: Distances; i.e. coordinates of one face divided by those of another to which it is
parallel. Expressed as: 2a:4b:1c. They are intercepts referenced to axes a, b and c.
The unit face: Is a face that intersects all three crystallographic axes, and is arbitrarily assigned
the parameters 1a: 1b: 1c. In the event that several faces intersect all three axes in the crystal,
the face with the largest area is selected as the unit face.
Indices (Miller Indices): Are whole numbers that represent the reciprocals of parameters after
clearing the fractions (by multiplying by one or more factors).
Law of rational indices (Law of Hay): The position of one face on a crystal can always be
referred to that of another face on the same crystal by ratios, which may be expressed in small
whole numbers that seldom exceed 3.
Zones: All faces whose lines of intersection are parallel are considered a zone. The zone axis is a
line through the center of a crystal to which the edges of intersection of faces in a zone are
parallel (Fig. 14).

D- Crystal Forms:
Two or more faces having the same geometric relations to the crystallographic axes, and the same
shape, and which are related to each other by some element of symmetry in a crystal constitute a
crystal form, (defined as an assemblage of one or more faces which may partially or completely
constitute a crystal exterior). A crystal may thus consist of one or more forms (Fig. 15).

III- Towards a classification of crystals: Systematic Crystallography

As mentioned above, there are only 32 possible combinations of the symmetry elements (excluding the
screw axes and glide planes) that can be referred to sets of axes intersecting at a common point (i.e.
crystallographic axes). Accordingly, the external geometry of any crystal must correspond to one of
these 32 sets, known as "classes". Many of these classes share some fundamental element or elements
of symmetry. Therefore, these classes that have common symmetry elements are grouped together into
a "crystal system", so that all 32 crystal classes fall into seven crystal systems.

The Crystal Systems

The crystal classes are grouped into seven crystal systems based on the following criteria:
a) relative lengths of the crystallographic axes
b) number of crystallographic axes
c) values of the interaxial angles
d) some essential element of symmetry
The seven crystal systems are (Fig. 16; Table 3):
(1) The Cubic system: Three crystallographic axes, a = b = c, = = = 90. Essential element of
symmetry is a three-fold rotary or rotary inversion axis.
(2) The Tetragonal system: Three crystallographic axes, a = b c, = = = 90. Essential element of
symmetry is a four-fold rotary or rotary inversion axis.
(3) The Trigonal system: Four crystallographic axes, three of which are equal and coplanar and at angles
of 120, fourth axis "c" is perpendicular to the other three axes, and is characterized by commonly being
a three fold axis of symmetry.
(4) The Hexagonal system: Four crystallographic axes, three of which are equal and coplanar (a1, a2, a3)
and at angles of 120, fourth axis (c) is perpendicular to the other three axes, and is characterized by
being a six fold axis of symmetry.
(5) The Orthorhombic system: a b c, = = = 90. Essential element of symmetry is a two-fold
rotary axis. Some debate over choice of axes! Generally, c < a < b!!!
(6) The Monoclinic system: a b c, = = 90, > 90. Essential element of symmetry is a two fold
rotary axis or a plane. The 2-fold rotational axis or the direction perpendicular to the mirror plane is
usually taken as the b axis, the a axis is inclined to the front ( > 90), and c is vertical.

(7) The Triclinic system: a b c, . No essential element of symmetry. Additional criteria: As

much as possible, and should be both > 90. The most pronounced zone should be vertical. The axis
of this zone is then taken as c. {001} should slope forward and to the right. In general, c<a<b!

The Hermann Mauguin Symbols

Each of the elements of symmetry is designated by a unique alphanumeric symbol. If the same
symmetry element occurs more than once in a crystal, then it is designated by the symbol raised to the
power of number of occurrences. A string of Hermann Mauguin symbols for a crystal therefore
completely summarizes its symmetry. Note that a shorthand form of these symbols largely ignores the
number of times an element is repeated (as this can be guessed with little trouble, and some
experience). We will stick to the long-form in our class.

Crystal classes & crystal systems

To clarify the relationship between the crystal systems and classes, let us consider the cubic system. This
system, defined by having three equal crystallographic axes, and interaxial angles of 90, is also
characterized by having a three-fold rotary axis of symmetry. The cubic system has five distinct classes,
each characterized by a unique set of symmetry elements. Among this set of symmetry elements is the
three-fold rotary axis; the essential element of symmetry for the cubic system. The tetragonal system
has seven classes, all with a four - fold or four - fold rotary inversion axis of symmetry, .... etc. Table 4
lists the fundamental features of each one of the seven crystal systems as well as the classes belonging
to each system.
Crystal forms: Each crystal system is characterized by a number of specific forms. Some of these forms
are unique to a particular system, whereas others can occur in several different systems. Within a
system, forms characteristic of a higher symmetry class can exist in crystals belonging to a lower
symmetry class, but not the reverse! An example is the Octahedron, characteristic of the hexoctahedral
(holohedral) class (4/m 3 2/m), can actually exist in the Diploidal (2/m 3 ) class, but the pyritohedron
(characteristic of the Diploidal class) cannot exist in the holohedral class. Forms that are common to
most crystal systems are: Pedion, Pinacoid, Dome, Sphenoid, Prism, and Pyramid. Figure 15a shows
some common forms in the seven systems, whereas Fig. 15b shows two examples of complicated
combinations of some forms in the cubic system. These two figures show that in any system, a crystal
may be made of one or more forms. For a full list and illustration of all 48 possible forms, please refer to
your textbook.

 The Bravais Lattices

Investigating the shapes and types of unit cells for all crystal structures belonging to the different crystal
systems reveals that there are only 14 possible different unit cells which when repeated through
symmetry operations will define all possible lattices. These different unit cells are known as Bravais
Lattices, and are really four basic types of unit cells applied to the 7 crystal systems (to yield the 14
Bravais lattices; Fig. 17). The four basic types are:
Primitive (P), Body centered (B or I), Face centered (F), and End Centered (E or C).
Knowing that Halite is cubic, can you figure out its type of Bravais Lattice? Refer to Fig. 1b to help you
out.

Relationship between the 230 Space groups and the 32 Crystal classes (Point groups):
A point group implies that one point within the lattice remains fixed.
Point groups are defined on the basis of all possible combinations of the elements of
symmetry there are 32 possible combinations.
Space groups are defined by the combination of elements of symmetry, glide planes and
screw axes, along with a definition of the space (Bravais) lattice (P, A, B, C, I, F, etc.)
Space groups and point groups of the same system have to be isogonal.
The point group can therefore be derived from the space group by eliminating the lattice
type, screw axes, and glide planes.
You can figure out the crystal system easily from its point group or space group. Simply
eliminate the space lattice symbol, replace every screw axis by its isogonal regular axis of
symmetry, and replace every glide plane by the symbol m for the mirror. Now you have
the point group (crystal class)!
The Stereographic projection
The stereographic projection is a 2-D graphical representation of the symmetry elements of a crystal (or
a crystal class), as well as the relative locations of all its faces. As such, it is much easier to construct and
read compared to a 3-D drawing of a crystal (the most common type of 3-D view is known as the
clinographic view).

Steps and rules for constructing a stereographic projection:

1. Imagine that the crystal is located in a large sphere. From the center of each face of the crystal,
draw a straight line perpendicular to this face until it reaches the surface of the enclosing
sphere. Each one of these lines is known as a pole, and each face will now be represented by a
point on the surface of the sphere. This is known as a spherical projection (Fig. 18).
2. Imagine cutting the sphere into two halves along the equator of this sphere. You now have 2
hemispheres: a northern hemisphere and a southern one.
3. The equatorial surface of this sphere (a large circle with the radius of the sphere) is now going to
be used as the projection plane. This circle is known as the primitive circle. All other circles
through the sphere that maintain its same radius are known as great circles. These may
represent mirror planes.
4. Every point in the northern hemisphere representing a crystal face can now be projected onto
the stereographic projection by drawing a line from each of these points to the south pole of the
original sphere. The point of intersection of this line with the projection plane marks the actual
location or projection of this face, and is marked with an x (Fig. 19).
5. Points in the southern hemisphere representing crystal faces can be projected onto the same
plane by drawing lines from these points to the north pole of the original sphere. The points of
intersection of these lines with the projection plane mark the location or projection of these
faces, and are marked with an o.
6. The location of the crystallographic axes is marked by lines with arrow feathering at their ends
(Fig. 20). The c axis will be located at the center of the projection, b to the right, and a at the
bottom (in front; Fig. 20).
7. Axes of rotation or rotary inversion (represented by points) are designated with their usual
symbols at these points (see above; Fig. 20).
8. Symmetry planes are indicated by solid lines (for planes coinciding with or containing the c-axis),
a solid circle coinciding with the primitive circle (if the plane is perpendicular to the c axis) or
solid arcs (representing great circles or planes oriented at an angle of 45 to the c-axis).
9. The size and shape of a crystal face projected are unimportant (and not represented) on a
stereographic projection, but its position relative to other faces is maintained.
10. All faces of the same zone will be represented by points lying on the same great circle. A face
common to 2 zones plots as a point at the intersection of two great circles.
11. Dashed arcs and circles on a stereographic projection represent great circles, which do not
coincide with symmetry planes.
Figures 20 and 21 show stereographic projections and elements of symmetry for the hextetrahedral
class, and some of the forms for the hexoctahedral class. For a detailed explanation of how interfacial
angles are used to plot crystal faces on the stereographic projection with the aid of a Wulf net (Fig. 22),
refer to pages 241 248 of Klein (2002).

Twinning:
Twin Rules:
1- an axis of even fold symmetry can never become a twin axis. Only a 3 fold symmetry axis can
serve as a twin axis
2- Twinning planes never coincide with symmetry planes in either part of the compound crystal.

3- Twins that develop in classes with a center of symmetry have both a twin axis and a
twinning plane perpendicular to it.
4- Twinning results in increased symmetry.

Common Twin Laws:

System

Type

Name

Twin law

Example

Figure

Cubic

Contact

Spinel

plane: { 11 1};

Spinel

23

axis: [11 1 ]
Cubic

Penetration

Iron cross

axis: [001]

Pyrite

24

Tetragonal

Contact

Geniculated
(elbow)

plane: {011}

Cassiterite,
Rutile & Zircon

25

Trigonal

Contact

Calcite

plane: {10 1
1}

Calcite

26

Trigonal

Cyclic

Polysynthetic

plane: { 1
012}

Calcite

27

Trigonal

Contact

Brazil

plane: {11 2
0}

Quartz

28

Trigonal

Contact

Dauphin

axis: [0001]

Quartz

29

Orthorhombic

Cyclic

Cyclic

plane: {110}

Aragonite

30

Orthorhombic

Penetration

Cross twins

plane: {031}

Staurolite

31a

Orthorhombic

Penetration

Oblique cross

plane: {231}

Staurolite

31b

Monoclinic

Contact

Simple

axis [001]

Orthoclase

32a

Monoclinic

Penetration

Carlsbad

axis [001]

Orthoclase

32b

Monoclinic

Contact

Manebach

plane: {001}

Orthoclase

33

Monoclinic

Contact

Baveno

plane: {021}

Orthoclase

34

Monoclinic

Contact

Swallow tail

plane: {100}

Gypsum

35

Triclinic

Cyclic

Albite or
polysynthetic

plane: {010}

Plagioclase
feldspars

36

Triclinic

Cyclic

Pericline

axis: [010]

Plag felds.

37

Part 1: Introduction
Crystallography is a fascinating division of the entire study of mineralogy. Even the non-collector may have an
appreciation for large well-developed beautifully symmetrical individual crystals, like those of pyrite from Spain,
and groups of crystals, such as quartz from Arkansas or tourmaline from California, because they are esthetically
pleasing. To think that such crystals come from the ground "as is" is surprising to many. The lay person simply
hasn't had the opportunity to learn about crystals and why they are the way they are; however, neither have many
rockhounds and hobbyists.
We hope to bring you to a greater appreciation of natural mineral crystals and their forms by giving you some
background and understanding into the world of crystallography. CRYSTALLOGRAPHY is simply a fancy word
meaning "the study of crystals". At one time the word crystal referred only to quartz crystal, but has taken on a
broader definition which includes all minerals with well expressed crystal shapes.
Crystallography may be studied on many levels, but no matter how elementary or in-depth a discussion of the topic
we have, we confront some geometry. Oh no, a nasty 8-letter word! Solid geometry, no less. But stop and think
about it, you use geometry every day, whether you hang sheetrock, pour concrete, deliver the mail, or work on a
computer. You just don't think of it as geometry. Geometry simply deals with spatial relationships. Those
relationships you are familiar with are not intimidating. The key word here is "familiar". We want this series of
articles to help you become more familiar, and, therefore more comfortable, with the geometry involved with the
study of crystal forms.
Crystallography is easily divided into 3 sections -- geometrical, physical, and chemical. The latter two involve the
relationships of the crystal form (geometrical) upon the physical and chemical properties of any given mineral. We
will cover the most significant geometric aspects of crystallography and leave the other topics for later. We do not
intend for this series to be a replacement for a mineralogy textbook, but instead an introduction to the study of
crystallography. During and after reading these articles, you will probably want to examine one or two textbooks for
more detail about individual subjects. I recommend two: Klein and Hurlbut's Manual of Mineralogy (20th edition,
1985) and Ford's Textbook of Mineralogy (4th edition, 1932). Both of these are based on E. S. Dana's earlier classic
publications.
In any type of study, there exists special words used to summarize entire concepts. This is the special language of
the "expert", whether you speak of electrical engineering, computer science, accounting, or crystallography. There's
no real way to get around learning some of these basic definitions and "laws" so we might as well jump right into
them. Get Ready!
First, let's define what we're dealing with. A CRYSTAL is a regular polyhedral form, bounded by smooth faces,
which is assumed by a chemical compound, due to the action of its interatomic forces, when passing, under suitable
conditions, from the state of a liquid or gas to that of a solid. WOW, what a mouthful! Let's dissect that statement. A
polyhedral form simply means a solid bounded by flat planes (we call these flat planes CRYSTAL FACES). "A
chemical compound" tells us that all minerals are chemicals, just formed by and found in nature. The last half of the
definition tells us that a crystal normally forms during the change of matter from liquid or gas to the solid state. In
the liquid and gaseous state of any compound, the atomic forces that bind the mass together in the solid state are not
present. Therefore, we must first crystallize the compound before we can study it's geometry. Liquids and gases take
on the shape of their container, solids take on one of several regular geometric forms. These forms may be
subdivided, using geometry, into six systems.
But before we can begin to discuss the individual systems and their variations, let's address several other topics
which we will use to describe the crystal systems. There's also some laws and rules we must learn.
Way back in 1669, Nicholas Steno, a Danish physician and natural scientist, discovered one of these laws. By
examination of numerous specimens of the same mineral, he found that, when measured at the same temperature,
the angles between similar crystal faces remain constant regardless of the size or the shape of the crystal. So whether

the crystal grew under ideal conditions or not, if you compare the angles between corresponding faces on various
crystals of the same mineral, the angle remains the same.
Although he did not know why this was true (x-rays had not yet been discovered, much less x-ray diffraction
invented), we now know that this is so because studies of the atomic structure of any mineral proves that the
structure remains within a close set of given limits or geometric relationships. If it doesn't, then by the modern
definition of a mineral, we are not comparing the same two minerals. We might be comparing polymorphs, but
certainly not the same mineral! (Polymorphs being minerals with the same chemistry, like diamond and graphite or
sphalerite and wurtzite, but having differing atomic structure and, therefore, crystallizing in different crystal
systems) Steno's law is called the CONSTANCY OF INTERFACIAL ANGLES and, like other laws of physics
and chemistry, we just can't get away from it.
Now, some of you may be thinking: I have a mineral crystal that does not match the pictures in the mineral books.
What you may have is a distorted crystal form where some faces may be extremely subordinate or even missing.
Distorted crystals are common and result from less-than-ideal growth conditions or even breakage and
recrystallization of the mineral. However, remember that we must also be comparing the angles between similar
faces. If the faces are not present, then you cannot compare them. With many crystals we are dealing with a final
shape determined by forces other than those of the interatomic bonding.
During the process of crystallization in the proper environment, crystals assume various geometric shapes dependent
on the ordering of their atomic structure and the physical and chemical conditions under which they grow. If there is
a predominant direction or plane in which the mineral forms, different habits prevail. Thus, galena often forms
equate shapes (cubes or octahedrons), quartz typically is prismatic, and barite tabular.
To discuss the six crystal systems, we have to establish some understanding of solid geometry. To do this, we will
define and describe what are called CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC AXES. Since we are dealing with 3 dimensions, we
must have 3 axes and, for the initial discussion, let's make them all equal and at right angles to each other. This is
the simplest case to consider. The axes pass through the center of the crystal and, by using them, we can describe the
intersection of any given face with these 3 axes.
Mineralogists had to decide what to call each of these axes and what their orientation in each crystal was so that
everyone was talking the same language. Many different systems arose in the early literature. Then, as certain
systems were found to have problems, some were abandoned until we arrived at the notational system used today.
There exists two of these presently in use, complimentary to each other. One uses number notation to indicate forms
or individual faces and the other uses letters to indicate forms. But let's get back to our 3 axes and we'll discuss these
two systems later.
We are going to draw each axis on a sheet of paper and describe its orientation. All you need for this exercise is a
pencil and paper. Make the first axis vertical, and we'll call it the c axis. The top is the + end and the bottom is the end. The second axis, the b axis, is horizontal and passes through the center of the c axis. It is the same length as the
c axis. The right end is the +, and the left is the -. The third axis is the a axis and passes at a right angle through the
join of the b and c axes.
It is somewhat tricky to draw because, even though the a axis is the same
length as the c and b axes, because it goes from front to back it appears
shorter. It is hard to represent a 3-dimensional figure on the 2dimensional surface of paper, but you can do it. You have to use a sense
of perspective, as an artist would say. The front end of a, which appears
to come out of the paper, is the + and the back end the - (appears to be in
the background or behind the paper).
This all sounds complicated, but look at Figure 1 if you are having
problems with drawing the final axis. We always refer to the axes in the
order - a, b, c in any type of notation. The point of intersection of the three axes is called the AXIAL CROSS.

Perspective is a key to drawing 3 dimensional objects on a flat 2D piece of paper. Perspective is what makes railroad
tracks look like they come together in the distance. It is also what causes optical illusions when trying to draw axial
crosses, or line drawings of crystal models. Perhaps you've looked at these lines and tried to decide which one
comes forward, and which one recedes, and then have the illusion flip-flop so that it looks the other way. That's why
they are labeled + and -. It can be confusing, so don't feel like the lone ranger.
We have now reached the point in our discussion that we can actually mention the six large groups or crystal
systems that all crystal forms may be placed in. We will use our crystallographic axes which we just discussed to
subdivide all known minerals into these systems. The systems are:
(1) CUBIC (aka ISOMETRIC) - The three crystallographic axes
are all equal in length and intersect at right angles (90 degrees) to
each other. This is exactly what you drew to obtain Figure 1.
However, we now will rename the axes a1, a2, and a3 because they
are the same length (a becomes a1, b becomes a2, and c becomes
a3).
(2) TETRAGONAL - Three axes, all at right angles, two of which
are equal in length (a and b) and one (c) which is different in length
(shorter or longer). Note: If c was equal in length to a or b, then we
would be in the cubic system! Discussed in part 4.
(3) ORTHORHOMBIC - Three axes, all at right angles, and all
three of different lengths. Note: If any axis was of equal length to any other, then we would be in the tetragonal
system! Discussed in part 5.
(4) HEXAGONAL - Four axes! We must define this situation since it can not be
derived from our Figure 1. Three of the axes fall in the same plane and intersect at the
axial cross at 120 degrees between the positive ends. These 3 axes, labeled a1, a2, and
a3, are the same length. The fourth axis, termed c, may be longer or shorter than the a
axes set. The c axis also passes through the intersection of the a axes set at right angle
to the plane formed by the a set. Look at Figure 2 to see these relationships more
clearly. Discussed in part 6.
(5) MONOCLINIC - Three axes, all unequal in length, two of which (a and c)
intersect at an oblique angle (not 90 degrees), the third axis (b) is perpendicular to the
other two axes. Note: If a and c crossed at 90 degrees, then we would be in the orthorhombic system! Discussed in
part 7.
(6) TRICLINIC - The three axes are all unequal in length and intersect at three different angles (any angle but 90
degrees). Note: If any two axes crossed at 90 degrees, then we would be describing a monoclinic crystal! Discussed
in part 8.
As was stated earlier, all known crystal forms fit into the above six crystal systems. But why don't all crystals in a
given set look the same? Or, stated differently, why can't I learn six crystal shapes and know all I need to know?
Well, crystals, even of the same mineral, have differing CRYSTAL FORMS, depending upon their conditions of
growth. Whether they grew rapidly or slowly, under constant or fluctuating conditions of temperature and pressure,
or from highly variable or remarkably uniform fluids or melts, all these factors have their influence on the resultant
crystal shapes, even when not considering other controls.

We must touch on a type of notation often seen in mineral literature known as Miller Indices. Before William H.
Miller (1801-1880) devised this mathematical system for describing any crystal face or group of similar faces
(forms), there existed a considerable amount of confusion due to the many different descriptive systems. Some of
these systems used letter symbols to denote crystal faces and forms. Also different mineralogical "schools" existed
as to how a given crystal should be viewed or oriented before assigning the crystallographic axes and then
describing the various faces and forms present. If you were of the German school, you had one view; from the
English school another thought; from the French school, still another opinion.
So the problem was really one of how to bring order to the literature's chaos. To the problem, Miller (University of
Cambridge) applied relatively simple mathematics - the Universal Language. To the lettering systems, Miller
described the a,b,c (for hexagonal crystals his notation is four numbers long) intercepts of each planar crystal form
as numbers and also made note of the form letter. His numbering system became widely accepted and is known as
Miller indices. The numbers are presented as whole numbers (fractions are not allowed) and are the reciprocal of the
actual intercept number, all whole numbers being reduced by their lowest common denominator. Here's a couple of
simple examples from the cubic system.
Let us first describe a face of an octahedron and later a cube using
Miller's indices. First, we should realize that an octahedron is an eightsided crystal form that is the simple repetition of an equilateral triangle
about our 3 crystallographic axes. The triangle is oriented so that it
crosses the a1, a2, and a3 axes all at the same distance from the axial
cross. This unit distance is given as 1. Dividing 1 into the whole number
1 (it's a reciprocal, remember?) yields a value of 1 for each Miller
number. So the Miller indices is (111) for the face that intercepts the
positive end of each of the 3 axes. See Figure 3 for all possible numbers
for the 8 faces. Note: A bar over the number tells me that the intercept
was across the negative end of the particular crystallographic axis. The
octahedral form is given the letter designation of "o".

Now to the cube face. A cube face that intercepts the a3 (vertical) axis on
the + end will not intercept the a1 and a2 axes. If the face does not
intercept an axis, then we assign a mathematical value of infinity to it. So
we start with Infinity, Infinity, 1 (a1, a2, a3). Infinity divided into 0 = 0
(any number divided into zero equals zero). So the Miller indices of the
+a3 intercept face equals (001). See the drawing for all possible Miller
indices for the 6 faces of a cube (Figure 4).
I think we should briefly mention cleavage at this point. CLEAVAGE is
the preferred planar direction of breakage that many minerals possess. It
is due to planes of weakness that exist in some minerals because the
bonding strength between the atoms or molecules is not the same in every
direction. Because crystals are composed of orderly arrangements of atoms or molecules, we really should expect
cleavage to be present in many crystals. The notation that denotes cleavage is derived in much the same manner as
Miller indices, but is expressed in braces. So a cubic crystal, say diamond, no matter whether it exhibits cubic {001}
or octahedral {111} crystal form, has an octahedral cleavage form that is given as {111}.
Note: The Miller indices when used as face symbols are enclosed in parentheses, as the (111) face for example.
Form symbols are enclosed in braces, as the {111} form for example. Zone symbols are enclosed in brackets, [111]
for example and denote a zone axis in the crystal. So in the discussion of cleavage (above), you must use braces to
denote cleavage. Cleavage is analogous to form as cubic, octahedral, or pinacoidal cleavage and does not refer to
just one face of a form.

Now we are ready to discuss ELEMENTS OF SYMMETRY. These include PLANES OF SYMMETRY, AXES
OF SYMMETRY, and CENTER OF SYMMETRY. These symmetry elements may be or may not be combined
in the same crystal. Indeed, we will find that one crystal class or system has only one of these elements!

Huh? These parts, when put together, make the planes in figure 6.
Any two dimensional surface (we can call it flat) that, when passed through the center of the crystal, divides it into
two symmetrical parts that are MIRROR IMAGES is a PLANE OF SYMMETRY. I repeat: any plane of
symmetry divides the crystal form into two mirror images. Planes of symmetry are often referred to as mirror image
planes. Let's discuss a cube again. A cube has 9 planes of symmetry, 3 of one set and 6 of another. We must use two
figures to easily recognize all of them.
In Figure 5 the planes of symmetry are parallel to the faces of the cube form, in Figure 6 the planes of symmetry join
the opposite cube edges. The second set corresponds to the octahedral crystal form. Planes of symmetry are always
possible crystal forms. This means that, although not always present on many natural crystals, there exists the
possibility that other crystal faces may be expressed. So even though a cube form does not present an octahedral
face, it is always possible that it could have formed under the right conditions.
The typical human has two hands, right and left. Place them together palms facing away
from you and the tips of the thumbs touching. Assuming that you have the same number
of fingers on each hand, you will note that your right hand is the mirror image of your left
and vise versa. The average person is symmetrical, having binary symmetry vertically
from the head to the feet when viewed from the front or back (bilateral symmetry).
You can have a lot of laughs with friends and a long mirror using this symmetry element.
You need at least one other person to do this so you both can view the results! Using
Figures 5 and 6 as guides, take a wood or plastic cube and see if you can draw with a
marker all the planes of symmetry that are present. Refer to the two figures for help.
It is sometimes convenient to designate planes of symmetry as axial, diagonal, principle, or intermediate. Figure 7 is
an example of the 5 planes of symmetry of the tetragonal system and the proper abbreviated notation.
AXES OF SYMMETRY can be rather confusing at first, but let's have a go at them anyway. Any line through the
center of the crystal around which the crystal may be rotated so that after a definite angular revolution the crystal
form appears the same as before is termed an axis of symmetry. Depending on the amount or degrees of rotation
necessary, four types of axes of symmetry are possible when you are considering crystallography (some textbooks
list five). Given below are all possible rotational axes:

When rotation repeats form every 60 degrees, then we have sixfold or HEXAGONAL SYMMETRY. A filled
hexagon symbol is noted on the rotational axis.
When rotation repeats form every 90 degrees, then we have fourfold or TETRAGONAL SYMMETRY. A filled
square is noted on the rotational axis.
When rotation repeats form every 120 degrees, then we have threefold or TRIGONAL SYMMETRY. A filled
equilateral triangle is noted on the rotational axis.
When rotation repeats form every 180 degrees, then we have twofold or BINARY SYMMETRY. A filled oval is
noted on the rotational axis.
When rotation repeats form every 360 degrees, then we use a filled circle as notation. This one I consider optional to
list as almost any object has this symmetry. If you really want to know the truth, this means NO SYMMETRY!!
Note that rotational axes may be on the plane of the face, on the edge of where
two faces meet, or on the point of conjunction of three or more faces. On a
complete crystal form, the axis must pass through the center of the crystal and
exist at the equivalent site on the opposite side of the crystal as it entered.
Take a solid cube, made of wood or plastic (a clear plastic cube box works well
for this exercise). Mark, using the rotational notation, every four-, three-, and
two-fold axis of rotation that you can find. I think you will be surprised how
many there are! Examine Figure 8 (the cube from hades!) to see how many
symbols you can draw on your cube.
Now I'm sorry that this is not all there is to rotational axes, but there is another situation that we must consider -AXES OF ROTARY INVERSION. This is where the twisted mind has one up on the rest of us (there's a pun in
there somewhere!). We will consider a couple of simple examples.
First, let's examine a a crystal as drawn in Figure 9a at left. Use a piece of "2 by 2" board
and make this crystal form by cutting off the ends so the wood block looks like the
drawing. Hold the block in your left hand with your thumb on the top and in the center of
the 2-face edge join (long axis) and your index finger on the same join on the underside.
Your palm will be toward your body. Align your two fingers so that you are looking
straight down on your thumb and can not see end of your index finger. The top of the
block will appear as 2 equal-sized faces, sloping away from you. If you rotate the block
180 degrees, the faces will be appear back in the same position (2-fold axis of rotation),
but here's the tricky part -- rotate the specimen 90 degrees and then turn your wrist where
your index finger is on top (easiest done by turning your wrist counterclockwise). You
will see that the block's faces appear in the original position in the original position. You
have discovered an axis of rotary inversion!

Fig 9b: Wooden or

Fig 9c:
plastic models are
known in a mineralogy
class as 'idiot blocks'.

Fig 9d: Block rotated 90

degrees around the axis
shown by the dot

Fig 9e: Block rotated

counterclockwise 180
degrees on the axis
shown by the arrow.

See the series of photos (Figures 9 b-9 e) if you get confused. Some textbooks term these axes rotary reflection axes
or rotoinversion axes. There may be 1-, 2-, 3-, 4-, and 6-fold rotary inversion axes present in natural crystal forms,
depending upon the crystal system we are discussing. I refer you to Klein and Hurlbut's Manual of Mineralogy (after
J. S. Dana) if you want to sharpen your axes of rotary inversion skills. With axes of rotation, there is a graphical
notation used which looks like a very bold type-face comma. For axes of rotary inversion, the same symbol is used,
but appears dashed.
Both types of symmetrical rotational axes (discussed above) are commonly plotted on a circle (representing the
complete cycle of one 360 degree rotation). The simple axes of rotation symbol for a face is plotted at the center of
the circle and the axes of rotation and rotary inversion are plotted on the circle's boundary at whatever rotational
angle is appropriate. See Figure 10 for examples.

We have finally come to our last topic of geometric crystallography -- the CENTER OF SYMMETRY. Most
crystals have a center of symmetry, even though they may not possess either planes of symmetry or axes of
symmetry. Triclinic crystals usually only have a center of symmetry. If you can pass an imaginary line from the
surface of a crystal face through the center of the crystal (the axial cross) and it intersects a similar point on a face
equidistance from the center, then the crystal has a center of symmetry. We may discuss this in a little more detail in
the article about the triclinic system.
We now have to consider the relation of geometrical symmetry to CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC SYMMETRY. The
crystal face arrangement symmetry of any given crystal is simply an expression of the internal atomic structure. This
internal structure is generally alike in any parallel direction. But we must keep in mind that the relative size of a
given face is of no importance, only the angular relationship or position to other given crystal faces. Refer back to
Steno's law concerning the CONSTANCY OF INTERFACIAL ANGLES.
Let's consider a crystal in the cubic system with both cube {001} and octahedral {111}
forms represented (Figure 11). In our figure, we have used the letter designation of -a- for
the cube faces and -o- for the octahedral faces. Despite the initial observation that both
the various cube and octahedral faces are unequal in size, the example displays all the

symmetry elements and relationships of a crystal from the cubic system. I hope you now begin to grasp the difficulty
of learning crystallography using natural crystals. Due to a variety of factors, many natural crystals have some
degree of distortion to their growth, causing the faces to vary in size and sometimes shape. In college mineralogy,
this problem was resolved by requiring the classroom use of a set of crystal forms, sometimes made of wood or
plastic. These sets were not-so-fondly termed "idiot blocks" by exasperated students. Once you mastered the various
forms and understood symmetry planes, rotational axes, and form names, then you became recognized as a
"complete idiot" and could go on to examine real minerals!
Depending upon what elements of symmetry are present, all crystals may be divided into 32 distinct groups called
CLASSES OF SYMMETRY. Remember, we concern ourselves with the symmetry elements we learned above,
not the malformed crystal shapes of most minerals. Only forms which belong to the same class can occur in
combination together in nature. We can not find a cube face on a hexagonal crystal. Likewise, we will never
discover the rhombic dipyramid termination of a hexagonal crystal on a tetragonal crystal. So our laws, rules, and
symmetry elements previously discussed prevent chaos in our beautifully symmetrical world of crystallography.
Certainly, when dealing with real crystals, distortion problems can arise! Think of capillary pyrite. Here you have a
cubic crystal which, due to a growth phenomenon, has one axis nearing infinity in length in relation to the other two.
But this is caused by special conditions during growth, not the crystallography.
There are graphical methods of plotting all possible crystal faces and symmetry elements on a type of diagram called
a stereo net. Stereo nets give a way to represent three-dimensional data on a two-dimensional surface (a flat sheet of
paper). A discussion of stereo nets is out of the scope of this paper because to present it adequately would require
much graphing, mathematics, and that each reader possess stereo-net paper. If you wish to attempt any exercises
with stereo nets, I refer you to the previously mentioned textbooks. You can purchase the graph paper at most major
college and university bookstores.
Well, if your faces are all shining, your symmetry now in order, and your axes properly aligned, then stay tuned for
the next article when we consider crystal forms and the 32 symmetry classes. Then we will have the background
necessary to discuss the six crystal systems!

Part 2: Crystal Forms and Symmetry Classes

Let's discuss CRYSTAL FORMS and the 32 SYMMETRY CLASSES! Again we must begin with some definitions.
Unfortunately, the term "form" is loosely used by many people to indicate outward appearance. However, we must
"tighten up" our definition when discussing crystallography. HABIT is the correct term to indicate outward
appearance. Habit, when applied to natural crystals and minerals, includes such descriptive terms as tabular,
equidimensional, acicular, massive, reniform, drusy, and encrusting.

Drusy Quartz in Geode

Tabular Orthoclase Feldspar

Encrusting Smithsonite

As a crystallographer, I use "form" with a more restricted meaning. A FORM is a group of crystal faces, all having
the same relationship to the elements of symmetry of a given crystal system. These crystal faces display the same
physical and chemical properties because the ATOMIC ARRANGEMENT (internal geometrical relationships) of
the atoms composing them is the SAME. The relationship between form and the elements of symmetry is an
important one to grasp, because no matter how distorted a natural crystal may be, certain key elements will be
recognizable to help the student discern what form or forms are present. The term general form has specific meaning
in crystallography. In each crystal class, there is a form in which the faces intersect each crytallographic axes at
different lengths. This is the general form {hkl} and is the name for each of the 32 classes (hexoctahedral class of
the isometric system, for example). All other forms are called special forms.
Let's look at an octahedron as an example (fig. 2.1). All the crystal faces present are the
expression of the repetition of a single form having the Miller indices of {111} about the
three crystallographic axes (remember those from the first article?). Each face on a natural
crystal (octahedral galena or fluorite are examples), when rotated to the position of the
(111) face in the drawing, would have the same shape and orientation of striations, growth
pits or stair steps, and etch pits, if present.
The presence of these features is true whether or not the crystal is well formed or distorted
in its growth. Note that I did NOT state that the faces are necessarily the same size on the
natural crystal!
In fact, due to variations in growth conditions, the faces are usually not. In the literature, you may see a notation,
given as {hkl}. This is the notation, presented as Miller indices for general form. The octahedral form is given as
{111}, the same as the face that intersects all positive ends of the crystallographic axes. A single form may show
closure, as with an octahedron, or may not, as in a pinacoid (an open two-faced form). So every form has an {hkl}
notation. In the case of general notation concerning the hexagonal system, it is {hk-il}
and is read as "h, k, minus i, l".
Before leaving this discussion of form, here are a couple of examples of how
knowledge of the interrelationships of forms and crystal systems may be used.

Someone gives you a quartz crystal and says, "Look at this crystal. It's not normal." Normal to this person, we
assume means an elongate (prismatic), 6-sided crystal form with a 6-faced termination on the free-growth end.
When you examine the "abnormal" crystal, it is highly distorted, broken, and has regrowth faces. Prism faces on
quartz crystals almost always have striations at right angles to the c crystallographic axis and parallel to the plane of
the a1, a2, and a3 axes. These striations are due to the variable growth rates of the terminal faces as the mineral
crystallized. Knowing about the striations and their orientation, you examine the surface of the specimen and, with
reflected light, find the prism faces by their striations.
Terminal (or pyramidal) faces on quartz crystals often exhibit triangular pits or platforms. By finding them, you can
then determine if any other faces that would be really unusual are present. Not finding any unusual faces, you can
return the specimen to the person with the comment, "Well, your crystal is certainly interesting, but it does not have
any unusual forms. What it does display is a complex growth history reflected by its less than ideal crystal shape."
Most people and many collectors recognize unusual habits, but not unusual forms.
They note that the shape of a crystal is odd looking, but don't have the background
in crystallography to know if the crystal is truly unusual. A broken and regrown
quartz crystal is not particularly special, but a quartz crystal with a c pinacoidal
termination is worth noting, as it is a very uncommon form for quartz. I have only
seen a few from one locality. Being the skeptic that I am, I purchased one crystal
which had another mineral coating the termination. I mechanically removed the
coating mineral with the edge of a pocket knife. There for my examination was the c
pinacoid termination {0001}, satisfying me that it was a natural growth form!
A crystal's form may be completely described by use of the Miller's indices and the
Hermann-Mauguin notation of its POINT GROUP SYMMETRY. The latter
notation tells us how to orient the crystal, in each specific crystal class, to recognize which axis (a, b, or c) is
designated as having the highest symmetry. It also tells us what other symmetry elements may be present and where
they are in orientation to the other elements.
I hope I haven't LOST you here. When considering all the literature written about this subject, sometimes I even feel
like I'm rotating on one symmetry axis and not really getting anywhere! Point group symmetry is too complicated to
get into in this discussion, so I refer you to Klein and Hurlbut's Manual of Mineralogy for detailed information.
However, I will discuss some pertinent portions of point group symmetry under each crystallographic class and
introduce its notation for selected crystal forms in each crystal-system article.

Types of Crystal Forms

Note that there are TWO GENERAL TYPES OF FORMS: those that by repetition close on themselves creating a
complete form (termed closed) and those that do not (termed open).
Now for the BAD NEWS. Every form has a name and there are many of them.
The GOOD NEWS is that you already know a few of them, particularly some of the closed forms because we have
been using them in our previous discussions. The cube and octahedron are examples. There are 32 (some say 33)
forms in the nonisometric (noncubic) crystal systems and another 15 forms in the isometric (cubic) system. Let's
start to familiarize ourselves with them by making a tabulation and including the number of faces (below). I begin
the listing with the isometric forms first, all of them being closed forms.

Isometric Crystal Forms

Name

Number
of Faces

Name

Number
of Faces

(1) Cube

9)Tristetrahedron

12

(2) Octahedron

(10) Hextetrahedron

24

(3) Dodecahedron

12

(11) Deltoid dodecahedron 24

(4) Tetrahexahedron 24

(12) Gyroid

24

(5) Trapezohedron

24

(13) Pyritohedron

12

(6) Trisoctahedron

24

(14) Diploid

24

(7) Hexoctahedron

48

(15) Tetartoid

12

(8) Tetrahedron

Non-Isometric Crystal Forms

Name

Number
of Faces

(16) Pedion*

Name

Number
of Faces

(32) Dihexagonal pyramid

12

(17) Pinacoid**

(33) Rhombic dipyramid

(18) Dome or Sphenoid

(34) Trigonal dipyramid

(19) Rhombic prism

(35) Ditrigonal dipyramid

12

(20) Trigonal prism

(36) Tetragonal dipyramid

(21) Ditrigonal prism

(37) Ditetragonal dipyramid

16

(22) Tetragonal prism

(38) Hexagonal dipyramid

12

(23) Ditetragonal prism

(39) Dihexagonal dipyramid

24

(24) Hexagonal prism

(40) Trigonal trapezohedron

(25) Dihexagonal prism

12

(41) Tetragonal trapezohedron 8

(26) Rhombic pyramid

(42) Hexagonal trapezohedron 12

(27) Trigonal pyramid

(43)Tetragonal scalenohedron 8

(28)Ditrigonal pyramid

(44) Hexagonal scalenohedron 12

(29) Tetragonal pyramid

(45) Rhombohedron

(30) Ditetragonal pyramid 8

(46) Rhombic disphenoid

(31) Hexagonal pyramid

(47) Tetragonal disphenoid

*Pedion may appear in several crystal systems

**Pinacoid drawing displays 3 pairs of pinacoid faces from the Orthorhombic system.
Pinacoids appear in several crystal systems.
Now you know why mineralogy students hate idiot blocks! It is important to note that these are simply the possible
INDIVIDUAL FORMS, not the combinations of forms seen on a single
natural crystal.
Fig. 2.4 Peruvian Pyrite, Various Crystal Forms
Pyrite is a common mineral which often exhibits several forms on a single
crystal. One form is usually dominant, presenting the largest faces on the
crystal. Peruvian pyrite commonly has cubic, octahedral, and dodecahedral
forms on a single crystal; sometimes even pyritohedral and diploid faces may
be present. Any of these individual forms may be the dominant one. Crystals
with the same forms present, but with different dominant forms will each
appear very different (fig. 2.4). As we explore each crystal system, there will
be illustrations displaying most of the ideal forms and some drawings
showing combinations of forms often exhibited by individual mineral crystals.

Part 3: The Cubic (Isometric) System

Now that you have read the two previous articles, you are ready to consider the first of our 6 crystal systems. So let's
begin.
There are 15 forms, all closed, in the ISOMETRIC CRYSTAL SYSTEM-- more than in any other single system
we will examine. You may wish to briefly refer back to the first article in this series, when we built an axial cross. In
the isometric system, all 3 crystallographic axes are at right angles to each other and are the same length. The axes
are renamed a1, a2, and a3. We need to remember that a3 is vertical, a2 is horizontal, and a1
is front to back.
Crystal forms in the isometric system have the highest degree of SYMMETRY, when compared
to all the other crystal systems. Did you know that there is only ONE object in the geometrical
universe with perfect symmetry? Considerthe sphere (fig. 3.1). Infinite planes of symmetry pass
through its center, infinite rotational axes are present, and no matter how little or much you rotate
it on any of its infinite number of axes, it appears the same! A sphere is the HOLY GRAIL of
symmetry!!
No crystal system even approaches a sphere's degree of symmetry, but the isometric system is often quickly
recognizable because some of the forms and combinations of forms somewhat approach sphericity (or, at least,
roundness), especially when the faces begin to be curved, due to the high degree of symmetry in the isometric
system.
Let's begin by looking at the Hermann-Mauguin notation for the first seven isometric forms and each form's
notation:

Cube {001}
Dodecahedron {011}
Octahedron {111} Tetrahexahedron {0kl}

Trapezohedron {hhl}
Trisoctahedronv {hll}

Hexoctahedron {hkl}

For these forms, the 3 crystallographic axes are axes of 4-fold rotation. There are also 4 diagonal axes of 3-fold
rotary inversion that pass through the form at the point where the cube's 3 faces would join. Furthermore, there are 6
directions of 2-fold symmetry (at the center of the line formed by the intersection of 2 planes). There is also a center
of symmetry. There are 9 mirror planes (see figs. 1.5 and 1.6 in first article in this series). This combination of
symmetry elements defines the highest possible symmetry of crystals. So the Hermann-Mauguin notation is 4/m32/m.
In a textbook, my notation (-3) is presented as the number 3 with a negative sign above it, but due to computers and
web browsers, I can't place this special notation properly in cyberspace, so don't get confused if you look this up in a
mineralogy book! It should be pronounced as "negative 3" or "bar3". In this instance, the -3 is the notation for the 3fold axis of rotary inversion. I will consistently use the negative sign before the number when it is necessary. The
same stands true for my notation when dealing with Miller indices or general form notation.
Crystallographers group forms by their symmetry notation, the first seven we will consider have the same symmetry
- 4/m-32/m.
CUBE-- The cube is composed of 6 square faces at 90 degree angles to each other. Each
face intersects one of the crystallographic axes and is parallel to the other two (fig. 3.2).
This form, {001}, is one of the easiest to recognize and many minerals display it with little
modification. Think of galena, pyrite, fluorite, perovskite, or halite cubes!

OCTAHEDRON-- The octahedron is a form composed of 8 equilateral triangles. These

triangle-shaped faces intersect all 3 crystallographic axes at the same distance, thus the form
notation of {111} (fig. 3.3). Minerals commonly exhibiting the simple octahedral form are
magnetite, chromite, franklinite, spinel, pyrochlore, cuprite, gold, and diamond. Sometimes
fluorite, pyrite, and galena take this form.

DODECAHEDRON (AKA Rhombic Dodecahedron) -- This form is composed of 12 rhombshaped faces (fig. 3.4). Each of these rhomb-shaped faces intersects two of the axes at
equidistance and is parallel to the 3rd axis, thus the notation {011}. The different mineral
species of the garnet group often display this form. Magnetite and sodalite sometimes exhibit
this form.

TETRAHEXAHEDRON-- This form has 24 isoceles triangular faces. The easiest way to understand its shape is to
envision a cube that on each face has 4 equal-sized triangular faces (fig. 3.5) that have been raised from the center of
the cube face. Each triangular face has its base attached to the edge of the cube and the apex of the two equal-length
sides rises to meet the 4-fold axis. Because of the variation of inclination to this axis, there exists a number of
possible tetrahexahedral forms, but all meet the general notation of {0hl}.
The most common form is {012}. It is interesting to note that as the combination of each set of 4 faces rise along the
axis, this form approaches the dodecahedron. As they fall, the form approaches a cube. The tetrahexahedron is rarely
the dominant form on natural crystals, instead being subordinant to the cube, octahedron or dodecahedron (fig. 3.6).
Cubic minerals on which you may sometimes see this form exhibited include fluorite (cube and tetrahexahedron),
magnetite or copper (octahedron and tetrahexahedron) and garnet (dodecahedron and tetrahexahedron).

TRAPEZOHEDRON (AKA Tetragon-trioctahedron) -- This form has 24 similar trapezium-shaped faces. If my

Webster's is correct, a trapezium is a 4-sided plane that has no sides parallel. Each of these faces intersects a
crystallographic axis at a unit distance and the other two axes at equal distances, but those intersections must be
greater than the unit distance. It sounds pretty complicated, but see the drawing (fig. 3.7). Because there may be

various intercepts distances on the two axes, the form symbol {hhl} in general is used. The most common mineral
form is {112}. Two silicate minerals, analcime and leucite, usually crystallize as simple trapezohedrons. This form
is not uncommon, varying from dominant to subordinate, on many varieties of garnet, where it is often combined
with the dodecahedron (fig. 3.8).
TRISOCTAHEDRON (AKA Trigonal Trisoctahedron ) -- This is another 24-faced form,
but the faces are isoceles triangles. Each face intersects two crystallographic axes at unity,
and the third axes at some multiple of unity; hence the form notation in general of {hll}.
To more easily visualize what a trisoctahedron looks like, first think of an octahedron. Each
octahedral face is divided into 3 isoceles triangles by drawing 3 lines, each originating at the
center of the octahedral face and reaching the 3 corners of that face. Repeat this operation for
the remaining 7 faces on an octahedron and you have a trisoctahedron (fig. 3.9). As a
dominant form, the trisoctahedron is scarce, most commonly being reported for diamond,
usually as a subordinant form (fig. 3.10).

It has recently been demonstrated that trisoctahedral diamond is probably not a true crystal
form (true crystal forms are growth forms), but instead a solution form caused by the
differential dissolving of octahedral diamond during its transport from the mantle to the
crust, but that's another story altogether! As a subordinant form, it has been reported in
combination with the octahedron for fluorite and magnetite and in combination with cube
and octahedron on complex crystals of galena.

HEXOCTAHEDRON-- This form has 48 triangular faces, 6 faces appearing to be raised

from each face of a simple octahedron. These may be envisioned by drawing a line from the
center of each of the 3 edges of an octahedral face, through the face center to the opposite
corner. Repeat this for the remaining 7 faces of an octahedron and you have a hexoctahedron
(fig. 3.11).

Just like the trisoctahedral form, this form is most often seen on diamond, where it is thought
to represent a solution form derived from an octahedron, not true crystallization. With both
the tris- and hexoctahedron, the faces are often curved, resulting in a near spherical shape.
The combination of dominant dodecahedron and subordinant hexoctahedron is not
uncommon for garnet (fig. 3.12)

We have 8 remaining forms in the isometric system to consider. The next 4 have the Hermann-Mauguin notation of
-43m. These are the tetrahedron, tristetrahedron, deltoid dodecahedron, and hextetrahedron.

TETRAHEDRON-- The tetrahedron includes both a positive and negative form with the
notation {111} and {1-11}, respectively. These are simple mirror images of one another. A
tetrahedron is a 4-faced form, each face being an equilateral triangle.
Each face intersects all 3 crystallographic axes at the same distance. You may derive this
form from an octahedron by extending alternate faces until they meet (this also shrinks the
opposing set of alternate faces until they disappear).

Figure 3.13 displays the orientation of the tetrahedral form in relation to the cube. We aren't
just speculating that both the positive and negative forms exist because they are often seen
together (fig. 3.14) on a single crystal!
If both positive and negative forms are equal sized on a single crystal, then the initial
appearance of the crystal form is INDISTINGUISHABLE from an octahedron. Here is
where the differences in and orientation of surface features become exceedingly important in
form study. One mineral so commonly has this crystal form that the mineral was named after
the form itself - tetrahedrite. Other examples are diamond, helvite, and sphalerite.
TRISTETRAHEDRON-- By now, I think you might be able to tell me from my previous
examples how to derive this form. Yep, take a tetrahedron and raise 3 isoceles triangleshaped faces on each of the 4 tetrahedral faces. So this form has 12 triangular faces (fig.
3.15).

Just like the tetrahedron, there are both positive and negative forms, designated as {hhl} and
{h-hl}, respectively.This is only a relatively common form on tetrahedrite, usually
subordinant to the tetrahedron (fig. 3.16), but has also been reported on sphalerite and
boracite. The possibility of it being present on diamond can't be overlooked, but as
mentioned, it may be the result of solution processes, rather than crystallization.

HEXTETRAHEDRON-- Again, we take a tetrahedron and, in similar manner as the

hexoctahedron, we raise 6 triangular faces having a common apex from the center of the
equilateral triangular face of the tetrahedron. Repeating this on the entire tetrahedron results
in 24 faces (fig. 3.17). There are both positive and negative forms, designated as {hkl} and
{h-kl}, respectively. This form has been reported on tetrahedrite, but rarely on sphalerite.
Also a possible solution form on diamond.

DELTOID DODECAHEDRON-- This is a 12-faced form, derived by raising 3 4-sided

faces on the each face of a tetrahedron (fig. 3.18). The shape of the resultant faces are
rhombic. There are both positive and negative forms, designated as {hll} and {h-ll},
respectively. This form is sometimes seen as a subordinate one on tetrahedrite or sphalerite,

where it would appear as a set of 3 rhombic faces modifying the corners of the dominant tetrahedral shape.

Now we have only 4 remaining forms to discuss in the isometric system. The first to consider is the gyroid.
GYROID (Pentagon-trioctahedron)-- This form has no center of
symmetry! The Hermann-Mauguin notation is 432. There are two forms,
based on right- and left-handed symmetry (fig. 3.19). Older mineral
textbooks state that this is a rare form, sometimes reported on cuprite.
But most recent textbooks indicate that a restudy of cuprite's
crystallography showed cuprite to probably be hexoctahedral. If this is
so, then we have no natural mineral that crystallizes with this form,
although some laboratory-grown crystals with this form are known.

Two of the 3 remaining forms have 3 2-fold rotational axes, 4 3-fold rotary inversion axes, and 3 of the axial planes
are mirror planes of symmetry. The Hermann-Mauguin notation is 2/m-3. These forms consist of the pyritohedron
and the diploid.
PYRITOHEDRON (Pentagonal dodecahedron)-- There are 12 pentagonal faces, each of
which intersects one crystallographic axis at unity, intersects a second axis at some multiple
of unity, and is parallel to the third axis. There are positive and negative forms, designated as
{h0l} and {0kl}, respectively. There are a number of pyritohedral forms, differing due to the
degree of inclination of the faces. The most common form is the {102}, the positive form
(fig. 3.20). Pyrite is the only common mineral that displays this form. It is often subordinate,
combining with the cube, diploid (below), or octahedron.]

DIPLOID (Didodecahedron)-- There are 24 faces (fig. 3.21), each face corresponding to
one-half of the faces of a hexoctahedron. This is a rare form. You should compare figures
3.20 and 3.21. The diploid looks like a pyritohedron where two faces are made from each
pentagonal face of the pyritohedron. The resulting faces are trapezia. There are both positive
and negative forms, designated as {hkl} and {khl}, respectively. Pyrite is the only common
mineral that exhibits the diploid form.

Believe it or not, we just reached the last form of the isometric minerals! If you are still with me at this point
(mentally and physically), then I submit that you either 1) had little to do today to have the time to read this entire
article, 2) are doing this to avoid starting a major project (like a term paper), 3) have a mental health problem and
need serious counseling, or 4) are serious about learning more concerning Crystallography! So, let's grab this last
form, the tetartoid (say it 10 times - real fast), and finish it off.
TETARTOID (pentagon-tritetrahedron)-- The Hermann-Mauguin notation is 23. It has 3 2fold rotation crystallographic axes and 4 diagonal axes that have 3-fold rotational symmetry.
There are actually 4 separate forms in this class: positive right {hkl}, positive left {khl},
negative right {k-hl}, and negative left {h-kl}. See figure 3.22 for the positive right form.
Cobaltite, an uncommon mineral, often crystallizes in this form. The tetartoid may be present
as a subordinate form in combination with the cube, dodecahedron, pyritohedron,
tetrahedron, and deltoid dodecahedron.

Do you remember the naturalist Steno from the 16th century?? We mentioned him in the introductory article. Well,
here's some information that he and later crystallographer's discovered about isometric crystals and the interfacial
angles of some of the different forms. This information could come in handy when you are deciding which of the
common forms you have present on complex isometric crystals.

The angle between two adjoining cube faces is 90 degrees.

The angle between two adjoining octahedral faces is 70 degrees 32 minutes.
The angle between two adjoining dodecahedral faces is 60 degrees.
The angle between a cube (100) and a octahedron (111) is 54 degrees 44 minutes.
The angle between a cube (100) and a dodecahedron (110) is 45 degrees.
The angle between an octahedron (111) and a dodecahedron (110) is 35 degrees 16 minutes.

Part 4: The Tetragonal System

So you didn't get enough punishment in Article 3 and are back for more. Don't say we didn't warn you that thinking
about all this crystallography stuff is addictive and will warp your sense of priorities! You either love these articles
by now or are totally masochistic. The lack of geometrical reasoning necessary to understand crystallography and
symmetry is what drove a lot of college wannabe
geologists into the College of Business! Let's begin...
Our discussion of the TETRAGONAL SYSTEM
starts by examining the tetragonal axial cross and
comparing it to the isometric axial cross (Article 3).
Remember that in the isometric system all 3 axes were
the same length and at right angles to each other. In the
tetragonal system, we retain the same angular
relationships, but vary the length of the vertical axis,
allowing it to be either longer or shorter than the other two. We then relabel the
vertical axis as c, retaining the same positive and negative orientation of this axis (see
fig. 4.1a and 4.1b)
As to the Hermann-Mauguin notation for the tetragonal system, the first part of the
notation (4 or -4) refers to the c axis and the second or third parts refer to the a1 and a2 axes and diagonal symmetry
elements, in that order. The tetragonal prism and pyramid forms have the symmetry notation 4/m2/m2/m.
First, I want to consider the tetragonal prisms. There are 3 of these open forms consisting of the 1st order, 2nd
order, and ditetragonal prisms. Because they are not closed forms, in our figures we will add a simple pinacoid
termination, designated as c. The pinacoid form intersects only the c axis, so its Miller indices notation is {001}. It is
a simple open 2-faced form.

The first order prism is a form having 4 faces that are parallel to the c axis and having each face intersect the a1 and
a2 axes at the same distance (unity). These faces are designated by the letter m (given with Miller indices in fig. 4.2a
and by m in fig. 4.2c) and the form symbol is {110}. The second order prism is essentially identical to the first order
prism, but rotated about the c axis to where the faces are parallel to one of the a axes (fig. 4.2b), thus being
perpendicular to the other a axis. The faces of the second order prism are designated as a and their form symbol is
{100}.
It becomes apparent that the faces of both prisms are identical, and their letter designation is only dependent on how
they are oriented to the two a axes. When these forms are combined (fig. 4.2c), then you may readily see their
relationships, one to the other. If each form is equally developed, the result is an eight-sided
prism. In this instance, we must remember that this apparent shape is the combination of two
distinct forms. The third prism form is the ditetragonal prism (fig. 4.3, the common {210}
form). It may easily be confused with the combination form of the first and second order

prisms, especially if they are equally developed. But compare the orientation of the ditetragonal prism to the a axes
in relation to the combination form. What you should do is envision looking down the c axis of the ditetragonal
prism and the combined 1st and 2nd order tetragonal prisms, then you will see the similarity.
The ditetragonal prism {210} would closely approximate the combined prism forms, and with natural
malformations, could be indistinguishable one from the other. When examining a natural crystal surface, features,
such as orientation of striations, growth or etch pits, may be different on the two prisms of the combined form,
whereas with the ditetragonal prism all these features will have the same orientation. The ditetragonal prism has the
symbol (hk0).
The blue lines indicating the a axes are projected additionally on the top and bottom of this shaded drawing, so you
can understand the perspective of this eight sided "stop sign" form.
Another form in the tetragonal system is the dipyramid and -- yes,
you guessed it -- there are 3 types of dipyramids. They correspond to
the three types of prisms just described. The name dipyramid is given
to a closed form whose plane intersects all three axes (this is true in all
crystal systems but the isometric).
We do not allow this form to intersect the c axis at the same length as
the a axes, because we already defined that form as an octahedron in
the isometric system. So it can intersect at either a longer or shorter
distance along the c axis than the length of the a axes. Note the orientation to the axial cross
(fig. 4.4, the common {111} form). We designate the faces of the first order dipyramid as p.
The second order dipyramid has the basic shape as the form of the first order dipyramid,
differing only in its orientation to the axial cross (fig. 4.5, the common {011} form). The
second order dipyramid faces are designated by the letter e.
Zircon is a wonderful mineral to observe both the tetragonal dipyramid and tetragonal prism faces on. In fact, you
might be surprised at the variation of the length of the c axis in zircon crystals from different localities. Zircon may
vary from short stocky nearly equidimensional crystals to almost acicular and have the same basic forms. Before we
discuss the 3rd dipyramid form, you need to look at the various drawings in Figure 4.6 to realize the variety of what
may be produced by combining these simple tetragonal forms. In figure 4.6c, the faces designated as u represent
another 1st order dipyramid with a different angle of intersection with the vertical axis.

Now to the 3rd dipyramid form, the ditetragonal dipyramid. Yes, it's a closed termination form having 16 faces
(fig. 4.7). Think of this form as a double 8-sided pyramid whose 16 similar faces meet the 3
axes at unequal distances. The general symbol is {hkl}. This form is rarely dominant, but is
common enough as a subordinant form on zircon to be nicknamed a zirconoid. Anatase may
also have this form expressed. The ditetragonal prism is often combined with the 1st order
prism. In figure 4.7, although the prism is not present and therefore is simply at the junction
of the two faces, we have marked its position if it had been expressed by an arrow and the
letter m.
The next forms in this system to consider have the Hermann-Mauguin symmetry notation of
-42m. These closed forms include the tetragonal scalenohedron (AKA rhombic
scalenohedron) and the disphenoid (AKA tetragonal tetrahedron). Important to remember
with both these forms is the existence of a 4-fold axis of rotary inversion.
The tetragonal disphenoid exists as both a positive and negative
form. It has only 4 faces (fig. 4.8a). Both forms may be
expressed on a single crystal (fig. 4.8b). The faces are designated
by the letter p for the positive form and p1 for the negative form.
This form differs from the tetrahedron of the isometric system in
that the vertical axis is not the same length as the other two axes.
The only common mineral in this class is chalcopyrite. Any
mineral thought to be in this class must have very accurate
interfacial angle measurements made to prove it is tetragonal and
not isometric.

The tetragonal scalenohedron (fig. 4.9) is rare by itself, but is often expressed with other
forms on chalcopyrite and stannite. It may be derived from the disphenoid form of this
system by drawing a line from one corner of each disphenoid face to the center of the line
joining the two opposite corners, and raising two faces from the resulting division. Thus,
from a 4-faced disphenoid form, we derive an 8-faced form. If you are still having trouble
visualizing the form in figure 4.9, you might try thinking of it as the combination of 4
classic diamond - shaped kites, every other one in an upside down orientation! This form
really was a problem for my illustrator to draw!

An open form in this system is the ditetragonal pyramid, whose general notation is
{hkl} (fig. 4.10). This form has no symmetry plane in relation to the 2 horizontal a axes.
The symmetry notation is 4mm. Two orientations of this form in relation to the a axes
exist, one noted as {hhl} and the other as {h0l}. Along with the ditetragonal pyramid
may be an open single-faced form termed a pedion, having a Miller indices of {001}. The
pedion will be a single face perpendicular to the c axis that "cuts off" the sharp
termination of the ditetragonal pyramid. There are upper and lower forms for both the
ditetragonal pyramid and the pedion, the upper being considered positive and the lower
negative (just like the orientation of the c axis).
The ditetragonal pyramid looks like one half of the ditetragonal dipyramid, but on a wellformed example is present on only one end of the c axis! This form is rarely dominant,
usually being subordinant to other common prism and dipyramidal forms. Diaboleite is the only mineral known to
represent this crystal class. It is interesting to note that although the mineral diaboleite was first described in 1923, it
was not until 1941 that crystallographers had comprehensively investigated its forms, allowing the recognition of
this form. In literature earlier than 1941, you will find the note that no mineral is known to exist in this crystal class.

The tetragonal trapezohedron is the next form to consider. It is a closed form consisting
of 8 trapezohedral faces, which correspond to half the faces of the ditetragonal dipyramid.
Its symmetry notation is 422, having a 4-fold rotational axis parallel to the c axis and 2 2fold axes at right angles to the c axis. Missing are a center of symmetry and any
mirror planes. There exists right- and left-handed forms (fig. 4.11). Only phosgenite
represents this crystal class.

In a simple form drawing (designated as e in figs. 4.12a

and 4.12b), the tetragonal dipyramid appears to have a
higher symmetry than 4/m, but when viewed as
displayed on an actual crystal of scheelite (blue faces on
fig. 4.12b), the true symmetry is revealed.Minerals
possibly expressing this closed crystal form, aside from
scheelite,include powellite, fergusonite, and members of
the scapolite group.

Our next form is an interesting one in that it possesses only a 4-fold axis of rotary
inversion corresponding to the c axis. Its symmetry notation is -4. The closed form of
this tetragonal disphenoid (AKA tetragonal tetrahedron) possesses only 4 faces,
which are isoceles triangles (fig. 4.13).
Without other modifying forms, like the pinacoid and tetragonal prisms, the form will
appear to have two vertical symmetry planes present, giving it the symmetry of -42m
(like the disphenoid we discussed above). Only one mineral - cahnite - is known to
represent this class.

We have now reached our final form in the tetragonal system. Although it looks simple,
it, like the last form, has very low symmetry. The tetragonal pyramid (AKA hemihedral
hemimorphic) is an open form with only a 4-fold axis of rotation corresponding to the c
axis (fig. 4.14). The term hemimorphic sounds fancy, but is simply a short way of saying
that it appears that only half a form is displayed! No center of symmetry or mirror
planes exist in this class. It has both upper {hkl} and lower {hk-l) forms, each having
right- and left-hand variations. Two other tetragonal pyramids have the general form
notation of {hhl} and {0kl}, depending on their form orientation to the axial cross.
Wulfenite is the only mineral species to represent this form, although its crystals do not
always show the difference between the pyramidal faces, above and below, to characterize distinct complimentary
forms.
Well now! That was a little tedious, but certainly not that difficult. Maybe you are beginning to feel more
comfortable with crystallographer's terminology. We hope you now understand that by simply stretching or
compressing the vertical axis of the axial cross we had used previously in the isometric system, we defined the
tetragonal system. Then, by examining the presence or absence of the various symmetry elements (mirror planes,
axes of rotation, and center of symmetry), we were able to describe all possible crystal forms in the tetragonal

system. Many crystallographers prefer to tackle the hexagonal system next because it has its corollaries in the
tetragonal system, but we would rather play around and vary the length of yet another axis of our axial cross and see
what comes of it in Article 5 - the Orthorhombic system.
So until that time, consider the symmetrical world around you and don't be afraid to look at your own mirror
image!

Part 5: The Orthorhombic System

Now we are ready to consider the Orthorhombic system. We again will start by examining the axial cross for this
system. If you remember in Article 4, the tetragonal system, we held the a and b axes the same length (a1 and a2)
and varied the length of the c axis. Well, in the orthorhombic system, we will continue the 90 degree angular
relationships between all 3 axes, but will vary the length of each individual axis. Note that THE 3 AXES MUST
BE UNEQUAL IN LENGTH. If any two are equal, then, by convention, we are
discussing the tetragonal system.
In Figure 5.1, by current practice we orient any crystal in this system so that the length
of c is greater than the length of a, which, in turn, is greater than the length of b. You
will commonly find this in textbooks as "c<a<b".
There may also be 3 mirror symmetry planes, which must be at right angles to each
other. But guess what! In the past, mineralogists have not always observed the axial
length practice given here, and presently, the consensus is to conform when possible to
the existing literature. This reason is why we will encounter some special orientation
situations when dealing with certain common orthorhombic minerals.

When examining an orthorhombic crystal, we find that the highest obtainable symmetry is 2-fold. In a simple form,
like the combination of the 3 pinacoids (open form), the crystal takes on an elongate, and often tabular appearance.
These are typical forms to see expressed on barite and celestine.
The 3 pinacoids are at right angles to each other and usually the orientation of a given crystal to the axes is
accomplished by an examination of the habit and any apparent cleavage. In topaz, the prominent pinacoidal cleavage
is in the plane of the 2 shortest axes and perpendicular to the longest axis, so by convention, it is considered
perpendicular to the c axis.
However, you will often encounter the situation where a given crystal displays a very prominent pinacoid and the
crystal is tabular in form. In such a case, we then consider the c axis at right angle to the prominent pinacoid and the
crystal is oriented as in Figure 5.2. This is a much different appearance than the example of topaz, noted in the
paragraph above.

The orthorhombic system has 3 general symmetry classes, each expressed by its own Hermann-Mauguin
notation.
Let's look at the forms designated by the symmetry 2/m2/m2/m. There are 3 of these (have you noticed that almost
everything mentioned in this article is in 3's!): the pinacoid (also called the parallelohedron); the rhombic prism;
and the rhombic dipyramid.

The pinacoid consists of 2 parallel faces, and can occur in the 3 different
crystallographic orientations. These are the pair that intercept the c axis and
are parallel to the a and b axes {001}; the pair that intercept the b axis and
are parallel to the a and c axes {010}; and the pair that intercept the a axis
and are parallel to the b and c axes {100}. They are called the c pinacoid,
the b pinacoid, and the a pinacoid, respectively (fig. 5.3).
The rhombic prism, an open form, consists of 4 faces which are parallel to
1 axis and intersect the other two. There are 3 of these rhombic prisms and
they are given by the general notational forms: {hk0}, which is parallel to
the c axis; {h0l}, which is parallel to the b axis; and {0kl}, which is parallel to the a axis. Figure 5.4 a,b,c present the
3 rhombic prisms, each in combination with a corresponding pinacoidal form. Only the positive face of the rhombic
prism is labeled in these examples.

5.4a Prism {110} and

pinacoid {001}

5.4b Prism {101} and

pinacoid {010}

5.4c Rhombic prism {011}

and pinacoid {100}

However, we may discover after examining a large number of different orthorhombic minerals that we see a large
number of prism forms expressed on a single crystal, and these forms cannot be expressed with unity in their
numbers because their intersects upon the horizontal axes are not proportionate to their unit lengths. This is where
our general symbol notation comes in handy. In the old days of crystallography, these forms were designated as
either macroprisms or bracyprisms, depending on whether h > k or k > h. A macroprism has the general symbol of
{h0l} and a bracyprism has the general symbol of {hk0}.

5.5a Macro- Brachy- and

Basal Pinacoids

5.5b Prism and Basal Pinacoid

5.5c

With Figure 5.5, we have 3 sets of prisms expressed by the letter designations of m, l, and n, and a pinacoid face
letter-designated as a.
The rhombic dipyramid is the last form to consider of this symmetry class. It is designated by the general form
{hkl} and consists of 8 triangular faces, each of which intersects all 3 crystallographic axes. This pyramid may have
several different appearances due to the variability of the axial lengths (figs. 5.6 a,b,c).

5.6a Rhombic dipyramid

5.6b

5.6c Sulfur crystal

A relatively large number of orthorhombic minerals are encountered with combinations of the various forms
presented so far. These include andalusite, the members of the aragonite and barite group, brookite, chrysoberyl, the
orthopyroxenes, goethite, marcasite, olivine, sillimanite, stibnite, sulfur, and topaz.
Next to consider are the few forms having the symmetry mm2 (termed the rhombic pyramidal). The two-fold
rotational axis corresponds to the c crystallographic axis and the 2 mirror planes (at right angles to each other)
intersect this axis. Due to the fact that no horizontal mirror plane exists, forms at the top and bottom of the crystal
are different. Look at Figure 5.7a. Also, due to the lack of the horizontal mirror plane, there exists no prisms, but
instead we have 2 domes in place of each of the prisms (do you remember that a dome consists of 2 faces that
intersect each other, but have no corresponding parallel faces on the other end of the crystal?). Think of the minerals
hemimorphite (fig. 5.7b), struvite (fig. 5.7c) or bertrandite when you think of this symmetry class.

5.7a Rhombic pyramid

And now to the last (and the lowest)
symmetry class of the orthorhombic
system, the rhombic disphenoid.
The form has also been called the
rhombic tetrahedron. It has the
symmetry notation of 222, that is 3 axes of
2-fold rotation which correspond with the
3 crystallographic axes.

5.7b Hemimorphite

5.7c Struvite

I'm sorry, but there is just no other symmetry here! The forms are, however, enantiomorphic, that is to say present as
right and left images (fig. 5.8). These closed forms consist of 2 upper triangular faces which alternate with 2 lower
triangular faces, the pair of upper faces being offset by 90 degrees in relation to the pair of lower faces.

Figure 5.9
Pinacoids and prisms may also exist in this class. The most common mineral in this crystal class is
epsomite (fig. 5.9). Note that in Figure 5.9 the rhombic disphenoid is designated by the letter z and
the unit prism by m.
Well, well. Now we have completed the orthorhombic system and we have looked at 3 (again a 3) of
the 6 crystal systems! What do you think? I hope it has been interesting to read and consider the
geometry of these crystal systems. It has been interesting for me to write about them. I think the artist began to get a
little bored drawing all these figures, so started to use some color to liven things up a bit! I do like it.
This is the "hump" article as we have completed 5 of the 9 in the series. In fact, you might even consider it the
'center of symmetry' of the series and our journey. But so much for looking in the rearview mirror at where we've
been, better to look and see where we are going - to that land where symmetry becomes less and less a factor! But
before we go begin to lose more of our symmetry, I want to take a side road to the Hexagonal world, where we can
look at all manner of items from either 3 or 6 directions in the next installment, Article 6.

Part 6: The Hexagonal System

Now we will consider the only crystal system that has 4 crystallographic axes! You will find that the Miller indices
should actually be termed Bravais indices, but most people, probably out of habit, still call them Miller indices.
Because there are 4 axes, there are 4 letters or numbers in the notation.
The forms of the hexagonal system are defined by the axial cross relationships. The
hexagonal axes (fig. 6.1) consist of 4 axes, 3 of which are of equal length and in the same
plane, as proposed by Bravais. These 3 axes, labeled a1, a2, and a3 have an angular
relationship to each other of 120 degrees (between the + ends). At right angle
(geometrical mathematicians say "normal") to the plane of the a axes is the c axis. Its
length may vary from less than to greater than the length of any of the a axes. It will not
equal the length of an a axis, however.
Note the orientation of the 4 axes and their + and - ends. If viewed vertically (down the c
axis), the axes divide a circle into 6 equal parts and the axial notation reads (starting with a +) as +,-,+,-,+,-. The
positive and negative ends alternating. In stating the indices of any face, four numbers (the Bravais symbol) must be
given. In the Hermann-Mauguin symmetry notation, the first number refers to the principal axis of symmetry, which
is coincident with c in this case. The second and third symbols, if present, refer to the symmetry elements parallel
with and normal to the a1, a2, a3 crystallographic axes, respectively.
Now, surprise!! We find that the Hexagonal system has two divisions, based on symmetry. There are seven possible
classes, all having 6-fold symmetry, in the Hexagonal division and five possible classes, all having 3-fold
symmetry, in the Trigonal division. The general symbol for any form in the Hexagonal system is {hk-il}. The
angular relation of the three horizontal axes (a1, a2, a3) shows that the algebraic sum of the indices h, k, i, is equal to
0.

The Hexagonal Division

Now, let's begin to consider the first class of the Hexagonal division. The Normal or Dihexagonal dipyramidalclass
has 6-fold symmetry around the c or vertical axis. It also has 6 horizontal axes of 2-fold symmetry, 3 of which
correspond to the 3 horizontal crystallographic axes and 3 which bisect the angles between the axes. It's HermannMauguin notation is 6/m2/m2/m. Confused? Check out figure 6.2a and 6.2b which show the symmetry elements of
this class, associated with axes and mirror planes.

Rotational symmetry elements

Symmetry planes

There are 7 possible forms which may be present in the Dihexagonal Dipyramidal class:

Form
1. Base or basal pinacoid
2. First order prism
3. Second order prism
4. Dihexagonal prism
5. First order pyramid
6. Second order pyramid
7. Dihexagonal dipyramid

Number of Faces
2
6
6
12
12
12
24

Miller Indices
(0001)
(10-10)
(11-20)
(hk-i0) example: (21-30)
(h0-hl) example: (10-11), (20-21)
(hh2hl) example: (11-22)
(hk-il) example: (21-31)

Form Expression
open
open
open
open
closed
closed
closed

See figures 6.3 through 6.8 (below) for what these forms look like.

First order hexagonal

prism and c pinacoid

Second order hexagonal

prism and c pinacoid

Dihexagonal prism
and c pinacoid

First order hexagonal

dipyramid

Second order hexagonal

dipyramid

Dihexagonal
dipyramid

The two faces of the Base, or basal pinacoid, are normal to the c axis and parallel
to each other, and are generally denoted by the italic letter c. Their Miller indices
are (0001) and (000-1).

The first and second order prisms cannot be distinguished from one another, as they each appear as a regular
hexagonal prism with interfacial angles of 60 degrees, but when viewed down the c axis, as in figure 6.9, the
relationships of the two forms to each other and to the a axes are readily noted.
The dihexagonal prism is a 12-sided prism bounded by 12 faces, each parallel to the vertical (c) axis. If you had
both first and second order prisms equally expressed on the same crystal, you could not easily tell them apart from
the dihexagonal form. See figure 6.5.

Corresponding to the 3 types of prisms are 3 types of pyramids. Note in the figures 6.6 and 6.7 on the previous page
the similar shape, but difference in angular relation to the horizontal axes. The dihexagonal dipyramid is a double
12-sided pyramid (figure 6.8 ). The first order pyramid is labeled p. The second order pyramid is labeled s. The
dihexagonal dipyramid is labeled v.
These forms look relatively simple until several of them are combined on a single
crystal, then look out! You can even have several of the same form at different angles,
thus 2 first order pyramids may be labeled p and u, respectively.
See figure 6.10 for a beryl crystal having all these forms displayed. Molybdenite and
pyrrhotite also crystallize in this class.

The ditrigonal dipyramid{hk-il}has a 6-fold

rotoinversion axis, which is chosen as c. We should
note that -6 is equivalent to a 3-fold axis of rotation
with a mirror plane normal to it. Three mirror
planes intersect the vertical axis and are
perpendicular to the 3 horizontal crystallographic
axes. There are also 3 horizontal 2-fold axes of
symmetry in the vertical mirror planes. The
Herman-Mauguin notation is -6m2.
This class is a 12-faced form with six faces above
and 6 faces below the mirror plane that lies in the
a1-a2-a3 axial plane. Figure 6.11a is the ditrigonal dipyramid form and figure 6.11b displays a drawing of benitoite,
the only mineral described in this class.
The Hemimorphic (dihexagonal pyramid) class. This class differs from the above
discussed classes in that it has no horizontal plane of symmetry and no horizontal axes
of symmetry. There is no center of symmetry. Therefore, the Hermann-Mauguin
notation is 6mm. The geometry of the prisms is the same. The basal plane is a pedion
(remember a pedion differs from a pinacoid in that it is a single face) and the positive
and negative pyramids of the 3 types. The difference may be readily noted on a form
drawing of this class (fig. 6.12 ) when compared to figure 6.8 (two pages back).
Several minerals including zincite, wurtzite, and greenockite fall in this class (figs.
6.13a, b, & c).

In the Hexagonal Trapezohedral class, the symmetry axes are the same as
the Normal (dihexagonal dipyramidal class discussed initially in this
section), but mirror planes and the center of symmetry are not present. The
Hermann-Mauguin notation is 622. Two enantiomorphic (mirror image)
forms are present, each having 12 trapezium-shaped faces (figure 6.14).
Other forms, including pinacoid, hexagonal prisms, dipyramids, and
dihexagonal prisms, may be present. Only 2 minerals are known to
represent this crystal class: high (beta) quartz and kalsilite.
The Hexagonal Dipyramid class (figure 6.15) has only the
vertical 6-fold axis of rotation and a symmetry plane
perpendicular to it. The Hermann-Mauguin notation is 6/m. When this form is by itself, it appears to
possess higher symmetry. However, in combination with other forms it reveals its low symmetry content.
The general forms of this class are positive and negative hexagonal dipyramids. These forms have 12 faces,
6 above and 6 below, and correspond in position to one-half of the faces of a dihexagonal dipyramid.
Other forms present may include pinacoid and prisms. The chief minerals crystallizing in this class are
those of the apatite group.

The Trigonal Dipyramid possesses a 6-fold axis of rotary inversion, thus the HermannMauguin notation of -6. This is equivalent of having a 3-fold axis of rotation and a symmetry
plane normal to it (3/m). See figure 6.16.
Mathematically, this class may exist, but to date no mineral is known to crystallize with this
form.

In the Hexagonal pyramid class, the vertical axis is one of 6-fold rotation. No other
symmetry is present. Figure 6.17 is the hexagonal pyramid. The forms of this class are
similar to those of the Hexagonal Dipyramid (discussed above), but because there is no
horizontal mirror plane, different forms are present at the top and bottom of the crystal.
The hexagonal pyramid has four 6-faced forms: upper positive, upper negative, lower
positive, lower negative. Pedions, hexagonal pyramids and prisms may be present. Only
rarely is the form development sufficient to place a crystal in this class. Nepheline is the
most common representative of this class.

The Trigonal Division

Now we have worked through the first 7 classes in the Hexagonal System, all having some degree of 6-fold
symmetry. Time to shed that 6-fold symmetry and look at the Trigonal Division of the Hexagonal System. Here, we
will see that 3-fold symmetry rules.
Remember that prisms are open forms. In the trigonal division there are two distinctive sets of prisms to be
concerned with. The first is called the trigonal prism. It consists of 3 equal-sized faces which are parallel to the c
crystallographic axis and which form a 3-sided prism. You may think of it as one-half the faces of the first-order
hexagonal prism.
In fact, the normal light-refracting 60 degree glass prism used in many
physics lab workshops is this form, bounded on the end by the c
pinacoid. There exists a second order prism, which on general
appearance looks the same as the first order, but when other trigonal
forms are present on the termination other than the c pinacoid, the two
prisms may be readily distinguished, one from the other. The second
order prism is rotated 60 degrees about the c axis when compared with
the first order prism.

The second prism is the ditrigonal prism, which is a 6-sided open form. This form
consists of 6 vertical faces arranged in sets of 2 faces.
Therefore the alternating edges are of differing character; especially noticable when
viewed by looking down the c axis.
The differing angles between the 3 sets of faces are what distingish this form from the
first order hexagonal prism.
The striations on the figure to the left are typical for natural trigonal crystals, like
tourmaline. In the drawing, c is the pinacoid face and m the prism faces.
I think these forms are simple enough that we don't need any drawings to explain them, but look for them on figure
6.23 (below) - the tourmaline forms. They are given the normal prism notation of m and a.

Hexagonal-scalenohedral class. The first to consider are those

forms with the symmetry - 3 2/m (Hermann-Mauguin notation).
There are two principal forms in this class: the rhombohedron
and the hexagonal scalenohedron.
In this class, the 3-fold rotoinversion axis is the vertical axis (c)
and the three 2-fold rotation axes correspond to the three
horizontal axes (a1, a2, a3).
There are 3 mirror planes bisecting the angles between the
horizontal axes. See figure 6.18 to observe the axes and mirror planes for the rhombohedron.

The general form {hk-il} is a hexagonal scalenohedron(figure 6.19). The primary difference in
the rhombohedron and this form is that with a rhombohedral form, you have 3 rhombohedral
faces above and 3 rhombohedral faces below the center of the crystal.
In a scalenohedron, each of the rhombohedral faces becomes 2 scalene triangles by dividing the
rhombohedron from upper to lower corners with a line. Therefore, you have 6 faces on top and 6
faces below, the scalenohedron being a 12-faced form. These forms are illustrated in figure 6.20.

With this form, you can have both positive {h0hl} and negative {0h-hl} forms for the
rhombohedron...

and positive {hk-il} and negative {kh-il} forms

for the scalenohedron.
To further complicate matters, the
rhombohedron and scalenohedron, as forms,
often combine with forms present in higher
hexagonal symmetry classes. Thus, you may
find them in combination with hexagonal
prisms, hexagonal dipyramid, and pinacoid
forms.
Calcite is the most common, well crystallized,
and collectible mineral with these forms. See
figure 6.21 for some crystallization forms of
calcite. Several other minerals, such as chabazite and corundum, commonly show form combinations.

On the last 3 drawings in figure 6.21, see if YOU can name the faces present. I have already given the notation in
the first 5 figures. Email me with your answer, and I'll tell you if you are right!
The next crystal class to consider is the Ditrigonal pyramid. The vertical axis is a 3-fold rotation axis and 3 mirror
planes intersect in this axis. The Hermann-Mauguin notation is 3m, 3 referring to the vertical axis and m referring to
three planes normal to the three horizontal axes (a1,a2,a3). These 3 mirror planes intersect in the vertical 3-fold axis.
The general form {hk-il} is a ditrigonal pyramidform. There are 4 possible ditrigonal
pyramids, with the indices {hk-il}, {kh-il}, {hk-i-l}, and {kh-i-l}.
The forms are similar to the hexagonal-scalenohedral form discussed previously, but
contain only half the number of faces owing to the missing 2-fold rotation axes. So
crystals in this class have different forms on the top of the crystal than on the bottom.
Figure 6.22 shows the ditrigonal pyramid.

Figure 6.23 shows 2 tourmaline crystals, the most common mineral

crystallizing in this class, which display 3m symmetry.
This form may be combined with pedions, hexagonal prisms and
pyramids, trigonal pyramids, trigonal prisms, and ditrigonal prisms to
yield some complicated, though interesting, forms.

We now have come to the Trigonal-trapezohedral class. The 4 axial directions

are occupied by the rotation axes. The vertical axis is an axis of 3-fold rotation
and the 3 horizontal axes have 2-fold symmetry.

This is similar to those in class -32/m (hexagonal-scalenohedron), but the planes of symmetry are missing. There are
4 trigonal trapezohedrons, each composed of 6 trapezium-shaped faces. Their Miller indices are: {hk-il}, {i-k-hl},
{kh-il}, and {-ki-hl}. These forms correspond to 2 enantiomorphic pairs, each with a right and left form (one pair
illustrated in figure 6.24).

Other forms which may be present include pinacoid,

trigonal prisms, hexagonal prism, ditrigonal prisms, and
rhombohedrons.
Quartz is the common mineral which crystallizes in this
class, but only rarely is the trapezohedral face (s)
displayed. When it is, it is a simple matter to determine if
the crystal is right- or left-handed in form (figure 6.25).
Cinnabar also crystallizes in this class.

The Rhombohedral class has a 3-fold axis of rotoinversion, which is equivalent to a 3fold axis of rotation and a center of symmetry. The general form is {hk-il} and the
Hermann- Mauguin notation is -3.
This form is tricky because unless other forms are present, its true symmetry will not be
apparent. The pinacoid {0001} and the hexagonal prisms may be present.
Dolomite and ilmenite are the two most common minerals crystallizing in this class. See
figure 6.26.

Now we arrive at the final class in the Hexagonal system. The Trigonal pyramid has one 3-fold axis of rotation as
its sole element of symmetry. See figure 6.27. There are, however, 8 trigonal pyramids of the general form {hk-il},
four above and four below. Each of these correspond to 3 faces of the dihexagonal dipyramid (discussed above). In
addition to this, it is possible that there may be trigonal pyramids above and equivalent, but independent, pyramids
below. Only when several trigonal pyramids are in combination with one another is the true symmetry revealed.
It appears that only one mineral, a rare species called gratonite, belongs to this class and it has not been studied
sufficiently to remove all doubt in some crystallographer's minds.
All crystals in the Hexagonal system are oriented so that the negative end of the a3 axis
(see again figure 6.1) is considered to be 0 degrees for plotting purposes. This becomes

important when looking at the distribution of rhombohedral forms and determining if they are + or -.
I suggest you read page 88 of the Manual of Mineralogy - after J. D. Dana by Klein and Hurlbut (20th edition) if
you wish further detail.

WOW! We have now wrapped up the Hexagonal system. I hope you are not feeling too hexed by all this discussion.
If so, let's just lose that old feeling and prepare yourself to become even less symmetric as we move to the next
Crystal System -- Monoclinic.

Part 7: The Monoclinic System

Having dispensed with the hexagonal system in article 6, we are ready to resume our task of the removal of
symmetry from 3-axis systems. Consider the axial cross, consisting of the a, b, and c axes (each of unequal length),
of the Monoclinic System (fig. 7.1). In all previous 3-axes systems, we considered what happens when we vary one
or more of the axial lengths, retaining the axial angles at 90 degrees to each other. But in the Monoclinic System, we
will look at what happens when we have 3 axes of unequal length and vary the angle off of 90 degrees between two
of the axes. Obviously, we must again lose some symmetry!
The axes are designated as follows: the inclined axis is a and slopes out
of the paper towards the viewer, the vertical axis is c, and the remaining
axis which is at right angle to the plane of the a and c axes is b. When
properly oriented, the inclined axis a slopes toward the observer, b is
horizontal and c is vertical. Both b and c axes are in the plane of the
paper.
In Figure 7.1, the angle between c and b remains 90 degrees and the
angle (^) between c and a is the one we will vary. Its called beta and is
represented by the Greek letter in the axial figure. For most monoclinic
crystals, the ^ beta is greater than 90 degrees, but in some rare instances,
the angle may be 90 degrees.
When this occurs, the monoclinic symmetry is not readily apparent from the morphology. The 2-fold rotation axis
(the direction perpendicular to the mirror plane) is usually taken as the b axis. Then the a axis is inclined downward
toward the front in the figure. Calculations of axial ratios in orthogonal crystal systems (where all the axes are
perpendicular to each other) are relatively easy, but become quite tedious in systems with one or more inclined axes.
I suggest an advanced mineralogy text, not an introductory one, if you ever get involved in something like this. Not
even your standard mineralogy texts these days give the formulae to do these calculations. Aside from the axial
constants necessary to describe minerals in the monoclinic system, the ^ beta must also be given. Given this
situation, you might wish to look up this information for orthoclase in a standard mineralogy textbook, like Klein
and Hurlbuts Manual of Mineralogy after E. S. Dana. You will find that for orthoclase a:b:c = 0.663:1: 0.559. ^beta
= 115 degrees, 50 minutes.
Cleavage is important to consider in this system. If there is a good pinacoidal cleavage parallel to the b axis (as in
the mineral orthoclase), then it is usually called the basal cleavage. In the monoclinic pyroxenes and amphiboles,
where there are 2 equivalent cleavage directions, they are usually considered to be vertical prismatic cleavages.
There are only 3 symmetry classes to consider in the monoclinic system: 2/m, m, and 2.
In the 2/m symmetry class, however, there are 2 types of forms, pinacoids and
prisms. Remember that a pinacoid form consists of 2 parallel faces (open
form).
The a pinacoid is also called the front (used to be called the orthopinacoid), the
b is called the side pinacoid (used to be called the clinopinacoid), and the c is
termed the basal pinacoid.
There are 2 additional pinacoids with the general form notations of {h0l} and
{-h0l}. The presence of one of these forms does not necessitate the presence of
the other one.

These 3 pinacoids together form the diametrical prism (fig. 7.2), which is the analogue of the cube in the isometric
system. To further confuse the issue, most newer textbooks call the pinacoid form a parallelohedron. So we have 3
names in recent literature for the same thing.

Let's first look at a drawing to show you where

the mirror plane is and the orientation of the 2fold rotational axis (fig. 7.3).
As described above, the b axis is the 3-fold
rotation axis.

The 4-faced prism {hkl} is the general form. A monoclinic prism is shown in Figure
7.4. The general form can occur as two independent prisms {hkl} and {-hkl}. There
are also {0kl} and {hk0} prisms. The {0kl} prism intersects the b and c axes and is
parallel to the a axis.
Here is the fun part. The only form in the 2/m class which is fixed by making the b
axis the axis of 2-fold rotation is the b pinacoid {010}. Either of the other 2 axis
may be chosen as c or a!
As an example, the {100} pinacoid, the {001} pinacoid, and the {h0l} pinacoids
may be converted into each other by simply rotating their orientation about the b
axis! Corollary to this situation, the prisms may be interchanged in the same
manner. We now need to look at some illustrations of some relatively common
monoclinic minerals. In these drawings you should recognize the letter notation
where a, b, and c are the pinacoid forms (the diametrical prism, remember?); m is
the unit prism and z is a prism; o, u, v, and s are pyramids; p, x, and y are orthodomes; and n is a clinodome.

Figures 7.5a, b, and c are common forms for the mineral orthoclase and 7.5d is a common form for selenite
(gypsum). Many common minerals crystallize in this symmetry class, including azurite, clinopyroxene and
clinoamphibole groups, datolite, epidote, gypsum, malachite, orthoclase, realgar, titanite, spodumene, and talc.
The second monoclinic symmetry class is m and represents a single vertical mirror
plane (010) that includes the c and a crystallographic axes.
A dome is the general form {hkl} in this class (fig. 7.6) and is a 2-faced figure that is
symmetrical across a mirror plane. There are 2 possible orientations of the dome,
{hkl} and {-hkl).
The form {010} is a pinacoid, but all the faces on the other side of the mirror plane are
pedions. These include {100}, {- 100}, {00-1), and {h0l}. Only 2 rare minerals,
hilgardite and clinohedrite, crystallize in this class.

The third monoclinic symmetry class is 2 and represents a 2-fold axis of rotation on
the b crystallographic axis. Figure 7.7 represents the general {hkl}form a sphenoid
or dihedron. Since we have no a-c symmetry plane and with the b axis being polar, in
the 2 symmetry class, we have different forms present at the opposite ends of b. The
{010} pinacoid of 2/m becomes 2 pedions, {0l0} and {0-10}. Likewise, the {0kl},
{hk0} and {hkl} prisms of 2/m degenerate into pairs of right- and left-hand
(enantiomorphic) sphenoids.
The general form, the sphenoid, is enantiomorphic and has the Miller indices {hkl}
and {h-kl}. Mineral representatives are scarce for this class, but include the halotrictite
group with the mineral pickeringite as the most commonly occurring member. For
comparisons sake, take another look at Figures 7.6 and 7.7, just to keep straight what
we are talking about.

Well, we have only one crystal system left to discuss. Prepare yourself to enter that land of variability where we
break out of our need for square angles and equal length axes. The land where our symmetry is the lowest possible
and our options are wide open. Are you ready for the Triclinic System?

Part 8: The Triclinic System

You must be glad to get to the last system's article! I know I am. In our overall examination of 3-axes systems, this
one is relatively short and only moderately difficult to understand due to
the lack of symmetry.
So let's start, as we have with all the other systems, by looking at the axial
cross of the Triclinic System (fig. 8.1). In this figure, we see that all 3 axes
(a, b, and c) are unequal in length to each other and that there are no axial
angles of 90 degrees. In the Monoclinic System, at least we had a and b
axes at right angles, but here we have lost even that!
Note that the angle beta is still between the c and a axes, but we now have
2 additional angles to define, neither of which are equal to 90 degrees. One
angle is termed alpha and is defined as the angle between the c and b axes
and the second is gamma which is defined as the angle between a and b.
Now, we must have some accepted conventions or rules to follow to orient
a triclinic crystal, or we will always be in a state of confusion with other
folks over just the orientation.
Remember, in the orientation of any crystal, you also are determining the position of the 3 crystallographic axes. So,
the rules are: 1) the most pronounced zone should be vertical and therefore the axis in this zone becomes the c; 2)
the {001}form (basal pinacoid) should slope forward and to the right; and 3) select two forms in the vertical zone,
one will be the {100} and the other will be the {010}. Now, the direction of the a axis is determined by the
intersection of {101} and {001} and the direction of the b axis is determined by the intersection of {100} and {001}.
Once this is done, the a axis should be shorter than the b axis so that the convention becomes c < a < b. The axial
distances and the 3 angles, alpha, beta, and gamma, can be calculated only with considerable difficulty. As in the
Monoclinic system, the b axis length is defined as unity (1). The crystallography information concerning a triclinic
mineral will include the following (an example): a:b:c = 0.972: 1 : 0.778; alpha = 102 degrees 41 minutes, beta = 98
degrees 09 minutes, gamma = 88 degrees 08 minutes.
In the triclinic system, we have two symmetry classes. The
first we will consider is the -1 (Hermann-Mauguin
notation). In this class, there is a 1-fold axis of symmetry,
the equivalent of a center of symmetry or inversion.
Figure 8.2 shows a triclinic pinacoid (or
parallelohedron). This class is termed the pinacoidal class
after its general form {hkl}. So all the forms present are
pinacoids and therefore consist of two identical and parallel
faces.
When you orient a triclinic crystal, the Miller indices of the
pinacoid determine its position. There are 3 pinacoids.
Remember pinacoids intersect one axis and are parallel to
the other 2 (in 3 axes systems). So let's start by looking at
the -1 symmetry. This is a one-fold axis of rotoinversion,
which may be viewed as the same as having a center of
symmetry.

Figure 8.3 shows a triclinic pinacoid, also called a parallelohedron. This class is referred to as the pinacoidal class,
due to its {hkl} form. With -1 symmetry, all forms are pinacoids so they consist of 2 identical parallel faces. Once a
triclinic crystal is oriented, then the Miller indices of the pinacoid establish its position.

Figure 8.3 Triclinic pinacoids, or parallelohedrons

There are 3 general types of pinacoids: those that intersect only one crystallographic axis, those that intersect 2 axes,
and those that intersect all 3 axes. The first type are the pinacoids {100}, {010}, and {001}. The {100} is the front
pinacoid and intersects the a axis, the {010} is the side or b pinacoid and intersects the b axis, and the {001} is the c
or basal pinacoid and intersects the c axis. All of these forms are by convention based on the + end of the axis.
The second type of pinacoid is termed the {0kl}, {h0l}, and {hk0} pinacoids, respectively. The {0kl} pinacoid is
parallel to the a axis and therefore intersects the b and c axes. It may be positive {0kl} or negative {0-kl}. The {h0l}
pinacoid is parallel to the b axis and intersects the a and c axes. It may be positive {h0l} or negative {-h0l}. Finally,
the {hk0} pinacoid is parallel to the c axis and intersects the a and b axes. It may be positive {hk0} or negative {hk0}.
The third type of pinacoid is the {hkl}. There exist positive right {hkl}, positive left {h- kl}, negative right {-hkl},
and negative left {-h-kl}. Each of these 2-faced forms may exist independently of the others. Figure 8.3 shows some
of the pinacoidal forms in this class. A number of minerals crystallize in the -1 class including plagioclase feldspar
pectolite, microcline, and wollastonite. The second symmetry class of the triclinic system is the 1, which is
equivalent to no symmetry! It is a single face termed a pedion and the class called the pedial class after its {hkl}
form. Because the form consists of a single face, each pedion or monohedron stands by itself. Rare is the mineral
that crystallizes in this class, axinite being an example.
We have now finished our discussion of the Crystal Systems and their geometrical and symmetry relationships. I can
hardly believe it! If you feel like pursuing the subject of symmetry further, go to Article 9 for my summary remarks
and some suggested additional references and articles.

Part 9: Conclusion and Further Reading

Well, here we are. We've finished the 6 crystal systems and we're feeling kind of smug with what we have learned.
But listen here readers, although we had some chalkboard discussions about the crystal systems and their symmetry
elements and classes, now we must leave the ideal world of symmetrical crystal forms and enter the real world. The
world where the growth mechanisms and the environment of formation of a crystal have as much to do with the
expression of the crystal forms we see as the molecular arrangement of atoms composing the mineral we are
interested in.
Almost all minerals are crystalline (part of the definition of a mineral), but only under special conditions do you
form minerals with well expressed crystal form(s). The mineral may grow from a melt as in igneous rocks, from
solids under elevated temperature and pressure, or in open crevices or pockets from hot, warm, or cold mineralladen fluids.
So, when you examine euhedral crystals of any mineral, please realize that they are rather remarkable objects.
Probably 99 % of all minerals present in the earth's crust display no external crystalline form. A euhedral crystal is a
flower of the mineral world! Treat crystals with care and respect because they probably survived millions of years
before someone discovered them. One careless moment and they may be destroyed forever.
But enough of our soapbox lecture on the need to understand the scarcity of well-formed crystals! Throughout the
series of articles, we have attempted to show you the world of symmetry present in the crystalline world around you.
But symmetry is present everywhere. Symmetry is present in varying degrees in the biological world. From simple
bilateral symmetry (mirror symmetry like left-right) to 5-fold symmetry not present in the crystalline world.
Members of the echinoderm family are beautiful examples of this type of symmetry. Next time you look at a
starfish, a fossil blastoid, or a sea urchin spend some time examining its symmetry. You will recognize elements of
several principles you learned from studying minerals.
Symmetry or the intentional lack of symmetry governs many artistic works. One of the most remarkable persons to
use masterfully a variety of symmetry elements was M. C. Escher. His works not only display many symmetry
elements, but he includes much of his personal theology hidden in his designs. An excellent recent book, available
by ordering from your local bookstore is M. C. Escher: His Life and Complete Graphic Work, by M. C. Escher, L. J.
Locher (ed.), and F. Bool, published by Harry N. Abrams, November, 1992, ISBN: 0810981130. You could also
order this book from Amazon.com on the internet. There is a CD-ROM of M. C. Escher's Works also available for
less than $50 through Amazon.com.
There are many
symmetry
patterns of dimples

articles written in journals concerned with various aspects of

including an article in Scientific American on the symmetry of the
on golf balls!

One of the most interesting books we ever came across is Snow Crystals by W. A. Bentley
and W. J. Humphries.
This remarkable book contains 2,453 photographs of snow crystals (the mineral ice).
W. A. Bentley's hobby was the photography of snow crystals. After his death, his collection
of several thousand snow crystal and frost crystal photographs were donated to the
American Meteorological Society. The AMS was charged with designating someone to put
the collection of photographs into a sensible order and overseeing their publication. W. J.
Humphries oversaw the work which involved several noted mineralogists of the day,
including S. B. Hendricks, H. E. Merwin, C. S. Ross, and W. T. Schaller. These men
classified the photographs into basic types of formation and growth forms and worked up
the descriptive portion of the book's text on the crystallography of the Snow Crystal.
The presentation of so many illustrations of a single mineral (ice) all from the same crystal
system makes the book unique and gives the viewer the opportunity to examine how the
various methods of growth of a mineral may affect a crystal's appearance, even though the
symmetry elements remain constant. You have probably heard the comment that no two
snow flakes are identical. You will believe it after examining the photographs in this book!
Every instructor teaching mineralogy should make this book available to their class just to
enlighten the students as to nature's infinite variety on the same theme!
We do not know if it is still in print, but it was first published by McGraw-Hill in 1931 and
republished in 1962 by Dover Publications, New York. The standard book number is 48620287-9 and the Library of Congress Card Catalog Number is 63-422 for the Dover edition.

I could rave on for a few additional pages, but it would do little good. By now, you are either hooked on symmetry
or sick of my discussion of it. But never again will you look in a mirror and see just yourself. Instead you will see an
organism with bilateral symmetry. Symmetry is a way of looking at the world around you and seeing order in the
apparent randomness of nature. It is truly a way to define order out of apparent chaos.
Randomness and chaos are popular topics these days, in mathematics and in philosophical
discussions concerning the general nature of life, but I assure you that if you look around and
are thinking of symmetry you will find it. It is everywhere in the plant and animal world as
well as the mineral kingdom. Just stop, bend down, and look at common clover, a plant
whose individual leaves exhibit mirror plane symmetry, but whose 3-leaf arrangement
displays trigonal symmetry elements. Think about the symmetry of a 4-leafed clover. Now
you are not interested in finding one for good luck, but so you can more thoroughly examine
its symmetry!
Speaking of good luck, we wish all of you the best of it in your continuing quest for knowledge. We hope we have
brought you to a better understanding and appreciation of the symmetry and beauty of the world around you! For the
effort involved in reading all this series, we salute you and you are hereby deserving of the Mineralogical Order of
the Crystal Sphere, that one object of infinite symmetry. May the sphere ever remind you of the infinite patience it
takes to learn about Crystallography and Geometry.

Miller Indices
The Miller Index for a crystal face is found by

first determining the parameters

second inverting the parameters, and
third clearing the fractions.

For example, if the face has the parameters 1 a, 1 b, c

inverting the parameters would be 1/1, 1/1, 1/
this would become 1, 1, 0
the Miller Index is written inside parentheses with no commas - thus (110)

As further examples, let's look at the crystal shown

here. All of the faces on this crystal are relatively
simple. The face [labeled (111)] that cuts all three axes
at 1 unit length has the parameters 1a, 1b, 1c. Inverting
these, results in 1/1, 1/1, 1/1 to give the Miller Index
(111).
The square face that cuts the positive a axis, has the
parameters 1 a, b, c. Inverting these becomes 1/1,
1/to give the Miller Index (100).
The face on the back of the crystal that cuts the
negative a axis has the parameters -1a, b, c. So its
Miller Index is ( 00). Note how the negative intercept
is indicated by putting a minus sign above the index.
This would be read "minus one, one, one". Thus, the
other 4 faces seen on this crystal would have the Miller
Indices (001), (00 ), (010), and (0 0).

Now let's look at some more complicated examples. The

drawing to the right is the same orthorhombic crystal we
looked at earlier. Recall that the small triangular face near
the top that cuts all three axes had the parameters 1a, 1b,
1/3c. Inverting these becomes 1/1, 1/1, 3/1 to give the
Miller Index for this face as (113).
Similarly, the small triangular face the cuts the positive a
axis and the negative b axis, would have the Miller Index (1
3), the similar face on the bottom of the crystal, cutting
positive a, positive b, and negative c axes would have the
Miller Index (11 ).
See if you can determine the Miller Indices for the 8 faces
on the back of the crystal that are not seen in this drawing.
Note once again, that moving a face parallel to itself does not change the parameters nor the
Miller Index for that face.
To refer to a general face that intersects all three crystallographic axes where the parameters are
not known, we use the notation (hkl). For a face that intersects the b and c axes with general or
unknown intercepts the notation would be (0kl), for a face intersecting the a and c axis, but
parallel to b the notation would be (h0l), and similarly for a face intersecting the a and b axes,
but parallel to c we would use the notation (hk0).
This Miller Index notation applies very well to crystals in the Triclinic, Monoclinic,
Orthorhombic, Tetragonal, and Isometric systems, but requires some modification to be
applied to the Hexagonal crystal system.
Miller Bravais Indices
Since the hexagonal system has three "a" axes perpendicular to the "c" axis, both the
parameters of a face and the Miller Index notation must be modified. The modified parameters
and Miller Indices must reflect the presence of an additional axis. This modified notation is
referred to as Miller-Bravais Indices, with the general notation (hkil)

To see how this works, let's look at the dark shaded face in the
hexagonal crystal shown here. This face intersects the positive a1
axis at 1 unit length, the negative a3 axis at 1 unit length, and does
not intersect the a2 or c axes. This face thus has the parameters:
1 a1, a2, -1 a3, c
Inverting and clearing fractions gives the Miller-Bravais Index:
(10 0)
An important rule to remember in applying this notation in the
hexagonal system, is that whatever indices are determined for h, k,
and i,
h+k+i=0

For a similar hexagonal crystal, this time with the shaded face
cutting all three axes, we would find for the shaded face in the
diagram that the parameters are 1 a1, 1 a2, -1/2 a3, c. Inverting
these intercepts gives:
1/1, 1/1, -2/1, 1/
resulting in a Miller-Bravais Index of
(11 0)
Note how the "h + k + i = 0" rule applies here!

Crystal Forms
Although we will not cover this in detail in this lecture, the next step is to use the Miller Index
notation to designate crystal forms. A crystal form is a set of crystal faces that are related to
each other by symmetry. To designate a crystal form (which could imply many faces) we use
the Miller Index, or Miller-Bravais Index notation enclosing the indices in curly braces, i.e.
{hkl} or {hkil}
Such notation is called a form symbol.
As an example, look at the crystal drawing shown here.
This crystal is the same orthorhombic crystal discussed
above. It has two forms. The form {111} consists of the
following symmetrically 8 related faces:
(111), (11 ), (1 1), (1
).

), ( 11), ( 1 ), (

1), and (

This form is called a rhombic-dipyramid.

The other form is also a rhombic-dipyramid, but consists of
the triangular shaped faces similar to the face (113). The
form symbol for this form is {113} and consists of the
following 8 faces:
(113), (1 3), (11 ), (1
).

), ( 13), ( 1 ), (

3), and (

We'll go over this in more detail in the next lecture.

External Symmetry of Crystals, 32 Crystal Classes

As stated in the last lecture, there are 32 possible combinations of symmetry operations that
define the external symmetry of crystals. These 32 possible combinations result in the 32
crystal classes. These are often also referred to as the 32 point groups. We will go over some
of these in detail in this lecture, but again I want to remind everyone that the best way to see
this material is by looking at the crystal models in lab.
Hermann-Mauguin (International) Symbols
Before going into the 32 crystal classes, I first want to show you how to derive the HermannMauguin symbols (also called the international symbols) used to describe the crystal classes
from the symmetry content. We'll start with a simple crystal then look at some more complex
examples.
The rectangular block shown here has 3 2-fold rotation
axes (A2), 3 mirror planes (m), and a center of
symmetry (i). The rules for deriving the HermannMauguin symbol are as follows:
1. Write a number representing each of the unique
rotation axes present. A unique rotation axis is
one that exists by itself and is not produced by
another symmetry operation. In this case, all
three 2-fold axes are unique, because each is
perpendicular to a different shaped face, so we
write a 2 (for 2-fold) for each axis
2 2 2
2. Next we write an "m" for each unique mirror plane. Again, a unique mirror plane is one
that is not produced by any other symmetry operation. In this example, we can tell that
each mirror is unique because each one cuts a different looking face. So, we write:
2m2m2m

3. If any of the axes are perpendicular to a mirror plane we put a slash (/) between the
symbol for the axis and the symbol for the mirror plane. In this case, each of the 2-fold
axes are perpendicular to mirror planes, so our symbol becomes:
2/m2/m2/m

If you look in the table given in the lecture notes below, you will see that this crystal model
belongs to the Rhombic-dipyramidal class.
Our second example involves the block shown here to the
right. This model has one 2-fold axis and 2 mirror planes.
For the 2-fold axis, we write:
2
Each of the mirror planes is unique. We can tell that because
each one cuts a different looking face. So, we write 2 "m"s,
one for each mirror plane:
2mm
Note that the 2-fold axis is not perpendicular to a mirror plane, so we need no slashes. Our
final symbol is then:
2mm
For this crystal class, the convention is to write mm2 rather than 2mm (I'm not sure why). If
you consult the table below, you will see that this crystal model belongs to the Rhombicpyramidal class.
The third example is shown here to the right. It
contains 1 4-fold axis, 4 2-fold axes, 5 mirror
planes, and a center of symmetry. Note that the 4fold axis is unique. There are 2 2-fold axes that are
perpendicular to identical faces, and 2 2-fold axes
that run through the vertical edges of the crystal.
Thus there are only 2 unique 2 fold axes, because
the others are required by the 4-fold axis
perpendicular to the top face. So, we write:
4 2 2
Although there are 5 mirror planes in the model, only 3 of them are unique. Two mirror planes
cut the front and side faces of the crystal, and are perpendicular to the 2-fold axes that are
perpendicular to these faces. Only one of these is unique, because the other is required by the
4-fold rotation axis. Another set of 2 mirror planes cuts diagonally across the top and down the
edges of the model. Only one of these is unique, because the other is generated by the 4-fold
rotation axis and the previously discussed mirror planes. The mirror plane that cuts
horizontally through the crystal and is perpendicular to the 4-fold axis is unique. Since all
mirror unique mirror planes are perpendicular to rotation axes, our final symbol becomes:
4/m2/m2/m
Looking in the table below, we see that this crystal belongs to the Ditetragonal-dipyramidal class.

Our last example is the most

complex. Note that it has 3 4fold rotation axes, each of
which is perpendicular to a
square shaped face, 4 3-fold
rotoinversion axes (some of
which are not shown in the
diagram to reduce complexity),
each sticking out of the corners
of the cube, and 6 2-fold
rotation axes (again, not all are
shown), sticking out of the
edges of the cube. In addition,
the crystal has 9 mirror planes,
and a center of symmetry.
There is only 1 unique 4 fold axis, because each is perpendicular to a similar looking face (the
faces of the cube). There is only one unique 3-fold rotoinversion axes, because all of them
stick out of the corners of the cube, and all are related by the 4-fold symmetry. And, there is
only 1 unique 2-fold axis, because all of the others stick out of the edges of the cube and are
related by the mirror planes the other set of 2-fold axes. So, we write a 4, a , and a 2 for each
of the unique rotation axes.
4

There are 3 mirror planes that are perpendicular to the 4 fold axes, and 6 mirror planes that are
perpendicular to the 2-fold axes. No mirror planes are perpendicular to the 3-fold rotoinversion
axes. So, our final symbol becomes:
4/m 2/m
Consulting the table in the lecture notes below, reveals that this crystal belongs to the
hexoctahedral crystal class.

The 32 Crystal Classes

The 32 crystal classes represent the 32 possible combinations of symmetry operations. Each
crystal class will have crystal faces that uniquely define the symmetry of the class. These
faces, or groups of faces are called crystal forms. Note that you are not expected to memorize
the crystal classes, their names, or the symmetry associated with each class. You will,
however, be expected to determine the symmetry content of crystal models, after which you
can consult the tables in your textbook, lab handouts, or lecture notes. All testing on this
material in the lab will be open book.
In this lecture we will go over some of the crystal classes and their symmetry. I will not be
able to cover all of the 32 classes. You will, however, see many of the 32 classes during your
lab work. Note that it is not easy to draw a crystal of some classes without adding more
symmetry or that can be easily seen in a two dimensional drawing.
The table below shows the 32 crystal classes, their symmetry, Hermann-Mauguin symbol, and
class name.
Crystal System
Triclinic

Monoclinic

Orthorhombic

Crystal Class

Symmetry

Name of Class

none

Pedial

Pinacoidal

1A2

Sphenoidal

1m

Domatic

2/m

i, 1A2, 1m

Prismatic

222

3A2

Rhombic-disphenoidal

mm2 (2mm)

1A2, 2m

Rhombic-pyramidal

2/m2/m2/m

i, 3A2, 3m

Rhombic-dipyramidal

1A4

Tetragonal- Pyramidal
Tetragonal-disphenoidal

Tetragonal

4/m

i, 1A4, 1m

Tetragonal-dipyramidal

422

1A4, 4A2

Tetragonal-trapezohedral

4mm

1A4, 4m

Ditetragonal-pyramidal

Tetragonal-scalenohedral

2m

Hexagonal

4,

2A2, 2m

4/m2/m2/m

i, 1A4, 4A2, 5m

Ditetragonal-dipyramidal

1A3

Trigonal-pyramidal

Rhombohedral

32

1A3, 3A2

Trigonal-trapezohedral

3m

1A3, 3m

Ditrigonal-pyramidal

Hexagonal-scalenohedral

2/m

3,

3A2, 3m

Hexagonal-pyramidal

Trigonal-dipyramidal

6/m

i, 1A6, 1m

Hexagonal-dipyramidal

622

1A6, 6A2

Hexagonal-trapezohedral

6mm

1A6, 6m

Dihexagonal-pyramidal

Ditrigonal-dipyramidal

m2

Isometric

1A6

6,

3A2, 3m

6/m2/m2/m

i, 1A6, 6A2, 7m

Dihexagonal-dipyramidal

23

3A2, 4A3

Tetaroidal

2/m

3A2, 3m, 4

432

3A4, 4A3, 6A2

Gyroidal

Hextetrahedral

3m
4/m 2/m

4,

4A3, 6m

3A4, 4

3,

6A2, 9m

Diploidal

Hexoctahedral

Note that the 32 crystal classes are divided into 6 crystal systems.
1. The Triclinic System has only 1-fold or 1-fold rotoinversion axes.
2. The Monoclinic System has only mirror plane(s) or a single 2-fold axis.
3. The Orthorhombic System has only two fold axes or a 2-fold axis and 2 mirror planes.
4. The Tetragonal System has either a single 4-fold or 4-fold rotoinversion axis.
5. The Hexagonal System has no 4-fold axes, but has at least 1 6-fold or 3-fold axis.
6. The Isometric System has either 4 3-fold axes or 4 3-fold rotoinversion axes.

Triclinic System
Characterized by only 1-fold or 1-fold rotoinversion axis

Pedial Class, 1, Symmetry content - none

In this class there is no symmetry, so all crystal faces are unique and are not related to
each other by symmetry. Such faces are called Pedions, thus this is the Pedial Class.
Only a few rare minerals are in this class.

Pinacoidal Class,

, Symmetry content - i

Since in this class there is only a center of symmetry, pairs of faces

are related to each other through the center. Such faces are called
pinacoids, thus this is the pinacoidal class. Among the common
minerals with pinacoidal crystals are: microcline (K-feldspar),
plagioclase, turquoise, and wollastonite.

Monoclinic System
Characterized by having only mirror plane(s) or a single 2-fold axis.

Sphenoidal Class, 2, Symmetry content - 1A2

In this class there is a single 2-fold rotation axis. Faces
related by a 2-fold axis are called sphenoids, thus this is the
sphenoidal class. Only rare minerals belong to this class.

Domatic Class, m, Symmetry content - 1m

This class has a single mirror plane. Faces related by a
mirror plane are called domes, thus this is the domatic
class. Only 2 rare minerals crystallize in this class.

Prismatic Class, 2/m. Symmetry content - 1A2, m, i

This class has a single 2-fold axis perpendicular to a single mirror
plane. This class has pinacoid faces and prism faces. A prism is
defined as 3 or more identical faces that are all parallel to the
same line. In the prismatic class, these prisms consist of 4
identical faces, 2 of which are shown in the diagram on the front
of the crystal. The other two are on the back side of the crystal.

The most common minerals that occur in the prismatic class are the micas (biotite and
muscovite), azurite, chlorite, clinopyroxenes, epidote, gypsum, malachite, kaolinite,
orthoclase, and talc.
Orthorhombic System
Characterized by having only two fold axes or a 2-fold axis and 2 mirror planes.

Rhombic -disphenoidal Class, 222, Symmetry content - 3A2

In this class there are 3 2-fold axis and no mirror planes.
The 2-fold axes are all perpendicular to each other. The
disphenoid faces that define this group consist of 2 faces on
top of the crystal and 2 faces on the bottom of the crystal
that are offset from each other by 90o. Epsomite is the most
common rare mineral of this class.

Rhombic-pyramidal Class, 2mm (mm2), Symmetry content 1A2, 2m

This class has two perpendicular mirror planes and a single 2-fold
rotation axis. Because it has not center of symmetry, the faces on
the top of the crystal do not occur on the bottom. A pyramid, is a
set of 3 or more identical faces that intersect at a point. In the
case of the rhombic pyramid, these would be 4 identical faces,
labeled p, in the diagram.

Hemimorphite is the most common mineral with this symmetry.

Rhombic-dipyramidal Class, 2/m2/m2/m, Symmetry content - 3A2,

3m, i
This class has 3 perpendicular 2-fold axes that are perpendicular to
3 mirror planes. The dipyramid faces consist of 4 identical faces on
top and 4 identical faces on the bottom that are related to each other
by reflection across the horizontal mirror plane or by rotation about
the horizontal 2-fold axes.
The most common minerals in this class are andalusite,
anthophyllite, aragonite, barite, cordierite, olivine, sillimanite,
stibnite, sulfur, and topaz.

Tetragonal System
Characterized by a single 4-fold or 4-fold rotoinversion axis.

Tetragonal-pyramidal Class, 4, Symmetry content 1A4

Since this class has a single 4-fold axis and no mirror
planes, there are no pyramid faces on the bottom of the
crystal. Wulfinite is the only mineral known to
crystallize in this class.

Tetragonal-disphenoidal Class,

, Symmetry content - 1

With only a single 4-fold rotoinversion axis, the disphenoid faces consist
of two identical faces on top, and two identical faces on the bottom, offset
by 90o. Note that there are no mirror planes in this class. Only one rare
mineral is known to form crystals of this class.

Tetragonal-dipyramidal Class, 4/m, Symmetry content - 1A4, 1m, i

This class has a single 4-fold axis perpendicular to a mirror plane. This
results in 4 pyramid faces on top that are reflected across the mirror plane
to form 4 identical faces on the bottom of the crystal. Scheelite and
scapolite are the only common minerals in this class.

Tetragonal-trapezohedral Class, 422, Symmetry content - 1A4, 4A2

This class has a 4 fold axis perpendicular to 4 2-fold axes. There
are no mirror planes. Only one rare mineral belongs to this class.

Ditetragonal-pyramidal Class, 4mm, Symmetry content - 1A4, 4m

This class has a single 4-fold axis and 4 mirror planes. The mirror planes
are not shown in the diagram, but would cut through the edges and center
of the faces shown. Note that the ditetragonal pyramid is a set of 8 faces
that form a pyramid on the top of the crystal. Only one rare mineral forms
in the crystal class.

Tetragonal-scalenohedral Class,
2A2, 2m

2m, Symmetry Content - 1

4,

This class has a 4-fold rotoinversion axis that is perpendicular to 2 2fold rotation axes. The 2 mirror planes a parallel to the and are at
45o to the 2-fold axes. Chalcopyrite and stannite are the only
common minerals with crystals in this class.

Ditetragonal-dipyramidal Class, 4/m2/m2/m, Symmetry

content - 1A4, 4A2, 5m, i
This class has the most symmetry of the tetragonal system. It
has a single 4-fold axis that is perpendicular to 4 2-fold axes.
All of the 2-fold axes are perpendicular to mirror planes.
Another mirror plane is perpendicular to the 4-fold axis. The
mirror planes are not shown in the diagram, but would cut
through all of the vertical edges and through the center of the
pyramid faces. The fifth mirror plane is the horizontal plane.
Note the ditetragonal-dipyramid consists of the 8 pyramid
faces on the top and the 8 pyramid faces on the bottom.

Common minerals that occur with this symmetry are anatase, cassiterite, apophyllite, zircon,
and vesuvianite.
Note that I will not have time in lecture to cover the rest of the 32 crystal classes, that is those
belonging to the hexagonal and isometric systems. These are difficult to draw, and are best left
for the student to study using the textbook, pages 183-207, and the crystal models in lab.

Crystal Form, Zones, Crystal Habit

Crystal Forms
As stated at the end of the last lecture, the next step is to use the Miller Index notation to
designate crystal forms. A crystal form is a set of crystal faces that are related to each other
by symmetry. To designate a crystal form (which could imply many faces) we use the Miller
Index, or Miller-Bravais Index notation enclosing the indices in curly braces, i.e.
{101} or {11 1}
Such notation is called a form symbol.
An important point to note is that a form refers to a face or set of faces that have the same
arrangement of atoms. Thus, the number of faces in a form depends on the symmetry of
the crystal.
General Forms and Special Forms
A general form is a form in a particular crystal class that contains faces that intersect all
crystallographic axes at different lengths. It has the form symbol {hkl} All other forms that
may be present are called special forms. In the monoclinic, triclinic, and orthorhombic crystal
systems, the form {111} is a general form because in these systems faces of this form will
intersect the a, b, and c axes at different lengths because the unit lengths are different on each
axis. In crystals of higher symmetry, where two or more of the axes have equal length, a
general form must intersect the equal length axes at different multiples of the unit length. Thus
in the tetragonal system the form {121} is a general form. In the isometric system a general
form would have to be something like {123}.
Open Forms and Closed Forms
A closed form is a set of crystal faces that completely enclose space. Thus, in crystal classes
that contain closed forms, a crystal can be made up of a single form.
An open form is one or more crystal faces that do not completely enclose space.

Example 1. Pedions are single faced forms. Since there is only one face in the form a
pedion cannot completely enclose space. Thus, a crystal that has only pedions, must
have at least 3 different pedions to completely enclose space.

Example 2. A prism is a 3 or more faced form wherein the crystal faces are all parallel
to the same line. If the faces are all parallel then they cannot completely enclose space.
Thus crystals that have prisms must also have at least one additional form in order to
completely enclose space.

Example 3. A dipyramid has at least 6 faces that meet in points at opposite ends of the
crystal. These faces can completely enclose space, so a dipyramid is closed form.

Although a crystal may be made up of a single dipyramid form, it may also have other
forms present.
In your textbook on pages 139 to 142, forms 1 through 18 are open forms, while forms 19
through 48 are closed forms.
There are 48 possible forms that can be developed as the result of the 32 combinations of
symmetry. We here discuss some, but not all of these forms.
Pedions
A pedion is an open, one faced form. Pedions are the only forms that occur in the Pedial class
(1). Since a pedion is not related to any other face by symmetry, each form symbol refers to a
single face. For example the form {100} refers only to the face (100), and is different from the
form { 00} which refers only to the face ( 00). Note that while forms in the Pedial class are
pedions, pedions may occur in other crystal classes.
Pinacoids
A Pinacoid is an open 2-faced form made up of two parallel faces.
In the crystal drawing shown here the form {111} is a pinacoid and
consists of two faces, (111) and (
). The form {100} is also a
pinacoid consisting of the two faces (100) and ( 00). Similarly the
form {010} is a pinacoid consisting of the two faces (010) and (0
0), and the form {001} is a two faced form consisting of the faces
(001) and (00 ). In this case, note that at least three of the above
forms are necessary to completely enclose space. While all forms in
the Pinacoid class are pinacoids, pinacoids may occur in other
crystal classes as well.

Domes
Domes are 2- faced open forms where the 2 faces are related to
one another by a mirror plane. In the crystal model shown here,
the dark shaded faces belong to a dome. The vertical faces
along the side of the model are pinacoids (2 parallel faces). The
faces on the front and back of the model are not related to each
other by symmetry, and are thus two different pedions.

Sphenoids
Sphenoids are2 - faced open forms where the faces are related to
each other by a 2-fold rotation axis and are not parallel to each other.
The dark shaded triangular faces on the model shown here belong to
a sphenoid. Pairs of similar vertical faces that cut the edges of the
drawing are also pinacoids. The top and bottom faces, however, are
two different pedions.

Prisms
A prism is an open form consisting of three or more parallel faces. Depending on the
symmetry, several different kinds of prisms are possible.

Trigonal prism: 3 - faced form with all faces parallel to a 3 -fold

rotation axis

Ditrigonal prism: 6 - faced form with all 6 faces parallel to

a 3-fold rotation axis. Note that the cross section of this
form (shown to the right of the drawing) is not a hexagon,
i.e. it does not have 6-fold rotational symmetry.

Rhombic prism: 4 - faced form with all faces parallel to a line

that is not a symmetry element. In the drawing to the right, the 4
shaded faces belong to a rhombic prism. The other faces in this
model are pinacoids (the faces on the sides belong to a side
pinacoid, and the faces on the top and bottom belong to a
top/bottom pinacoid).

Tetragonal prism: 4 - faced open form with all faces parallel to a 4fold rotation axis or . The 4 side faces in this model make up the
tetragonal prism. The top and bottom faces make up the a form called
the top/bottom pinacoid.

Ditetragonal prism: 8 - faced form with all faces parallel to a 4-fold

rotation axis. In the drawing, the 8 vertical faces make up the ditetragonal
prism.

Hexagonal prism: 6 - faced form with all faces parallel to a 6-fold rotation
axis. The 6 vertical faces in the drawing make up the hexagonal prism.
Again the faces on top and bottom are the top/bottom pinacoid form.

Dihexagonal prism: 12 - faced form with all faces parallel to a 6-fold rotation
axis. Note that a horizontal cross-section of this model would have apparent
12-fold rotation symmetry. The dihexagonal prism is the result of mirror
planes parallel to the 6-fold rotation axis.

Pyramids
A pyramid is a 3, 4, 6, 8 or 12 faced open form where all faces in the form meet, or could meet
if extended, at a point.

Trigonal pyramid: 3-faced form where all faces are

related by a 3-fold rotation axis.

Ditrigonal pyramid: 6-faced form where all faces are related by a 3fold rotation axis. Note that if viewed from above, the ditrigonal
pyramid would not have a hexagonal shape; its cross section would
look more like that of the trigonal prism discussed above.

Rhombic pyramid: 4-faced form where the faces are related by

mirror planes. In the drawing shown here the faces labeled "p"
are the four faces of the rhombic pyramid. If extend, these 4 faces
would meet at a point.

Tetragonal pyramid: 4-faced form where the faces are related by a 4

axis. In the drawing the small triangular faces that cut the corners
represent the tetragonal pyramid. Note that if extended, these 4 faces
would meet at a point.

Ditetragonal pyramid: 8-faced form where all faces are related by a 4 axis.
In the drawing shown here, the upper 8 faces belong to the ditetragonal
pyramid form. Note that the vertical faces belong to the ditetragonal prism.

Hexagonal pyramid: 6-faced form where all faces are related by a 6 axis.
If viewed from above, the hexagonal pyramid would have a hexagonal
shape.

Dihexagonal pyramid: 12-faced form where all faces are related by a 6fold axis. This form results from mirror planes that are parallel to the 6fold axis.

Dipyramids
Dipyramids are closed forms consisting of 6, 8, 12, 16, or 24 faces. Dipyramids are pyramids
that are reflected across a mirror plane. Thus, they occur in crystal classes that have a mirror
plane perpendicular to a rotation or rotoinversion axis.

Trigonal dipyramid: 6-faced form with faces related by a

3-fold axis with a perpendicular mirror plane. In this
drawing, all six faces belong to the trigonal-dipyramid.

Ditrigonal -dipyramid: 12-faced form with faces related by a 3-fold

axis with a perpendicular mirror plane. If viewed from above, the
crystal will not have a hexagonal shape, rather it would appear similar
to the horizontal cross-section of the ditrigonal prism, discussed above.

Rhombic dipyramid: 8-faced form with faces related by a

combinations of 2-fold axes and mirror planes. The
drawing to the right shows 2 rhombic dipyramids. One
has the form symbol {111} and consists of the four larger
faces shown plus four equivalent faces on the back of the
model. The other one has the form symbol {113} and
consists of the 4 smaller faces shown plus the four on the
back.

Tetragonal dipyramid: 8-faced form with faces related by a 4-fold axis

with a perpendicular mirror plane. The drawing shows the 8-faced
tetragonal dipyramid. Also shown is the 4-faced tetragonal prism, and the
2-faced top/bottom pinacoid.

Ditetragonal dipyramid: 16-faced form with faces related by a 4fold axis with a perpendicular mirror plane. The ditetragonal
dipyramid is shown here. Note the vertical faces belong to a
ditetragonal prism.

Hexagonal dipyramid: 12-faced form with faces related by a 6-fold axis

with a perpendicular mirror plane. The vertical faces in this model make
up a hexagonal prism.

Dihexagonal dipyramid: 24-faced form with faces related by a 6-fold

axis with a perpendicular mirror plane.

Trapezohedrons
Trapezohedron are closed 6, 8, or 12 faced forms, with 3, 4, or 6 upper
faces offset from 3, 4, or 6 lower faces. The trapezohedron results from 3-,
4-, or 6-fold axes combined with a perpendicular 2-fold axis. An example
of a tetragonal trapezohedron is shown in the drawing to the right. Other
examples are shown in your textbook.

Scalenohedrons
A scalenohedron is a closed form with 8 or 12 faces. In ideally developed
faces each of the faces is a scalene triangle. In the model, note the
presence of the 3-fold rotoinversion axis perpendicular to the 3 2-fold
axes.

Rhombohedrons
A rhombohedron is 6-faced closed form wherein 3 faces on top are
offset by 3 identical upside down faces on the bottom, as a result of a
3-fold rotoinversion axis. Rhombohedrons can also result from a 3fold axis with perpendicular 2-fold axes. Rhombohedrons only occur
in the crystal classes 2/m , 32, and .

Disphenoids
A disphenoid is a closed form consisting of 4 faces.
These are only present in the orthorhombic system
(class 222) and the tetragonal system (class )

The rest of the forms all occur in the isometric system, and thus have either four 3-fold axes or
four axes. Only some of the more common isometric forms will be discussed here.

Hexahedron
A hexahedron is the same as a cube. 4-fold axes are perpendicular to the
face of the cube, and four axes run through the corners of the cube.
Note that the form symbol for a hexahedron is {100}, and it consists of
the following 6 faces:
(100), (010), (001), ( 00), (0 0), and (00 ).

Octahedron
An octahedron is an 8 faced form that results form three 4-fold axes with
perpendicular mirror planes. The octahedron has the form symbol
{111}and consists of the following 8 faces:
(111), (

), (1 1), (1

), (

1), ( 1 ), (11 ), and ( 11).

Note that four 3-fold axes are present that are perpendicular to the
triangular faces of the octahedron (these 3-fold axes are not shown in the
drawing).

Dodecahedron
A dodecahedron is a closed 12-faced form. Dodecahedrons can be
formed by cutting off the edges of a cube. The form symbol for a
dodecahedron is {110}. As an exercise, you figure out the Miller
Indices for these 12 faces.

Tetrahexahedron
The tetrahexahedron is a 24-faced form with a general form symbol
of {0hl} This means that all faces are parallel to one of the a axes,
and intersect the other 2 axes at different lengths.

Trapezohedron
An isometric trapezohedron is a 12-faced closed form with the general
form symbol {hhl}. This means that all faces intersect two of the a axes
at equal length and intersect the third a axis at a different length.

Tetrahedron
The tetrahedron occurs in the class 3m and has the form symbol
{111}(the form shown in the drawing) or {1 1} (2 different forms are
possible). It is a four faced form that results form three axes and four 3fold axes (not shown in the drawing).

Gyroid
A gyroid is a form in the class 432 (note no mirror planes)

Pyritohedron
The pyritohedron is a 12-faced form that occurs in the crystal class 2/m
. Note that there are no 4-fold axes in this class. The possible forms
are {h0l} or {0kl} and each of the faces that make up the form have 5
sides.

Diploid
The diploid is the general form {hkl} for the diploidal class (2/m ).
Again there are no 4-fold axes.

Tetartoid
Tetartoids are general forms in the tetartoidal class (23) which only
has 3-fold axes and 2-fold axes with no mirror planes.

Understanding Miller Indices, Form Symbols, and Forms

In class we will fill in the following table in order to help you better understand the relationship
between form and crystal faces. The assignment will be to determine for each form listed
across the top of the table the number of faces in that form, the name of the form, and the
number of cleavage directions that the form symbol would imply for each of the crystal classes
listed in the left-hand column.
Before we can do this, however, we need to review how we define the crystallographic axes in
relation to the elements of symmetry in each of the crystal systems.
Triclinic - Since this class has such low symmetry there are no constraints on the axes, but the
most pronounced face should be taken as parallel to the c axis.
Monoclinic - The 2 fold axis is the b axis, or if only a mirror plane is present, the b axis is
perpendicular to the mirror plane.
Orthorhombic - The current convention is to take the longest axis as b, the intermediate axis is
a, and the shortest axis is c. An older convention was to take the c axis as the longest, the b
axis intermediate, and the a axis as the shortest.
Tetragonal - The c axis is either the 4 fold rotation axis or the rotoinversion axis.
Hexagonal - The c axis is the 6-fold, 3-fold, axis, or .
Isometric - The equal length a axes are either the 3 4-fold rotation axes, rotoinversion axes,

or, in cases where no 4 or axes are present, the 3 2-fold axes.

{010}
Symmetry

#Faces

Form

{001}
#Cleavage
Directions

#Faces

Form

#Cleavage
Directions

1
2
2/m
2/m2/m2/m
4/m2/m2/m
4/m 2/m

{110}
Symmetry
1
2
2/m
2/m2/m2/m
4/m2/m2/m
4/m 2/m

#Faces

Form

{111}
#Cleavage
Directions

#Faces

Form

#Cleavage
Directions

Zones and Zone Symbols

A zone is defined as a group of crystal faces that intersect in parallel edges. Since the edges
will all be parallel to a line, we can define that the direction of the line using a notation similar
to Miller Indices. This notation is called the zone symbol. The zone symbol looks like a Miller
Index, but is enclosed in square brackets, i.e. [uvw].
For a group of faces in the same zone, we can determine the zone symbol for all non-hexagonal
minerals by choosing 2 non-parallel faces (hkl) and (pqr).

To do so, we write the Miller Index for each face twice, one face
directly beneath the other, as shown below. The first and last numbers
in each line are discarded. Then we apply the following formula to
determine the indices in the zone symbol.
u = k*r - l*q, v = l*p - h*r, and w = h*q - k*p
For example, faces (110) and (010) are not parallel to each other.
The zone symbol for these faces (and any other faces that lie in the
same zone) is determined by writing 110 twice and then
immediately below, writing 010 twice. Applying the formula
above gives the zone symbol for this zone as [001].

Note that this zone symbol implies a line that is perpendicular to the face with the same index.
In other words, [001] is a line perpendicular to the face (001). It can thus be used as a symbol
for a line. In this case, the line is the c crystallographic axis.

Zone symbols, therefore are often used to denote directions

through crystals. Being able to specify directions in crystals is
important because many properties of minerals depend on
direction. These are called vectorial properties.

Vectorial Properties of Crystals

Although a crystal structure is an ordered arrangement of atoms on a lattice, as we have seen,
the order may be different along different directions in the crystal. Thus, some properties of
crystals depend on direction. These are called vectorial properties, and can be divided into two
categories: continuous and discontinuous.
Continuous Vectorial Properties
Continuous vectorial properties depend on direction, but along any given the direction the
property is the same. Some of the continuous vectorial properties are:

Hardness - In some minerals there is a difference in hardness in different directions in

the crystal. Examples: Kyanite, Biotite, Muscovite. This can become an important
identifying property and/or may lead to confusion about the hardness if one is not aware
of the directional dependence.

Velocity of Light (Refractive Index) - For all minerals except those in the isometric
system, the velocity of light is different as the light travels along different directions in
the crystal. We will use this directional dependence of light velocity as an important
tool in the second half of the course. Refractive Index is defined as the velocity of light
in a vacum divided by the velocity of light in the material. Because the velocity of light
depends on direction, the refractive index will also depend on direction.

Thermal Conductivity - The ability of a material to conduct heat is called thermal

conductivity. Like light, heat can be conducted at different rates along different
directions in crystals.

Electrical Conductivity- The ability of a material to allow the passage of electrons is

called electrical conductivity, which is also directionally dependent except in isometric
crystals.

Thermal Expansion - How much the crystal lattice expands as it is heated is referred to
as thermal expansion. Some crystals expand more in one direction than in others, thus
thermal expansion is a vectorial property.

Compressibility - Compressibility is a measure of how the lattice is reduced as atoms

are pushed closer together under pressure. Some directions in crystals may be more
compressible than others.

Discontinuous Vectorial Properties

Discontinuous vectorial properties pertain only to certain directions or planes within a crystal.
For these kinds of properties, intermediate directions may have no value of the property.
Among the discontinuous vectorial properties are:

Cleavage - Cleavage is defined as a plane within the lattice along which breakage
occurs more easily than along other directions. A cleavage direction develops along
zones of weakness in the crystal lattice. Cleavage is discontinuous because it only
occurs along certain planes.

Growth Rate - Growth rate is defined as the rate at which atoms can be added to the
crystal. In some directions fewer atoms must be added to the crystal than in other
directions, and thus some directions may allow for faster growth than others.

Solution Rate - Solution rate is the rate at which a solid can be dissolved in a solvent.
In this case it depends on how tightly bonded the atoms are in the crystal structure, and
this usually depends on direction.
Crystal Habit

In nature perfect crystals are rare. The faces that develop on a crystal depend on the space
available for the crystals to grow. If crystals grow into one another or in a restricted
environment, it is possible that no well-formed crystal faces will be developed. However,
crystals sometimes develop certain forms more commonly than others, although the symmetry
may not be readily apparent from these common forms. The term used to describe general
shape of a crystal is habit.
Some common crystal habits are as follows.

Cubic - cube shapes

Octahedral - shaped like octahedrons, as described above.

Tabular - rectangular shapes.

Equant - a term used to describe minerals that have all of their boundaries of
approximately equal length.

Fibrous - elongated clusters of fibers.

Acicular - long, slender crystals.

Prismatic - abundance of prism faces.

Bladed - like a wedge or knife blade

Dendritic - tree-like growths

Botryoidal - smooth bulbous shapes

Twinning in Crystals
Sometimes during the growth of a crystal, or if the crystal is subjected to stress or
temperature/pressure conditions different from those under which it originally formed, two or
more intergrown crystals are formed in a symmetrical fashion. These symmetrical intergrowths
of crystals are called twinned crystals. Twinning is important to recognize, because when it
occurs, it is often one of the most diagnostic features enabling identification of the mineral.

What happens is that lattice points in one crystal are shared as

lattice points in another crystal adding apparent symmetry to
the crystal pairs. Twinning, because it adds symmetry, never
occurs in relation to the existing symmetry of the crystal.

Symmetry Operations that Define Twinning

Because symmetry is added to a crystal by twinning, twining can be defined by the symmetry
operations that are involved. These include:

Reflection across a mirror plane. The added mirror plane would then be called a twin
plane.

Rotation about an axis or line in the crystal. The added rotation axis would then be
called a twin axis.

Inversion through a point. The added center of symmetry would then be called a twin
center.

Twin Laws
Twin laws are expressed as either form symbols to define twin planes (i.e. {hkl}) or zone
symbols to define the direction of twin axes (i.e. [hkl]).
The surface along which the lattice points are shared in twinned crystals is called a composition
surface.

If the twin law can be defined by a simple planar composition surface, the twin plane is always
parallel to a possible crystal face and never parallel to an existing plane of symmetry
(remember that twinning adds symmetry).

If the twin law is a rotation axis, the composition surface will be irregular, the twin axis will be
perpendicular to a lattice plane, but will never be an even-fold rotation axis of the existing
symmetry. For example twinning cannot occur on a new 2 fold axis that is parallel to an
existing 4-fold axis.
Types of Twinning
Another way of defining twinning breaks twins into two separate types.
1. Contact Twins - have a planar composition surface separating 2
individual crystals. These are usually defined by a twin law that
expresses a twin plane (i.e. an added mirror plane). An example
shown here is a crystal of orthoclase twinned on the Braveno Law,
with {021} as the twin plane.

2. Penetration Twins - have an irregular composition surface separating 2

individual crystals. These are defined by a twin center or twin
axis. Shown here is a twinned crystal of orthoclase twinned on the
Carlsbad Law with [001] as the twin axis.

Contact twins can also occur as repeated or multiple twins.

If the compositions surfaces are parallel to one another, they

are called polysynthetic twins. Plagioclase commonly shows
this type of twinning, called the Albite Twin Law, with {010}
as the twin plane. Such twinning is one of the most diagnostic
features of plagioclase.

If the composition surfaces are not parallel to one another, they are
called cyclical twins. Shown here is the cyclical twin that occurs in
chrysoberyl along a {031} plane.

Origin of Twinning
Twinning can originate in 3 different ways, as growth twins, transformation twins, and glide or
deformation twins.
1. Growth Twins - When accidents occur during crystal
growth and a new crystal is added to the face of an
already existing crystal, twinning can occur if the new
crystal shares lattice points on the face of the existing
crystal, but has an orientation different from the
original crystal. Such growth twins can be contact
twins, as illustrated here, or can be penetration twins.
All of twins discussed so far are growth twins.

2. Transformation Twins - Transformation twinning occurs when a preexisting crystal

undergoes a transformation due to a change in pressure or temperature. This commonly
occurs in minerals that have different crystal structures and different symmetry at
different temperatures or pressures. When the temperature or pressure is changed to
that where a new crystal structure and symmetry is stable, different parts of the crystal
become arranged in different symmetrical orientations, and thus form an intergrowth of
one or more crystals. Dauphin and Brazil twinning in quartz commonly forms this
way during a decrease in temperature.
Similarly the combination of albite twinning and pericline twinning in alkali feldspar
results when high temperature sanidine (monoclinic) transforms to low temperature
microcline (triclinic). This type of twinning is only observed using the polarizing
microscope, and results in a "tartan" twinning pattern as shown in your text book on
page 231, figure10.18. When this twinning pattern is observed with the microscope it is
one of the most characteristic diagnostic properties for the identification of microcline.

3. Deformation Twins During deformation atoms

can be pushed out of
place. If this happens to
produce a symmetrical
arrangement, it produces
deformation twins. The
mineral calcite can be
easily twinned in this way,
producing polysynthetic
twins on {01 2}.

Common Twin Laws

Triclinic System - The feldspar minerals plagioclase and microcline are the most
common triclinic minerals that show twinning. Two common twin laws are observed in
these feldspars.

Albite Law - As described above, plagioclase

(NaAlSi3O8 - CaAl2Si2O8) very commonly shows
albite polysynthetic twinning. The twin law - {010}
indicates that the twining occurs perpendicular to the b
crystallographic axis. Albite twinning is so common in
plagioclase, that it's presence is a diagnostic property
for identification of plagioclase.

Pericline Law - The pericline law has [010] as the twin axis. As stated above,
pericline twinning occurs as the result of monoclinic orthoclase or sanidine
transforming to microcline (all have the same chemical formula - KAlSi3O8).
Pericline twinning usually occurs in combination with albite twinning in
microcline, but is only observable with the polarizing microscope. The
combination of pericline and albite twinning produce a cross-hatched pattern,
called tartan twinning, as discussed above, that easily distinguishes microcline
from the other feldspars under the microscope.

Monoclinic System - The most common twins in the monoclinic system occur on the
planes {100} and {001}. The feldspars - orthoclase and sanidine - are the most
commonly twinned minerals in the monoclinic system. Both contact twins and
penetration twins occur, and both types result from accidents during growth.

Manebach Law - {001} - forms a contact twin commonly

observed in the mineral orthoclase. This twinning is very
diagnostic of orthoclase when it occurs.

Carlsbad Law - [001] - forms a penetration twin in the mineral

orthoclase. Crystals twinned under the Carlsbad Law show two
intergrown crystals, one rotated 180o from the other about the
[001] axis. Carlsbad twinning is the most common type of
twinning in orthoclase, and is thus very diagnostic of orthoclase
when it occurs.

Braveno Law - {021} - forms a contact twin in the mineral

orthoclase.

Swallow Tail Twins - {100}- are commonly observed in the

mineral gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O).

Orthorhombic System - Orthorhombic crystals commonly twin on planes parallel to a

prism face. The most common is a {110} twin that results in many orthorhombic
minerals having cyclical twins.

{110} Cyclical Twins - The mineral aragonite (CaCO3) ,

chrysoberyl (BeAl2O4), and cerrusite (PbCO3) commonly develop
twinning on {110}. This results in a cyclical twin which gives
these minerals a pseudo-hexagonal appearance.

Staurolite Law - The mineral

staurolite is really monoclinic,
but it has a angle very close to
90o so it has the appearance of an
orthorhombic mineral. Two
types of interpenetration twins
occur in staurolite the {031}
twins from a right-angled cross
and the {231} twins form a cross
at about 60o.

Tetragonal System - Twinning in the tetragonal system

usually occurs on {011} forming cyclical contact twins.
The minerals rutile (TiO2) and cassiterite (SnO2)
commonly show this type of twinning.

Hexagonal System - The minerals calcite (CaCO3 ) and quartz (SiO2) are the most
common hexagonal minerals and both show the types of twinning common in
hexagonal minerals.

Calcite Twins - The two most common

twin laws that are observed in calcite
crystals are {0001} and the
rhombohedron {01 2}. Both are contact
twins, but the {01 2} twins can also
occur as polysynthetic twins that result
from deformation.

Quartz shows three other hexagonal

twins.

Brazil Law - {11 0} - is a

penetration twin that results
from transformation.

Dauphin Law - [0001] - is

also a penetration twin that
results from transformation.

Japanese Law - {11 2} - is a

contact twin that results from
accidents during growth.

Isometric System - Three types of twins are common in the isometric system.

Spinel Law - { 1} - is a twin plane, parallel to an octahedron.

It occurs commonly in mineral spinel (MgAl2O4).

[111] - The twin axis perpendicular to an octahedral face

adds three fold rotational symmetry.

Iron Cross [001] - The mineral pyrite (FeS2) often shows the
iron cross made of the interpenetration of two pyritohedrons.
Since this occurs in the class 2/m , with no 4-fold rotation
axes, the [001] twin axis gives the mineral apparent 4-fold
symmetry about 3 perpendicular axes.

Polymorphism
Polymorphism means "many forms". In mineralogy it means that a single chemical
composition can exist with two or more different crystal structures. As we will see when we
look more closely at crystal structures, if a crystal is subjected to different pressures and
temperatures, the arrangement of atoms depends on the sizes of the atoms, and the sizes change
with temperature and pressure. In general, as pressure increases the volume of a crystal will
decrease and a point may be reached where a more compact crystal structure is more stable.
The crystal structure will then change to that of the more stable structure, and a different
mineral will be in existence. Similarly, if the temperature is increased, the atoms on the crystal
structure will tend to vibrate more and increase their effective size. In this case, a point may be
reached where a less compact crystal structure is more stable. When the crystal structure
changes to the more stable structure a different mineral will form.
The change that takes place between crystal structures of the same chemical compound are
called polymorphic transformations.

Types of Polymorphic Transformations

Stability of crystal structures is generally referred to in terms of the energy of the crystal
structure. In general terms this can be thought of as the bond strength (enthalpy), and entropy
(degree of order or randomness) of the structure. In general, the structure with the lowest
energy is the most stable at any given temperature and pressure.
This results in three types of transformations.
1. Reconstructive Transformations - these involve
extensive rearrangement of the crystal structure and
requires breaking of chemical bonds and
reassembling the atoms into a different crystal
structure. This usually involves a large change in
energy of the structure which must occur at the
transformation temperature or pressure. Because of
the extensive rearrangement involved, the rate at
which this type of transformation occurs may be
very slow. If the rate of the transformation is very
slow, unstable polymorphs (metastable) may exist
for long periods of time.

For example, diamond is a metastable polymorph of Carbon at the pressures and temperatures
present at the Earth's surface, yet, as the saying goes "diamonds are forever". Not really, it's
just that the rate at which diamond can rearrange its crystal structure to become graphite, the
polymorph stable at low P and T, is very slow at the low temperatures found near the Earth's
surface.

2. Displacive Transformations - these involve only

small adjustments to the crystal structure. Generally
no bonds are broken, but the angles between the
atoms may change slightly. Because there is little
rearrangement, displacive transformations involve
no change in energy at the transformation
temperature or pressure, and the transformations are
instantaneous and reversible. Thus, no unstable
polymorphs will occur.

For example, at 1 atmosphere pressure high quartz ( quartz) is the stable form of
quartz above 580o C. When high quartz is brought to a temperature below 580 o it
immediately is transformed into low quartz ( quartz). Thus, high quartz is never seen
in rocks at the surface of the Earth.

3. Order - Disorder Transformations - these involve the state of order or disorder in a

crystal structure. Perfect order can only occur at a temperature of absolute zero (273oC). As temperature increases, the degree of order or randomness of a crystal
structure decreases, so that the higher temperature forms of minerals are more
disordered than the lower temperature forms. Because the state of order-disorder
changes gradually with increasing temperature, there is no definite temperature at which
a transformation occurs.
An example of polymorphic transformations that involve order-disorder is the
compound KAlSi3O8. At high temperature the stable form is Sanidine (Monoclinic).
At lower temperature the structure changes to one of orthoclase (also Monoclinic), and
at even lower temperature the structure becomes that of the more ordered structure of
microcline (also Triclinic).
There is no definite temperature at which Sanidine changes to orthoclase or orthoclase
changes to Microcline, since the structure changes gradually as temperature decreases.
If the temperature change is rapid, then unstable polymorphs can continue to exist a low
temperature.

Important Polymorphs
Many common minerals show polymorphism. We here look at some of the more common
ones.

Carbon - has two polymorphs. At high

pressure carbon has an isometric crystal
structure that is called diamond. As
temperature and/or pressure are decreased
diamond should undergo a reconstructive
transformation to the hexagonal structure of
graphite. Because this transformation involves
a drastic rearrangement of atoms on the crystal
structure, as evidenced by the fact that diamond
is the hardest naturally occurring substance and
graphite is one of the softest) diamond is found
at the T & P conditions present at the Earth's
surface, where it is therefore only metastable.

Al2SiO5 - has three polymorphs. The high pressure form is

kyanite (Triclinic), the high temperature form is sillimanite
(orthorhombic), and the low temperature, low pressure form
is andalusite (orthorhombic). Transformations between all
three polymorphs are reconstructive, thus all three forms
can metastably exist at the Earth's surface. Transformation
rates are somewhat faster, however, at higher temperatures
in the Earth.

CaCO3 - has two polymorphs. The high pressure form is aragonite (orthorhombic) and
the low pressure form is calcite (hexagonal). The transformation between the two
polymorphs is reconstructive, so metastable polymorphs can exit.

SiO2 - has 6 polymorphs. With decreasing

temperature at low pressure, cristobalite
(isometric) undergoes a reconstructive
transformation to tridymite (hexagonal).
Further lowering of temperature results in
tridymite undergoing a reconstructive
transformation to high quartz (also
hexagonal). Lowering temperature further
results in high quartz undergoing a
displacive transformation to low quartz.

Cristobalite and tridymite can exist metastably at the low temperatures near the Earth's
surface, and thus are found in rocks. But high quartz will also transform to low quartz
before it reaches temperatures present at the Earth's surface, so it is never found in
rocks.
With increasing pressure, at low temperature low quartz undergoes a displace
transformation to coesite (Monoclinic), and coesite undergoes a reconstructive
transformation to stishovite (tetragonal) at even higher pressures. Thus, coesite and
stishovite have metastable polymorphs that can be found in rocks.

KAlSi3 O8 - As discussed above, this compound has three polymorphs that undergo
order-disorder transformations with lowering of temperature. The high temperature
polymorph is sanidine (monoclinic). It is usually only found in volcanic rocks that have
cooled very rapidly so that a higher state of order is not achieved. With slower cooling,
sanidine eventually undergoes a transformation to orthoclase (also monoclinic), and
orthoclase eventually transforms to microcline (triclinic) with further slow cooling.
Polytypism

Polytypism is a type of polymorphism wherein different polymorphs exist in different domains

of the same crystal. It has to do with the way that individual layers are stacked within a crystal
structure. Polytypism has little geologic consequence, and will thus not be discussed further
here.

Metamict Minerals
Metamict minerals are minerals whose crystal structure has been partially destroyed by
radiation from contained radioactive elements. The breakdown of the crystal structure results
from bombardment of a particles emitted by the decay of U and Th radioactive isotopes.
The mineral zircon (ZrSiO4) often has U and Th atoms substituting for Zr in the crystals
structure. Since U and Th have radioactive isotopes, Zircon is often seen to occur in various
stages of metamictization.

Mineraloids
By definition, a mineral has to have an ordered atomic arrangement, or crystalline structure.
There are some Earth materials that fit all other parts of the definition of a mineral, yet do not
have a crystalline structure. Such compounds are termed amorphous (without form).
Some of these amorphous compounds are called mineraloids. These usually form at low
temperatures and pressures during the process of chemical weathering and form mammillary,
botryoidal, and stalactitic masses with widely varying chemical compositions. Limonite
[FeO.(OH).nH2O] and allophane ( a hydrous aluminum silicate) are good examples.

Others like volcanic glass and opal

(SiO2.nH2O) have short-range order
or domains wherein some
crystalline-like order exists.
Unlike crystalline minerals that
show sharp, well defined x-ray
diffraction peaks, these mineraloids
with short-range order show broad
diffraction peaks that give evidence
of the short-range order.

Pseudomorphism
Pseudomorphism is the existence of a mineral that has the appearance of another mineral.
Pseudomorph means false form. Pseudomorphism occurs when a mineral is altered in such a
way that its internal structure and chemical composition is changed but its external form is
preserved. Three mechanisms of pseudomorphism can be defined:
1. Substitution. In this mechanism chemical constituents are simultaneously removed and
replaced by other chemical constituents during alteration. An example is the
replacement of wood fibers by quartz to form petrified wood that has the outward
appearance of the original wood, but is composed of quartz. Another example is the
alteration of fluorite which forms isometric crystals and is sometimes replaced by
quartz during alteration. The resulting quartz crystals look isometric, and are said to be
pseudomorphed after fluorite.
2. Encrustation. If during the alteration process a thin crust of a new mineral forms on the
surface of a preexisting mineral, then the preexisting mineral is removed, leaving the
crust behind, we say that pseudomorphism has resulted from encrustation. In this case
the thin crust of the new mineral will have casts of the form of the original mineral.
3. Alteration. If only partial removal of the original mineral and only partial replacement
by the new mineral has taken place, then it is possible to have a the space once occupied
entirely by the original mineral be partially composed of the new mineral. This results
for example in serpentine pseudomorphed after olivine or pyroxene, anhydrite (CaSO4)
pseudomorphed after gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O), limonite [FeO.(OH).nH2O] after pyrite
(FeS2), and anglesite (PbSO4) after galena (PbS).

X-Ray Crystallography
Prior to the discovery of X-rays by Conrad Roentgen in 1895, crystallographers had deduced
that crystals are made of an orderly arrangement of atoms and could infer something about this
orderly arrangement from measurements of the angles between crystal faces. The discovery of
X-rays gave crystallographers a powerful tool that could "see inside" of crystals and allow for
detailed determination of crystal structures and unit cell size. Here we discuss the application
of X-rays, not so much in terms of how they are used to determine crystal structure, but how
they can be used to identify minerals.
Nevertheless, we still need to know something about X-rays, how they are generated, and how
they interact with crystalline solids.
X-rays and the Production of X-rays
X-rays are electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths between about 0.02 and 100 (1 =
10-10 meters). They are part of the electromagnetic spectrum that includes wavelengths of
electromagnetic radiation called visible light which our eyes are sensitive to (different
wavelengths of visible light appear to us as different colors). Because X-rays have
wavelengths similar to the size of atoms, they are useful to explore within crystals.

The energy of X-rays, like all electromagnetic radiation, is inversely proportional to their
wavelength as given by the Einstein equation:
E = h = hc/
where E = energy
h = Planck's constant, 6.62517 x 10-27 erg.sec
= frequency
c = velocity of light = 2.99793 x 1010 cm/sec
= wavelength
Thus, since X-rays have a smaller wavelength than visible light, they have higher energy. With
their higher energy, X-rays can penetrate matter more easily than can visible light. Their
ability to penetrate matter depends on the density of the matter, and thus X-rays provide a
powerful tool in medicine for mapping internal structures of the human body (bones have
higher density than tissue, and thus are harder for X-rays to penetrate, fractures in bones have a
different density than the bone, thus fractures can be seen in X-ray pictures).
X-rays are produced in a device called an X-ray tube. Such a
tube is illustrated here. It consists of an evacuated chamber with
a tungsten filament at one end of the tube, called the cathode, and
a metal target at the other end, called an anode. Electrical current
is run through the tungsten filament, causing it to glow and emit
electrons. A large voltage difference (measured in kilovolts) is
placed between the cathode and the anode, causing the electrons
to move at high velocity from the filament to the anode target.
Upon striking the atoms in the target, the electrons dislodge inner
shell electrons resulting in outer shell electrons having to jump to
a lower energy shell to replace the dislodged electrons. These
electronic transitions results in the generation of X-rays. The Xrays then move through a window in the X-ray tube and can be
used to provide information on the internal arrangement of atoms
in crystals or the structure of internal body parts.

Continuous and Characteristic X-ray Spectra

When the target material of the X-ray tube is bombarded with electrons accelerated from the
cathode filament, two types of X-ray spectra are produced. The first is called the continuous
spectra.
The continuous spectra consists of a range of wavelengths of
X-rays with minimum wavelength and intensity (measured in
counts per second) dependent on the target material and the
voltage across the X-ray tube. The minimum wavelength
decreases and the intensity increases as voltage increases.
The second type of spectra, called the characteristic spectra,
is produced at high voltage as a result of specific electronic
transitions that take place within individual atoms of the
target material.

This is easiest to see using the simple Bohr

model of the atom. In such a model, the
nucleus of the atom containing the protons
and neutrons is surrounded by shells of
electrons. The innermost shell, called the
K- shell, is surrounded by the L- and M shells. When the energy of the electrons
accelerated toward the target becomes high
enough to dislodge K- shell electrons,
electrons from the L - and M - shells move
in to take the place of those dislodged.

Each of these electronic transitions produces an X-ray with a wavelength that depends on the
exact structure of the atom being bombarded. A transition from the L - shell to the K- shell
produces a K X-ray, while the transition from an M - shell to the K- shell produces a K Xray.

These characteristic X-rays have a much higher intensity than

those produced by the continuous sprectra, with K X-rays
having higher intensity than K X-rays. The important point
here is that the wavelength of these characteristic x-rays is
different for each atom in the periodic table (of course only
those elements with higher atomic number have L- and M shell electrons that can undergo transitions to produce Xrays). A filter is generally used to filter out the lower
intensity K X-rays.

For commonly used target materials in X-ray tubes, the X-rays have the following well-known
experimentally determined wavelengths:
Element

K Wavelength ()

Mo

0.7107

Cu

1.5418

Co

1.7902

Fe

1.9373

Cr

2.2909

X-ray Diffraction and Bragg's Law

Since a beam of X-rays consists of a bundle of separate
waves, the waves can interact with one another. Such
interaction is termed interference. If all the waves in the
bundle are in phase, that is their crests and troughs occur at
exactly the same position (the same as being an integer
number of wavelengths out of phase, n = 1, 2, 3, 4, etc.),
the waves will interfere with one another and their amplitudes
will add together to produce a resultant wave that is has a
higher amplitude (the sum of all the waves that are in phase.
If the waves are out of phase, being off by a non-integer
number of wavelengths, then destructive interference will
occur and the amplitude of the waves will be reduced. In an
extreme case, if the waves are out of phase by an odd multiple
of 1/2 [(2n+1)/2 ], the resultant wave will have no
amplitude and thus be completely destroyed.
The atoms in crystals interact with X-ray waves in such a way as to produce interference. The
interaction can be thought of as if the atoms in a crystal structure reflect the waves. But,
because a crystal structure consists of an orderly arrangement of atoms, the reflections occur
from what appears to be planes of atoms. Let's imagine a beam of X-rays entering a crystal
with one of these planes of atoms oriented at an angle of to the incoming beam of
monochromatic X-rays (monochromatic means one color, or in this case 1 discreet wavelength
as produced by the characteristic spectra of the X-ray tube).
Two such X-rays are shown here, where the
spacing between the atomic planes occurs over
the distance, d. Ray 1 reflects off of the upper
atomic plane at an angle equal to its angle of
incidence. Similarly, Ray 2 reflects off the
lower atomic plane at the same angle . While
Ray 2 is in the crystal, however, it travels a
distance of 2a farther than Ray 1. If this
distance 2a is equal to an integral number of
wavelengths (n), then Rays 1 and 2 will be in
phase on their exit from the crystal and
constructive interference will occur.
If the distance 2a is not an integral number of wavelengths, then destructive interference will
occur and the waves will not be as strong as when they entered the crystal. Thus, the condition
for constructive interference to occur is
n = 2a

but, from trigonometry, we can figure out what the distance 2a is in terms of the spacing, d,
between the atomic planes.
a = d sin
or 2a = 2 d sin
thus, n = 2d sin
This is known as Bragg's Law for X-ray diffraction.
What it says is that if we know the wavelength , , of the X-rays going in to the crystal, and we
can measure the angle of the diffracted X-rays coming out of the crystal, then we know the
spacing (referred to as d-spacing) between the atomic planes.
d = n /2 sin
Again it is important to point out that this diffraction will only occur if the rays are in phase
when they emerge, and this will only occur at the appropriate value of n (1, 2, 3, etc.) and .
In theory, then we could re-orient the crystal so that another atomic plane is exposed and
measure the d-spacing between all atomic planes in the crystal, eventually leading us to
determine the crystal structure and the size of the unit cell.

The X-ray Powder Method

In practice, this would be a time consuming operation to reorient the crystal, measure the angle ,
and determine the d-spacing for all atomic planes. A faster way is to use a method called the
powder method. In this method, a mineral is ground up to a fine powder. In the powder, are
thousands of grains that have random orientations. With random orientations we might expect most
of the different atomic planes to lie parallel to the surface in some of the grains. Thus, by scanning
through an angle of incident X-ray beams form 0 to 90o, we would expect to find all angles where
diffraction has occurred, and each of these angles would be associated with a different atomic
spacing.
The instrument used to do this is an xray powder diffractometer. It consists
of an X-ray tube capable of producing
a beam of monochromatic X-rays that
can be rotated to produce angles from 0
to 90o. A powdered mineral sample is
placed on a sample stage so that it can
be irradiated by the X-ray tube. To
detect the diffracted X-rays, an
electronic detector is placed on the
other side of the sample from the X-ray
tube, and it too is allowed to rotate to
produce angles from 0 to 90o.
The instrument used to rotate both the X-ray tube and the detector is called a goniometer. The
goniometer keeps track of the angle , and sends this information to a computer, while the detector
records the rate of X-rays coming out the other side of the sample (in units of counts/sec) and
sends this information to the computer.
After a scan of the sample the X-ray intensity can
be plotted against the angle (usually reported as
2 because of the way older diffractometers were
made) to produce a chart, like the one shown
here. The angle 2 for each diffraction peak can
then be converted to d-spacing, using the Bragg
equation.
One can then work out the crystal structure and associate each of the diffraction peaks with a
different atomic plane in terms of the Miller Index for that plane (hkl).
A group known as the Joint Committee on Powder Diffraction Standards (JCPDS) has collected
data such as this on thousands of crystalline substances. This data can be obtained as the JCPDS
Powder Diffraction File. Since every compound with the same crystal structure will produce an
identical powder diffraction pattern, the pattern serves as kind of a "fingerprint" for the substance,
and thus comparing an unknown mineral to those in the Powder Diffraction file enables easy
identification of the unknown. We will see how this is done in our laboratory demonstration.

INTRODUCTION TO SILICATES
Silicates are the minerals containing silicon and oxygen in tetrahedral SiO 44- units which are
linked together in several patterns. Depending on the way the tetrahedral units are linked, the
silicates are classified into the following types.
TYPES OF SILICATES

Ortho silicates (or Neso silicates)

Pyro silicate (or Soro silicates)
Cyclic silicates (or Ring silicates)
Chain silicates (or pyroxenes)
Double chain silicates (or amphiboles)
Sheet or phyllo silicates
Three dimensional (or tecto silicates)

1) ORTHO SILICATES
Ortho silicates (or Neso silicates) are the simplest silicates which contain discrete SiO44tetrahedral units.

E.g.

1) Phenacite - Be2SiO4
2) Willemite - Zn2SiO4
Note: The Be and Zn ions are tetrahedrally surrounded by the oxygen atoms of

silicate.
3) Olivine - (Fe/Mg)2SiO4 : The cations are octahedrally coordinated to the oxygen atoms
of the silicate.
4) Zircone - ZrSiO4 : The coordination number of Zr4+ is 8.

2) PYRO SILICATES
Pyro silicates (or Soro silicates) contain Si2O76- ions which are formed by joining two
tetrahedral SiO44- which share one oxygen atom at one corner (one oxygen is removed while
joining).

E.g.

1) Thortveitite - Sc2Si2O7

3) CYCLIC SILICATES
Cyclic silicates contain (SiO3)n2n- ions which are formed by linking three or more tetrahedral
SiO44- units cyclically. Each unit shares two oxygen atoms with other units.

E.g.

1) Benitoite - BaTi(SiO3)3 : contain three tetrahedra arranged cyclically.

2) Beryl - Be3Al2(SiO3)6 : contain six-silicate rings. It is an aluminosilicate. Each

aluminium is surrounded by 6 oxygen atoms octahedrally.

4) CHAIN SILICATES (PYROXENES)

Chain silicates or pyroxenes contain (SiO3)n2n- ions which are formed by linking n number of
tetrahedral SiO44- units linearly. Each unit shares two oxygen atoms with other units.

E.g.

1) Spodumene - LiAl(SiO3)2
2) Diopsite - CaMg(SiO3)2
3) Wollastonite - Ca3(SiO3)3

5) DOUBLE CHAIN SILICATES (AMPHIBOLES)

The general formula of double chain silicates (or Amphiboles) is (Si4O11)n6n- . There are two
types of tetrahedra: those sharing 3 vertices and those sharing only 2 vertices.

E.g. 1) Asbestos - These are noncombustible fibrous silicates. They have been used for
thermal insulation material, brake linings, construction material and filters. These are
carcinogenic amphiboles affecting the lungs. Hence their applications are restricted nowadays.
2) Tremolite - Ca2Mg5(Si4O11)2(OH)2

Note: The single and double chain silicates are collectively known as Inosilicates.

6) SHEET SILICATES (PHYLLO SILICATES)

The general formula of Sheet or Phyllo silicates is (Si2O5)n2n- . Each SiO4 tetrahedron shares
three oxygen atoms with others and thus by forming two-dimensional sheets. These silicates can
be cleaved easily just like graphite.

E.g.

1) Talc - Mg3Si4O10(OH)2 : It is the main ingredient of soap stone.

2) Micas : General formula is X2Y46Z8O20(OH,F)4
Where X = K, Na, or Ca
Y = Al, Mg, or Fe
Z = Si or Al
e.g.

Muscovite mica - KAl2(AlSi3O10)(F,OH)2

Lepidolite - KLi2Al(Al,Si)3O10(F,OH)2

3) Clay : It is an aluminosilicate with sheet structure.

4) Kaolinite - AlSiO5(OH)5

7) THREE DIMENSIONAL SILICATES (TECTO SILICATES)

The general formula of three dimensional or tecto silicates is (SiO2)n . All the oxygen atoms of
SiO4 are shared with other tetrahedra and thus by forming three-dimensional network.
E.g. SiO2 - Quartz, Tridymite and Crystobalite - These are the crystalline forms of silica.
When SiO44- units are replaced by AlO45- units, three dimensional aluminosilicates are formed.
E.g. Feldspar, Zeolites, Ult etc.,

The structure of silicates

Since Si invariably occurs in tetrahedral coordination the fundamental unit of the silicate
structure is the Si-O tetrahedra. The different types of silicate structure arise from the ways in
which these tetrahedra are arranged: they may exist as seperate unlinked entitites, as linked finite
arrays, as infinite 1-dimensional chains, as infinite 2-dimensional sheets or as infinite 3dimensional frameworks. These possibilities give rise to the six primary structural types of
silicates, each with a characteristic Si : O ratio (more strictly this should be the ratio of
tetrahedral cations to oxygen, the reasons for which are discusssed later):
Orthosilicates (or neosilicates): independent Si-O tetrahedra, Si : 0 = 1 : 4, for example the
olivine group.

Sorosilicates : two linked Si-O tetrahedra sharing one oxygen, Si : 0 = 2 : 7

Cyclosilicates : closed rings of linked Si-O tetrahedra sharing two oxygens, Si : 0 = 1 : 3, for
example beryl.
Inosilicates : continuous chains of Si-O tetrahedra, sharing two oxygens (single chains, Si : 0 = 1
: 3, for example the pyroxene group) or alternately sharing two and three oxygens (double
chains, Si : 0 = 4 : 11, for example the amphibole group)

Phyllosilicates: Continuous sheets of Si-O tetrahedra sharing three oxygens, Si : O = 2 : 5, for

example the mica group.

Tektosilicates: Continuous framework of Si-O tetrahedra sharing all four oxygens, Si : O = 1 : 2,

for example the feldspar group.

The requirement for charge balance or electronic neutrality in these different structural types is
maintained by the dispersal of other cations in 6-fold (octahedral), 8-fold (cubic) or 12-fold
(icosahedral or close packed) coordintaion between the individual tetrahedra or arrays of
tetrahedra in the silicate structure. For example, in single chained inosilicates (Si : O = 1 : 3)
there is a net excess of two negative charges per tetrahedra.
(SiO3)n2nwhere n is the number of tetrahedra in the chain, and 2n- represents the charge excess of the chain
forming elements. Theoretically the charge excess could be alleviated in a number of different
ways, for example by adding one bivalent cation or two univalent cations per 3 oxygens.
However, the location of these cations, which must reside in spaces (termed sites) between the
individual chains of Si-O tetrahedra, must be such that they simultaneously satisfy the
requirement for electronic neutrality of all oxygens in the structure. Fortunately, this constraint
severely limits the range of compositions and structures found in the inosilicates (as indeed it
does with all other silicates).

If we look at the detail of the single chain structure we find that in each tetrahdron there are two
linking O atoms that are each bonded to two Si atoms and two peripheral O atoms each with
bonds to only one Si atom. Since each Si atom shares its 4+ charge with the surrounding four
oxygens of the tetrahedron, the requirement for the electronic neutrality for each of the two
linking O atoms is completely satisfied. In contrast, each of the peripheral O atoms have a net
excess of one negative charge. In order to satisfy this each of these oxygens can be bonded with
3 neighbouring bivalent cations in octahedral coordination (as shown above) or with four
bivalent cations in 8-fold coordination. In the pyroxene group both possibilities occur, each
placing profound constraints on the way in which the adjacent chains are located with respect to
each other.
In double chain inosilicates (Si : 0 = 4 : 11) the chain forming elements give rise to the basic
formula:
(Si4O11)n6nwhere the net excess of charges per 11 oxygens is equivalent to 6 negative charges. The sheet
forming elements in phyllosilicates (Si : 0 = 2 : 5) give rise to the basic formula:
(Si2O5)n2n-

An Introduction to Silicate Structure Types

Because the chemical elements Si (silicon) and O (oxygen) make up 95% by volume (75% by
weight) of the earth's crust, the most common minerals found there are silicates. When one atom
of Si and four atoms of O combine in nature, the resulting configuration forms a tetrahedron.
Within the mineral, these silicate tetrahedra link in various degrees to form a variety of silicate
structure types. These include so called nesosilicates, sorosilicates, inosilicates, cyclosilicates,
phyllosilicates and framework silicates.
Each of the silicate structure types is illustrated below and is presented first by showing the
traditional "ball and stick" model of the structure, and second by showing only the silicate
tetrahedra drawn as polygons.

Figure 1a. The crystal structure of olivine

((Fe,Mg)2SiO4).

Figure 1b. Looking only at a polygon view of the

silicate tetrahedra, we can see each is isolated
from the other. Because the structure possesses
isolated silicate tetrahedra, olivine is called an
nesosilicate. The term is derived from the Greek
word (nesogaean) that means "island".

Figure 2a. The crystal structure of Ilvaite

(CaFe3Si2O8(OH)).

Figure 2b. Looking only at a polygon view of the

silicate tetrahedra, we can see each tetrahedra is
linked at a corner to form pairs. Because the
structure possesses double island silicate
tetrahedra, ilvaite is called an sorosilicate. The
term is derived from a Greek word that means
"group".

Figure 3a. The crystal structure of Pectolite

(Ca2NaH(SiO3)3).

Figure 3b. Looking only at a polygon view of the

silicate tetrahedra, we can see each tetrahedra is
linked to two others at the corners to form single
chains. Because the structure possesses parallel
single chains of silicate tetrahedra, pectolite is
called an inosilicate (single chain). This type of
structure is represented by the pyroxenes. The term
is derived from a Greek word that means "chain".

Figure 4a. The crystal structure of Tremolite Figure 4b. Looking only at a polygon view of the
(Ca2Mg5Si8O22(OH)2).
silicate tetrahedra, we can see each tetrahedra is
linked at the corners to form double chains.
Because the structure possesses parallel double
chains of silicate tetrahedra, tremolite is called an
inosilicate (double chain). This type of structure
is represented by the amphiboles.

Figure 5a. The crystal structure of Beryl

(Be3Al2(Si6O18)).

Figure 5b. Looking only at a polygon view of the

silicate tetrahedra, we can see each tetrahedra is
linked at the corners to form rings. Because the
structure possesses isolated rings of silicate
tetrahedra, beryl is called an cyclosilicate. The
term is derived from a Greek word that means
"ring".

Figure 6a. The crystal structure of Biotite

(K(Mg,Fe)3(AlSi3O10)(OH)2).

Figure 6b. Looking only at a polygon view of the

silicate tetrahedra, we can see each tetrahedra is
linked at three corners to form a sheet. Because the
structure possesses parallel sheets of silicate
tetrahedra, biotite is called an phyllosilicate. This
type of structure is represented by the micas. The
term is derived from a Greek word that means
"sheet".

Figure 7a. The crystal structure of Quartz

(SiO2).

Figure 7b. Looking only at a polygon view of the

silicate tetrahedra, we can see that every tetrahedra
is linked at each corner to form a framework.
Because the structure possesses a threedimensional framework of silicate tetrahedra,
quartz is called an framework silicate.

POLYMORPHISM-ALLOTROPY-ISOMORPHISM
POLYMORPHISM
Existence of substance into more than one crystalline forms is known as "POLYMORPHISM".
In other words: Under different conditions of temperature and pressure, a substance can
form more than one type of crystals. This phenomenon is called Polymorphism and different
crystalline forms are known as POLYMORPHICS
Example:
1) Mercuric iodide (HgI2) forms two types of crystals.
a. Orthorhombic
b. Trigonal
2) Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) exists in two types of crystalline forms.
a. Orthorhombic (Aragonite)
b. Trigonal
Polymorphous substances have similar chemical properties but different physical
properties.

ALLOTROPY
"Existence of an element into more than one physical forms is known as ALLOTROPY "
Under different conditions of temperature and pressure an element can exist in more
than one
physical forms. This phenomenon is known as Allotropy and different forms are known
as "Allotropes"
Example:
Coal, lamp black, coke, Diamond, graphite etc. are all allotropic forms of carbon.
For latest information , free computer courses and high impact notes visit :

ISOMORPHISM
Existence of different substances in one crystalline form is known as "ISOMORPHISM"
Or
Different substances may exist in identical crystalline forms. This phenomenon is called
as
Isomorphism and these substances are known as Isomorphous.
Examples:
1) Na2SO4 & Ag2SO4 both exist in Hexagonal crystalline form.
2) KBF4 & BaSO4 both exist in Orthorhombic
3) ZnSO4 & NiSO4 both exist in Orthorhombic
4) CaCO3 & NaNO3 both exist in Trigonal
Properties of Isomorphic Substances
1) Isomorphic substances have same atomic ratio
2) Empirical formula of isomorphic substances is same
For example
CaCO3 NaNO3
1:1:3 1:1:3
NaF MgO
1:1 1:1
3) They have different chemical & physical properties.
4) When their solutions are mixed, they form mixed type of crystals.
5) They show property over growth.

Physical Properties of Minerals

Although we have discussed x-ray identification of minerals and later in the course will discuss
techniques that can be used to identify minerals with the optical microscope, it is still necessary
to develop techniques that can be used in the laboratory and field where instrumentation like xray diffractometers or microscopes cannot be easily used. Minerals have distinguishing
physical properties that in most cases can be used to determine the identity of the mineral. In
this course, you will develop a systematic approach to using the physical properties of minerals
as identifying tools. If you follow this approach you should be able to identify most of the
common minerals, or at the least be able to narrow the possibilities to only a few. We will first
discuss each of the physical properties that can be used, then develop a methodical approach to
the identification of minerals using these physical properties. Among the properties we will
discuss are: crystal habit, cleavage, hardness, density, luster, streak, color, tenacity, magnetism,
and taste.
Crystal Habit
In nature perfect crystals are rare. The faces that develop on a crystal depend on the space
available for the crystals to grow. If crystals grow into one another or in a restricted
environment, it is possible that no well-formed crystal faces will be developed. However,
crystals sometimes develop certain forms more commonly than others, although the symmetry
may not be readily apparent from these common forms. The term used to describe general
shape of a crystal is habit.
Some common crystal habits are as follows (discussed previously):
Individual Crystals

Cubic - cube shapes

Octahedral - shaped like octahedrons, as described above.

Tabular - rectangular shapes.

Equant - a term used to describe minerals that have all of their boundaries of
approximately equal length.

Acicular - long, slender crystals.

Prismatic - abundance of prism faces.

Bladed - like a wedge or knife blade.

Groups of Distinct Crystals

Dendritic - tree-like growths.

Reticulated - lattice-like groups of slender crystals.

Radiated - radiating groups of crystals.

Fibrous - elongated clusters of fibers.

Botryoidal - smooth bulbous or globular shapes.

Globular - radiating individual crystals that form spherical groups.

Drusy - small crystals that cover a surface.

Stellated - radiating individuals that form a star-like shape.

Some minerals characteristically show one or more of these habits, so habit can sometimes be a
powerful diagnostic tool.
Cleavage, Parting, and Fracture
Cleavage
Crystals often contain planes of atoms along which the bonding between the atoms is weaker
than along other planes. In such a case, if the mineral is struck with a hard object, it will tend
to break along these planes. This property of breaking along specific planes is termed
cleavage. Because cleavage occurs along planes in the crystal lattice, it can be described in the
same manner that crystal forms are described. For example if a mineral has cleavage along
{100} it will break easily along planes parallel to the (100) crystal face, and any other planes
that are related to it by symmetry. Thus, if the mineral belongs to the tetragonal crystal system
it should also cleave along faces parallel to (010), because (100) and (010) are symmetrically
related by the 4-fold rotation axis. The mineral will be said to have two directions of cleavage.
[Note that in the tetragonal system, the form {100} has four faces: (100), ( 00), (010), and (0
0). But if we are referring to cleavage directions, the mineral only has two, because the
cleavage planes (0 0) and ( 00) are parallel to, and thus in the same direction as (010) and
(100).]
The cleavage can also be described in terms of its quality, i.e., if it cleaves along perfect planes
it is said to be perfect, and if it cleaves along poorly defined planes it is said to be poor.
Note: Please do not attempt to cleave the minerals in the laboratory. Many of the specimens
you examine cannot be readily replaced. Cleavage is usually induced in the mineral when it is
extracted from the rock when it is found, and can usually be seen as planes running through the
mineral. Therefore, you do not have to break the mineral in order to see its cleavage.
Cleavage can also be described by general forms names, for example if the mineral breaks into

rectangular shaped pieces it is said to have cubic cleavage (3 cleavage directions), if it breaks
into prismatic shapes, it is said to have prismatic cleavage (2 cleavage directions), or if it
breaks along basal pinacoids( 1 cleavage direction) it is said to have pinacoidal cleavage. For
examples, see figure 2.12 on page 29 of your text.
Parting
Parting is also a plane of weakness in the crystal structure, but it is along planes that are
weakened by some applied force. It therefore may not be apparent in all specimens of the same
mineral, but may appear if the mineral has been subjected to the right stress conditions.
Fracture
If the mineral contains no planes of weakness, it will break along random directions called
fracture. Several different kinds of fracture patterns are observed.
Conchoidal fracture - breaks along smooth curved surfaces.
Fibrous and splintery - similar to the way wood breaks.
Hackly - jagged fractures with sharp edges.
Uneven or Irregular - rough irregular surfaces.

Hardness
Hardness is determined by scratching the mineral with a mineral or substance of known
hardness. Hardness is a relative scale, thus to determine a mineral's hardness, you must
determine that a substance with a hardness greater than the mineral does indeed scratch the
unknown mineral, and that the unknown mineral scratches a known mineral of lesser hardness.
Hardness is determined on the basis of Moh's relative scale of hardness exhibited by some
common minerals. These minerals are listed below, along with the hardness of some common
objects.
Hardness

Mineral

Common Objects

Talc

Gypsum

Fingernail (2+)

Calcite

Copper Penny (3+)

Fluorite

Apatite

Steel knife blade (5+), Window

glass (5.5)

Orthoclase

Steel file

Quartz

Topaz

Corundum

10
Diamond
Several precautions are necessary for performing the hardness test.

If you attempt to scratch a soft mineral on the surface of a harder mineral

some of the softer substance may leave a mark of fine powder on the harder
mineral. This should not be mistaken for a scratch on the harder mineral. A
powder will easily rub off, but a scratch will occur as a permanent
indentation on the scratched mineral.

Some minerals have surfaces that are altered to a different substance that
may be softer than the original mineral. A scratch in this softer alteration
product will not reflect the true hardness of the mineral. Always use a fresh
surface to perform the hardness test.

Sometimes the habit of the mineral will make a difference. For example
aggregates of minerals may break apart leaving the impression that the
mineral is soft. Or, minerals that show fibrous or splintery habit may break
easily into fibers or splinters. It is therefore wise to always perform the
hardness test in reverse. If one mineral appears to scratch another mineral,
make sure that the other mineral does not scratch the apparently harder
mineral before you declare which of the minerals is harder.

In some minerals hardness is very dependant on direction, since hardness is

a vectorial property. When there is significant difference in hardness in
different directions, it can be a very diagnostic property of the mineral. It is
thus wise to perform the hardness test by attempting to scratch the mineral
in different directions. Two minerals of note have differences in hardness
depending on direction:

Kyanite has a hardness of 5 parallel to the length of the crystal, and

a hardness of 7 when scratched along a direction perpendicular to
the length.

Calcite has a hardness of 3 for all surfaces except the {0001} plane.
On {0001} it has a hardness of 2.

Tenacity
Tenacity is the resistance of a mineral to breaking, crushing, or bending. Tenacity can be
described by the following terms.

Brittle - Breaks or powders easily.

Malleable - can be hammered into thin sheets.

Sectile - can be cut into thin shavings with a knife.

Ductile - bends easily and does not return to its original shape.

Flexible - bends somewhat and does not return to its original shape.

Elastic - bends but does return to its original shape.

Density (Specific Gravity)

Density refers to the mass per unit volume. Specific Gravity is the relative density, (weight of
substance divided by the weight of an equal volume of water). In cgs units density is grams per
cm3, and since water has a density of 1 g/cm3, specific gravity would have the same numerical
value has density, but no units (units would cancel). Specific gravity is often a very diagnostic
property for those minerals that have high specific gravities. In general, if a mineral has higher
atomic number cations it has a higher specific gravity. For example, in the carbonate minerals
the following is observed:

Mineral

Composition

Atomic #
of Cation

Specific
Gravity

Aragonite

CaCO3

40.08

2.94

Strontianite

SrCO3

87.82

3.78

Witherite

BaCO3

137.34

4.31

Cerussite

PbCO3

207.19

6.58

Specific gravity can usually be qualitatively measured by the heft of a mineral, in other words
those with high specific gravities usually feel heavier. Most common silicate minerals have a
specific gravity between about 2.5 and 3.0. These would feel light compared to minerals with
high specific gravities.

For comparison, examine the following table:

Mineral

Composition

Specific
Gravity

Graphite

2.23

Quartz

SiO2

2.65

Feldspars

(K,Na)AlSi3O8

2.6 - 2.75

Fluorite

CaF2

3.18

Topaz

Al2SiO4(F,OH)2

3.53

Corundum

Al2O3

4.02

Barite

BaSO4

4.45

Pyrite

FeS2

5.02

Galena

PbS

7.5

Cinnabar

HgS

8.1

Copper

Cu

8.9

Silver

Ag

10.5
Color

Color is sometimes an extremely diagnostic property of a mineral, for example olivine and
epidote are almost always green in color. But, for some minerals it is not at all diagnostic
because minerals can take on a variety of colors. These minerals are said to be allochromatic.
For example quartz can be clear, white, black, pink, blue, or purple. Read in your textbook,
pp. 234-241, about what causes minerals to have color.

Streak
Streak is the color produced by a fine powder of the mineral when scratched on a streak plate.
Often it is different than the color of the mineral in non- powdered form

Luster
Luster refers to the general appearance of a mineral surface to reflected light. Two general
types of luster are designated as follows:
1. Metallic - looks shiny like a metal. Usually opaque and gives black or dark colored
streak.
2. Non-metallic - Non metallic lusters are referred to as
a. vitreous - looks glassy - examples: clear quartz, tourmaline
b. resinous - looks resinous - examples: sphalerite, sulfur.
c. pearly - iridescent pearl-like - example: apophyllite.
d. greasy - appears to be covered with a thin layer of oil - example: nepheline.
e. silky - looks fibrous. - examples - some gypsum, serpentine, malachite.
f. adamantine - brilliant luster like diamond.
Play of Colors
Interference of light reflected from the surface or from within a mineral may cause the color of
the mineral to change as the angle of incident light changes. This sometimes gives the mineral
an iridescent quality. Minerals that show this include: bornite (Cu5FeS4) , hematite (Fe2O3),
sphalerite (ZnS), and some specimens of labradorite (plagioclase).
Fluorescence and Phosphorescence
Minerals that light up when exposed to ultraviolet light, x-rays, or cathode rays are called
fluorescent. If the emission of light continues after the light is cut off, they are said to be
phosphorescent.
Some specimens of the same mineral show fluorescence while other don't. For example some
crystals of fluorite (CaF2) show fluorescence and others do not. Other minerals show
fluorescence frequently, but not always. These include - scheelite (CaWO4), willemite
(Zn2SiO4), calcite (CaCO3), scapolite (3NaAlSi3O8.(NaCl - CaCO3), and diamond (C).

Magnetism
Magnetic minerals result from properties that are specific to a number of elements. Minerals
that do not have these elements, and thus have no magnetism are called diamagnetic.
Examples of diamagnetic minerals are quartz, plagioclase, calcite, and apatite. Elements like
Ti, Cr, V, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, and Cu can sometimes result in magnetism. Minerals that contain
these elements may be weakly magnetic and can be separated from each other by their various
degrees of magnetic susceptibility. These are called paramagnetic minerals. Paramagnetic
minerals only show magnetic properties when subjected to an external magnetic field. When
the magnetic field is removed, the minerals have no magnetism.
Ferromagnetic minerals have permanent magnetism if the temperature is below the Curie
Temperature. These materials will become magnetized when placed in a magnetic field, and
will remain magnetic after the external field is removed. Examples of such minerals are
magnetite, hematite-ilmenite solid solutions (Fe2O3 - FeTiO3), and pyrrhotite (Fe1-xS).

Other Properties
Other properties that may be diagnostic include chatoyancy, asterism, piezoelectricity, and
taste. Familiarize yourself with the meanings of these terms. And watch for these properties as
you examine minerals.
Tables for Identification of Minerals
Beginning on page 604 of the Text by Klein and Dutrow are determinative tables which should
aid you in using physical properties of minerals to identify them. Note that the tables are
broken first into two different groups based on Luster. Within each group, the minerals are
then further divided on the basis of streak, hardness, and cleavage. In the remarks column are
listed other useful diagnostic property for each mineral. Again, I encourage you to develop a
systematic approach to identifying minerals.
Luster - Metallic or Submetallic
I.
II.
III.

Hardness < 2
Hardness > 2. <5.
Hardness > 5.

Luster - Nonmetallic
I.
II.

Streak Colored
Streak Colorless
A.
Hardness < 2
B.
Hardness >2, < 3
1. Cleavage prominent.

C.
D.
E.

2. Cleavage not prominent.

Hardness >3, <5.
1. Cleavage prominent.
2. Cleavage not prominent.
Hardness >5, <7
1. Cleavage prominent.
2. Cleavage not prominent.
Hardness >7
1. Cleavage prominent
2. Cleavage not prominent.

QUARTZ
Quartz
Quartz is hexagonal and commonly occurs as crystals ranging in size form microscopic to
crystals weighing several tons. Where it crystallizes unhindered by other crystals, such as in
cavities in rock or in a liquid containing few other crystals, it shows well-developed hexagonal
prisms and sometimes showing apparent hexagonal pyramids or dipyramid. When it crystallizes
in an environment where growth is inhibited by the surroundings, it rarely show crystal faces. It
is also found as microcrystalline masses, such as in the rock chert, and as fibrous masses, such as
in chalcedony.
As visible crystals, Quartz is one of the more common rock forming minerals. It occurs in
siliceous igneous rocks such as volcanic rhyolite and plutonic granitic rocks. It is common in
metamorphic rocks at all grades of metamorphism, and is the chief constituent of sand. Because
it is highly resistant to chemical weathering, it is found in a wide variety of sedimentary rocks.
Several varieties of Quartz can be found, but these are usually only distinguishable in hand
specimen.
Rock Crystal - clear Quartz in distinct crystals - usually found growing in open cavities in
rock.
Amethyst - violet colored Quartz, with the color resulting from trace amounts of Fe in the
crystal.
Rose Quartz - a pink colored variety, that usually does not show crystal faces, the color
resulting from trace amounts of Ti+4.
Smokey Quartz - a dark colored variety that may be almost black, usually forming wellformed crystals. The color appears to result from trace amounts of Al+3 in the structure.
Citrine - a yellow colored variety.
Milky Quartz - a white colored variety with the color being due to fluid inclusions.
Milky Quartz is common in hydrothermal veins and pegmatites.

A fibrous variety of Quartz is called Chalcedony. It is usually brown to gray to translucent with
a waxy luster. It is found lining or filling cavities in rock where it was apparently precipitated
from an aqueous solution. When it shows bands of color, it is commonly called by the following
names:

Carnelian - red colored Chalcedony

Chrysoprase - apple-green colored as a result of coloration from NiO.
Agate - alternating curving layers of Chalcedony with different colors or different
porosities.
Onyx - alternating layers of Chalcedony of different colors or porosities arranged in
parallel planes.
Bloodstone - green Chalcedony containing red spots of jasper (see below).

Very fined grained aggregates of cryptocrystalline quartz makes up rock like Flint and Chert.
Flint occurs as nodules in limestone, whereas chert is a layered rock deposited on the ocean
floor. The red variety of flint is called Jasper, where the color results from inclusions of
hematite.
Optical Properties
Quartz is uniaxial positive with a low relief and low birefringence, thus exhibited only 1 o gray to
1o white interference colors. In thin section it is almost always colorless when viewed without
the analyzer inserted. One of its most distinguishing properties in thin section is that it usually
has a smooth, almost polished-like surface texture. Quartz is easily distinguished from the
Feldspars by the biaxial nature of feldspars, and from Nepheline which is uniaxial negative.
Apatite, has similar birefringence to quartz, but is uniaxial negative and has a very high relief.
In Chalcedony, the fibers are usually elongated perpendicular to the c-crystallographic axis and
thus are length fast. Normal quartz, when it show an elongated habit, is elongated parallel to the
c axis, and is thus length slow.

QUARTZ
Compositionsilicon dioxide (SiO)
Colorclear, white, or gray, rarely purple or yellow
Lustervitreous
Hardness7
Streakwhite
Cleavagevery poor (conchoidal fracture much more conspicuous)
Specific gravity2.65
Crystal systemhexagonal
Quartz is one of the most abundant minerals of the earth's crust,
being
an important constituent of many types of rocks and the major
constituent
in most sand. It is a hard, brittle mineral that has no apparent
cleavage. Like glass, it breaks with a characteristic conchoidal
fracture.
It cannot be scratched with a knife, as can many of the minerals
with
which it might be confused, and it will easily scratch glass.
Most people have picked up or seen quartz crystals, which are
characteristic
six-sided prisms terminated by six-sided pyramids. Such crystals
usually are clear and colorless, although some are gray (smoky
quartz) or violet (amethyst). But crystal faces develop only in
special
environments, such as open fissures or cavities in rock, and most
quartz
occurs as disseminated irregular grains in many different types of
rocks.
It also occurs as massive white aggregates of irregular grains,
such as
milky vein quartz. Quartz is much more resistant to alteration by
weathering
than are most other minerals, so it is a prominent constituent of
beach and stream gravels, and smaller grains accumulate as sand.
Quartz is mined for a wide variety of industrial uses. Large
quantities
are processed in the manufacture of glass and ceramic materials,
and are
used in the manufacture of cement and as a metallurgical flux.
Carefully
cut sections of clear quartz crystals are used as crystal
oscillators to
control the frequency of radio transmitters, and clear or
attractively
colored crystals are cut for gem stones.
In many places veins of milky quartz contain disseminated gold or
minerals of other valuable metals. Where the content of one or more
valuable metals is sufficiently high, such veins are mined.

QUARTZ, variety chalcedony

Compositionsilicon dioxide (SiO-*)
Colortranslucent white or gray; but with impurities may be almost
any color, or
opaque; commonly banded in white, gray, and other colors
Lusterwaxy
Hardness
7
Streakwhite
Cleavage none (fracture conchoidal)
Specific gravity2.6
Crystal system hexagonal, but always so fine-grained that
individual crystals cannot
be observed except by very great magnification
Chalcedony is the name applied to microfibrous masses of quartz
that
have a waxy luster. The individual quartz fibers are so small that
they
can be seen only with special apparatus and a high-power
microscope.
Minute water-filled pores between the tiny fibers result in masses
of
chalcedony having lower specific gravities than quartz, and also
are
probably the cause of chacedony having a waxy luster instead of
being
vitreous like typical quartz. However, the hardness is 7, as is
that of
coarsely-crystalline quartz.
Pure chalcedony is colorless, white, or grayish, and is translucent
or
transparent. However, it is commonly brown, red, yellow, green,
bluish,
or dark gray because of small amounts of finely divided colored
minerals
disseminated among the quartz fibers.
Chalcedony is relatively abundant in California. It is the
predominant
constituent of chert, a common rock in the state, and occurs lining
or
filling fissures and other cavities in various rocks, particularly
volcanic
rocks. When deposited in wide fissures, masses of chalcedony often
assume
globular or stalactitic forms. Chalcedony is also found in many
places where it has replaced other materials, commonly retaining
the

form and texture of objects replaced. An example of the latter is

petrified
wood.
The principal use of chalcedony is as gem material, and many gem
names are applied to variously colored or patterned chalcedony.
When
banded, it is called agate, when red or yellow and opaque it is
called
jasper, when translucent green it is chrysoprase, and when
translucent
orange it is cariielian. Flint is dark gray or brown chalcedony.

THE MINERAL
QUARTZ

Chemistry: SiO2 , Silicon dioxide

Class: Silicates
Subclass: Tectosilicates
Group: Quartz
Uses: silica for glass, electrical components, optical lenses, abrasives, gemstones,
ornamental stone, building stone, etc.
The Physical Properties of Quartz.
Specimens

Additional variety specimens include:

o
o
o
o
o

Amethyst
Citrine
Rock Crystal
Rose Quartz
Smoky Quartz

Quartz is the most common mineral on the face of the Earth. It is found in nearly every
geological environment and is at least a component of almost every rock type. It frequently is the
primary mineral, >98%. It is also the most varied in terms of varieties, colors and forms. This
variety comes about because of the abundance and widespread distribution of quartz. A collector
could easily have hundreds of quartz specimens and not have two that are the same due to the
many broad categories. The specimens could be separated by answers to the following questions:
color?, shade?, pyramidal?, prismatic?, druzy?, twinned?, sceptered?, phantomed?,
included?, tapered?, coated?, microcrystalline?, stalactitic?, concretionary?, geoidal?,
banded?, etc. Multiple combinations of these could produce hundreds of unique possibilities.
Some macrocrystalline (large crystal) varieties are well known and popular as ornamental stone
and as gemstones.

Amethyst is the purple gemstone variety.

Citrine is a yellow to orange gemstone variety that is rare in nature but is often created
by heating Amethyst.
Milky Quartz is the cloudy white variety.
Prasiolite is a leek-green gemstone variety that is rare in nature but is created by heating
Amethyst from certain locations.
Rock crystal is the clear variety that is also used as a gemstone.
Rose quartz is a pink to reddish pink variety.
Smoky quartz is the brown to gray variety.

Cryptocrystalline (crystals too small to be seen even by a microscope) varieties are also used as
semi-precious stones and for ornamental purposes. These varieties are divided more by character
than by color.
The primary varieties of chalcedony are as follows:

Agate is a banded variety (sometimes with translucent bands)

Bloodstone is green with red speckles
Carnelian is yellow to orange
Chrysoprase is green
Flint is generally black with a fibrous microscopic structure
Jasper is any colorful agate
Onyx is black, white, or alternating black and white
Sard is yellow to brown
Sardonyx is banded, alternating sard and (usually white) onyx

Check out our selections of agate bookends, available as natural agate, dyed blue, and dyed
purple.
Quartz is not the only mineral composed of SiO2. There are no less than eight other known
structures that are composed of SiO2. These other substances and quartz are polymorphs of
silicon dioxide and belong to an informal group called the Quartz Group or Silica Group. All
members of this group, except quartz, are uncommon to extemely rare on the surface of the earth

and are stable only under high temperatures and high pressures or both. These minerals have
their own unique structures although they share the same chemistry, hence the term polymorph,
which means many forms.
Quartz has a unique structure. Actually, there is another mineral that shares quartz's structure,
and it is not even a silicate. It is a rare phosphate named berlinite, AlPO4, that is isostructural
with quartz. The structure of quartz involves corkscrewing (helix) chains of silicon tetrahedrons.
The corkscrew takes four tetrahedrons in order to repeat itself, or three turns. Each tetrahedron is
essentially rotated 120 degrees. The chains are aligned along the C axis of the crystal and
interconnected to two other chains at each tetrahedron making quartz a true tectosilicate. This
structure is not like the structure of the chain silicates or inosilicates whose silicate tetrahedronal
chains are not directly connected to each other. The structure of quartz helps explain many of its
physical attributes.
For one, the helix makes three turns and this helps produce the trigonal symmetry of quartz.
Likewise a helix or corkscrew lacks mirror planes of symmetry as does quartz. The corkscrew
structure would also disrupt any cleavage which requires a plane of weakness not found in quartz
and breakage would result in the curved fracture, conchoidal, that is found in quartz. Quartz can
also have left and right handed crystals just as a corkscrew can screw in a left handed way or in a
right handed way. There are even some very difficult to identify crystals of quartz that are
twinned with alternating one sixths of the crystal being right handed and then left handed.
Quartz is a fun mineral to collect. Its abundance on the Earth's surface is incredible and produces
some wonderful varieties that don't even look like the same mineral. A collector must always be
up on the many varieties of quartz and it sometimes embarrasses a collector to have collected too
many specimens of such a common mineral. But nearly all collectors concede that you can never
really have enough quartz specimens. Note that quartz is nearly a defining component of most
geodes. The agate form typically lines the original cavity, creating a durable shell to contain
subsequent mineral growth, which itself is often quartz crystals of one or more varieties. Geodes
from Brazil are a good example, as layers of agate comprise the shell, lined with milky and/or
colorless quartz crystals, topped with amethyst.

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS:

Color is as variable as the spectrum, but clear quartz is by far the most common color
followed by white or cloudy (milky quartz). Purple (Amethyst), pink (Rose Quartz), gray
or brown to black (Smoky Quartz) are also common. Cryptocrystalline varieties can be
multicolored.
Luster is glassy to vitreous as crystals, while cryptocrystalline forms are usually waxy to
dull but can be vitreous.
Transparency: Crystals are transparent to translucent, cryptocrystalline forms can be
translucent or opaque.
Crystal System is trigonal; 3 2.
Crystal Habits are again widely variable but the most common habit is hexagonal prisms
terminated with a six sided pyramid (actually two rhombohedrons). Three of the six
sides of the pyramid may dominate causing the pyramid to be or look three sided. Left
and right handed crystals are possible and identifiable only if minor trigonal pyramidal
faces are present. Druse forms (crystal lined rock with just the pyramids showing) are
also common. Massive forms can be just about any type but common forms include
botryoidal, globular, stalactitic, crusts of agate such as lining the interior of a geode and
many many more.
Cleavage is very weak in three directions (rhombohedral).
Fracture is conchoidal.
Hardness is 7, less in cryptocrystalline forms.
Specific Gravity is 2.65 or less if cryptocrystalline. (average)
Streak is white.
Other Characteristics: Striations on prism faces run perpendicular to C axis,
piezoelectric (see tourmaline) and index of refraction is 1.55.
Associated Minerals are numerous and varied but here are some of the more classic
associations of quartz (although any list of associated minerals of quartz is only a partial
list): amazonite a variety of microcline, tourmalines especially elbaite, wolframite,
pyrite, rutile, zeolites, fluorite, calcite, gold, muscovite, topaz, beryl, hematite and
spodumene.
Notable Occurrences of amethyst are Brazil, Uraguay, Mexico, Russia, Thunder Bay
area of Canada, and some locallities in the USA. For Smoky Quartz; Brazil, Colorado,
Scotland, Swiss Alps among many others. Rose Quartz is also wide spread but large
quantities come from brazil as do the only large find of Rose Quartz prisms. Natural
citrine is found with many amethyst deposits but in very rare quantities. Fine examples of
Rock crystal come from Brazil (again), Arkansas, many localities in Africa, etc. Fine
Agates are found in, of course, Brazil, Lake Superior region, Montana, Mexico and
Germany.
Best Field Indicators are first the fact that it is very common (always assume transparent
clear crystals may be quartz), crystal habit, hardness, striations, good conchoidal fracture
and lack of good cleavage.

Feldspar
The feldspars are the most common minerals in the Earth's crust. They consist of three endmembers:
KAlSi3 O8 - Orthoclase (or), NaAlSi3O8 - Albite (ab), and CaAl2Si2O8 -Anorthite (an)
KAlSi3 O8 and NaAlSi3O8 form a complete solid solution series, known as the alkali feldspars
and NaAlSi3O8 and CaAl2Si2O8 form a complete solid solution series known as the plagioclase
feldspars.
The feldspars have a framework structure, consisting of SiO 4 tetrahedra sharing all of the
corner oxygens. However, in the alkali feldspars 1/4 of the Si+4 ions are replaced by Al+3 and
in the plagioclase feldspars 1/4 to 1/2 of the Si+4 ions are replaced by Al+3. This allows for the
cations K+, Na+, and Ca+2 to be substituted into void spaces to maintain charge balance.
Compositions of natural feldspars are shown in the diagram below based on the 3 components NaAlSi3O8, - Albite (ab), KAlSi3O8 - Orthoclase (or) and CaAl2Si2O8. The Alkali Feldspars
form a complete solid solution between ab and or, with up to 5% of the an component. The
high temperature more K-rich variety is called Sanidine and the more Na-rich variety is called
anorthoclase.

The plagioclase feldspars are a complete solid solution series between ab and an, and can
contain small amounts of the or component. Names are given to the various ranges of
composition, as shown here in the diagram are:
Albite - ab90 to ab100
Oligoclase - ab70 to ab90
Andesine - ab50 to ab70
Labradorite - ab30 to ab50
Bytownite - ab10 - ab30
Anorthite - ab0 to an10
Plagioclase Feldspars
Plagioclase is the most common feldspar. It forms initially by crystallization from magma. The
plagioclase solid solution series is coupled solid solution where the substitution is:
Na+1Si+4 <=> Ca+2 Al+3
Thus, the general chemical formula for plagioclase can be written as:
CaxNa1-xAl1+xSi3-xO8
where x is between 0 and 1.
The phase diagram for the plagiocalse series is shown here, and shows that the Anorthite
component has a higher melting temperature the than the Albite component. Thus, on
crystallization, higher temperatures will favor more An-rich plagioclase which will react with
the liquid to produce more Ab-rich plagioclase on cooling.

Plagioclase occurs in basalts, andesites, dacites, rhyolites, gabbros, diorites, granodiorites, and
granites. In most of these igneous rocks, it always shows the characteristic albite twinning.
Plagioclase also occurs in a wide variety of metamorphic rocks, where it is usually not twinned.
In such rocks where the plagioclase is not twinned, it is difficult to distinguish from the alkali
feldspars. Plagioclase can be a component of clastic sedimentary rocks, although it is less
stable near the Earth's surface than alkali feldspar and quartz, and usually breaks down to clay
minerals during weathering.
Properties
In hand specimen, plagioclase is most commonly white colored and
shows perfect {100} and good {010} cleavage. It is most easily
identified and distinguished from quartz, sanidine, orthoclase, and
microcline, by its common polysynthetic twinning on {010}. If this
twinning is not present, plagioclase can still be distinguished from
quartz by its cleavage, but cannot easily be distinguished from the
alkali feldspars. If both plagioclase and alkali feldspar occur in the
same rock, the two can usually be distinguished by differences in
color or differences in the extent of weathering.
In thin section, plagioclase commonly shows the characteristic albite
polysynthetic twinning. This twinning is the most characteristic
identifying feature of plagioclase, and makes its identification easy
when present. Although some cross-hatched twinning may also
occur in plagioclase, it is always very simple with only one or two
cross twins per grain. Thus, be careful not to identify plagioclase as
microcline. The cross-hatched twinning in microcline is always
much more complex.
Plagioclase often shows zoning. This is exhibited by the extinction position changing from the
rim to the core of the crystal. Remember that zoning is caused by incomplete reaction of
crystals with liquid during cooling of a solid solution. Often the zoning is very complex, and is
sometimes oscillatory. Normal zoning would show Ca - rich cores and Na - rich rims, but
reverse zoning is possible under certain conditions.
In metamorphic rocks plagioclase may not show twinning making it difficult to distinguish
from orthoclase. The two can be distinguished by staining the thin section with stains that
make the K-feldspars one color and the more Ca-rich feldspars another color. In this class, we
will not have time to look at these staining techniques. You should, however, be aware, that
such staining techniques exist, so that if you need them in the future, you can use them.
The optical properties of the plagioclase series vary widely as a function of composition of the
plagioclase. In general, all plagioclases show low order interference colors, and thus, low
birefringence. Optic sign and 2V vary widely, and are thus, not very distinguishing features of
plagioclase. Although, as you have seen in lab, it is possible to estimate the composition of
plagioclase from a combination of extinction angle and twinning.

Alkali Feldspars (K,Na)AlSi3O8

As an alkali feldspar cools from high temperature to lower temperature, the crystal structure
changes from that of sanidine, which is monoclinic, through orthoclase, also monoclinic, but
with a different crystal structure than sanidine, to microcline, which is triclinic. These
transformations are order-disorder transformations, and thus require large amounts of time.
Furthermore, if the feldspar is allowed to cool very slowly, then exsolution will occur, and the
solid solution will separate into a Na-rich phase and a K-rich phase. Thus, one expects to find
sanidine in rocks that were cooled very rapidly from high temperature, i.e. volcanic rocks.
Orthoclase and microcline will be found in plutonic igneous rocks (cooled slowly at depth in
the earth) and in metamorphic rocks. In addition, in the plutonic rock types if the cooling takes
place slowly enough, then perthitic exsolution lamellae may also form.
All of the alkali feldspars have low relief and low birefringence. Thus the interference colors
may range up to 1o white. Since this is the same interference color we expect for quartz, care
must be taken to avoid confusing feldspars and quartz.
Sanidine
Sanidine generally occurs with an equant habit (almost square) and shows perfect {001} and
{010} cleavages, which readily distinguish it from quartz. Rarely does sanidine show twinning,
but when it does, it is usually simple twinning. Optic axis figures will only be found on sections
showing both cleavages. Sanidine is optically negative with a 2V of 20 - 50o. This distinguishes
it from quartz, which is uniaxial positive, and from the other alkali feldspars which show larger
values of 2V.
Orthoclase
Orthoclase is a common alkali feldspar in granitic rocks and K - Al rich metamorphic rocks. It
often shows perfect {001} and {010} cleavages which will distinguish it from quartz. Also,
quartz usually shows a smooth surface texture, while orthoclase appears much rougher.
Orthoclase is also biaxial, which further distinguishes it from quartz. The 2V of orthoclase
varies from 60 to 105o, and thus it may be either positive or negative. The 2V angle
distinguishes orthoclase from sanidine, but is otherwise not very useful because of the its wide
range.
Microcline
Microcline is the lowest temperature form of alkali feldspar. Upon cooling, orthoclase must
rearrange its structure from monoclinic to triclinic. When this happens, twinning usually
results. The twinning characteristic of microcline is a combination of albite twinning and
pericline twinning. This results in a cross-hatched pattern (often called tartan twinning) that is
the most distinguishing characteristic of microcline.

Anorthoclase
Anorthoclase is a Na - rich feldspar with approximately equal amounts of the Anorthite (Ca)
and orthoclase (K) components. Generally anorthoclase occurs in Na - rich volcanic rocks. Like
the other alkali feldspars, it has perfect {001} and {010} cleavages. Sections showing both of
the cleavages are best for determining the optic sign and 2V. Anorthoclase sometimes shows
twinning, but generally not the multiple twinning seen in the plagioclase feldspars, but a crosshatched twinning similar to that seen in microcline, but on a very fine scale. Anorthoclase, like
sanidine shows a low 2V of 5 to 20o, and is optically negative. Anorthoclase can sometimes be
distinguished from sanidine by the fact that anorthoclase usually forms crystals with a tabular,
elongated habit, while sanidine forms crystals with a more equant habit.

Graphical Representation of Mineral Composition

For simple compositional variation it is often convenient to visualize the compositions in some
kind of graphical form. Most chemical analyses of oxide and silicate minerals are reported in
weight % oxide components. In weight percent because the classical technique of chemical
analyses was once gravimetric, and in oxide components because it is difficult to obtain
concentrations of Oxygen, so in oxides and silicates it is assumed that there is enough Oxygen
to balance the cationic charges.
If the composition of a mineral can be expressed with 2 components, then a linear scale can be
used as a graphical representation of composition. For example, chemical analysis of the
mineral kyanite shows that it is composed of about 36 weight % SiO 2 and 64 weight % Al2O3.
We can plot this on a
linear scale as shown
here in the upper
diagram. Note that in
this two component
compositional
diagram 0% plots at
the same point as 100
%.
We could divide each of these weight percentages by the molecular weight of each of the
oxides and recalculate in the analysis in terms of molecular %. But the chemical formula of
Kyanite - Al2SiO5 - tells us that kyanite is made up of 1Al2O3 + 1SiO2 . So in molecular
percent 50% of kyanite is Al2O3 and 50% is SiO2, as shown in the lower diagram above.

Similarly, olivine can be

thought of as a mixture
of forsterite, Fo
(Mg2SiO4) and fayalite,
Fa (Fe2SiO4). If these
are the only two
components involved,
then note again that
100% Fo corresponds to
0% Fa, and vice versa.
An olivine solid solution that has 50% of the Mg+2 ions replaced by Fe+2 ions would be said to
have a composition Fo 50 or Fa50. Note that it could be expressed either way, because both ways
indicate the same composition. The chemical formula for such a composition would be written
as MgFeSiO4. Similarly, for an olivine composition where 20% of the Fe +2 ions are replaced
by Mg+2 ions, the composition could be expressed as Fa20 or Fo80.
If there are three components that need to be plotted, a triangular graph can be used. Such a
graph for the three components MgO, CaO, SiO2 is shown below.

Each of the corners of the triangular graph represent 100% of the component plotted at that
corner, and 0% of the other two components. Lines parallel to the sides of the triangle in this
case are marked off in 10% increments, so that the horizontals lines represent the % of CaO
starting from 0% at the bottom to 100% at the CaO corner. Lines parallel to the SiO2 - CaO
side of the triangle represent the %MgO starting from 0% at the SiO 2 - CaO join to 100% MgO
at the MgO corner. Lines parallel to the MgO - CaO side of the diagram represent the %
SiO2.

Note that the composition 33%MgO, 33%CaO, 33%SiO2 plots at the exact center of the
triangle.
Minerals that only contain 2 of the three components plot along the sides of the triangle, with
the scale being similar to the 2-component graphs discussed above. So, for example if we are
using molecular percentages,

CaSiO3 (wollastonite) which can also be written as 1CaO + 1SiO 2, plots 50% of the
way between CaO and SiO2.

MgSiO3 (enstatite) can also be written as 1MgO + 1SiO2, and plots 50% of the way
between MgO and SiO2.

CaMgSi2O6 (diopside) can also be written as 1CaO + 1MgO +2SiO2. There are a total
of 4 molecules, with 1/4 as CaO, 1/4 as MgO, and 2/4 as SiO2. So diopside plots at
25%CaO, 25%MgO, and 50%SiO2.

Triangular diagrams are often used to show the compositional ranges in minerals. We here
look at 2 examples.
The feldspars can be looked at in terms
of the three components Albite (Ab) NaAlSi3O8, Orthoclase (Or) KALSi3O8, and Anorthite (An) CaAl2Si2O8. At high temperature,
complete solid solution exists between
Ab and Or, to form the alkali feldspar
solid solution series. But, as shown in
the diagram, the alkali feldspar solid
solutions can contain up to 5% of the
An component. Similarly a complete
solid solution series exists between Ab
and An, to form the plagioclase solid
solution series. Plagioclase can contain
up to about 5% of the Or component.

Another example is shown by the pyroxene

minerals. These plot in the three
component system Enstatite (En) MgSiO3, Wollastonite (Wo) - CaSiO3,
Ferrosilite (Fs) - FeSiO3. Wo does not
have a pyroxene structure Complete solid
solution exists between Diopside, Di,
(CaMgSi2O6) and Hedenbergite, Hd,
(CaFeSi2O6). These pyroxenes are
monoclinic and are thus called the
clinopyroxenes. Augite is also a
clinopyroxene, but note that it is depleted in
the Wo component relative to the Di - Hd
series. En - Fs also forms a complete solid
solution series. These minerals are
orthorhombic, so the series is often referred
to the orthopyroxenes.. Pigeonite is a
monoclinic pyroxene that has slightly more
of the Wo component than the
orthopyroxenes.

Compositiona group of minerals, alumino silicates of potassium,

sodium, and calcium
Colorwhite, pinkish, gray, clear; rarely pale yellow or green
Lustervitreous
Hardness6 to 6.5
Streakwhite
Cleavageperfect in two directions
Specific gravity2.5 to 2.9
Crystal systemsmonoclinic and triclinic
Feldspar is not a single mineral, but is the name applied to a
group
of closely related and similar-appearing minerals that have
almost identical
lattice structures. Collectively, they are the most abundant
rockforming
minerals in the crust of the earth. Geologists apply separate
names to individual minerals in the feldspar group, but they are
so
similar in physical properties that they are very difficult to
distinguish
by simple tests. The most abundant feldspar minerals are
microcline and

orthoclase (both of which have the chemical formula KAlSi3 8 ),

albite
(NaAlSi3 8 ), and anorthite (CaAl2Si208). The specimen is
orthoclase.
Characteristics that help to distinguish feldspar from other
similarappearing
minerals are its hardness, cleavage, and the nature of its
occurrence.
None of the minerals of the feldspar group can be scratched
by a knife blade, but they can be scratched with a steel file.
They have
two prominent cleavage directions at, or very nearly at, right
angles
to each other.
As to the nature of occurrence of feldspar minerals, they
comprise
the bulk of the light-colored minerals in igneous rocks. They
are especially
distinguishable in such rocks as white or light-colored crystals
that are lath shaped or rectangular in outline. Grains of
quartz, the
other principal light-colored mineral in igneous rocks, tend to
have
irregular outlines and do not exhibit flat cleavage faces.
Feldspar is also an important constituent of many sedimentary
and
metamorphic rocks. Generally it is considerably more difficult
to identify
feldspar in these rocks than in igneous rocks because of the
lack of the distinctive rectangular outline.
The feldspar minerals are commercially important, being used in
large
quantities in the manufacture of ceramic glazes and glass. In
addition,
the alteration of feldspar by weathering is the principal source
of clay,
an extremely important constituent in most soils.

THE FELDSPAR GROUP

The feldspar group is a fairly large group with nearly 20 members recognized, but only nine are
well known and common. Those few, however, make up the greatest percentage of minerals
found in the Earth's crust. The following are some of the more common feldspar minerals:

The plagioclase feldspars:

Albite, (Sodium aluminum silicate)

Oligoclase, (Sodium calcium aluminum silicate)
Andesine, (Sodium calcium aluminum silicate)
Labradorite, (Calcium sodium aluminum silicate)
Bytownite, (Calcium sodium aluminum silicate)
Anorthite, (Calcium aluminum silicate)

The K-feldspars or alkali felspars:

Microcline, (Potassium aluminum silicate)

Sanidine, (Potassium sodium aluminum silicate)
Orthoclase, (Potassium aluminum silicate)

The feldspars are a group of minerals that have similar characteristics due to a similar structure.
All feldspars have low symmetry, being only monoclinic, 2/m, to triclinic, bar 1. They tend to
twin easily and one crystal can even be multiply twinned on the same plane, producing parallel
layers of twinned crystals. They are slightly hard at around 6, and have an average density at
2.55 to 2.76. They have a rather dull to rarely vitreous luster. Crystals tend to be blocky. Some
feldspars may be triboluminescent. They have two directions of cleavage at nearly right angles.
Feldspars also tend to crystallize in igneous enviroments, but are also present in many
metamorphic rocks.
The general formula, for the common feldspars, is XAl(1-2) Si(3-2) O8 . The X in the formula can
be sodium, Na and/or potassium, K and/or calcium, Ca. When the cation in the X position has a
positive one (+1) charge such as with sodium or potassium, then the formula contains one
aluminum and three silicons ions. If the formula contains the positive two (+2) cation calcium,
then the formula will contain two aluminums and only two silicon ions. This substitution keeps
the formula balanced, because aluminum has a charge of positive three (+3) and silicon has a
charge of positive four (+4). Basically, the more calcium in the crystal, the more aluminum that
will be needed to balance the charge.
The silicons and aluminums occupy the centers of interlinked tetrahedrons of SiO4 and AlO4.
These tetrahedrons connect at each corner to other tetrahedrons forming an intricate, three

dimensional, negatively charged framework. The cations that represent the X in the formula sit
within the voids in this structure.
The different feldspars are distinguished by structure and chemistry. The potassium or Kfeldspars are polymorphs, meaning they have the same chemistry, KAlSi3 O8 , but different
structures and therefore are different minerals. The plagioclase feldspars are a set of minerals
that are in a series from a sodium rich end member, albite, to a potassium rich end member,
anorthite. The intermediate members of the series are given arbitrary boundries based on their
percentage of sodium or calcium.
Often, feldspars are simply referred to as plagioclase and orthoclase (a K-feldspar) because
identification to greater precision is difficult with ordinary methods. Once identified, however,
some feldspar mineral varieties are found to have distinctive characteristics or originate from a
classic locality and on these bases are recognized by mineral collectors as belonging to a specific
feldspar mineral.

THE FELDSPATHOID GROUP

Feldspathoids
The feldspathoid group of minerals are SiO2 poor, alkali rich minerals that occur in low SiO2,
high Na2O - K2O igneous rocks. In general, these minerals are not compatible with quartz, and
therefore, are rarely, if ever, seen in rocks that contain quartz. They do, however, often occur
with feldspars. Because of the alkalic nature of the rocks that contain feldspathoids, associated
pyroxenes and amphiboles are of the sodic variety, i.e. aegerine or riebeckite.
The main feldspathoids are Nepheline (Na,K)AlSiO4, Kalsilite KAlSi2O6, and Leucite KAlSi2O6.
At high temperature there is complete solid solution between Nepheline and Kalsilite, but at low
temperature Nepheline can contain only about 12 wt% K2O.
Other similar members of the feldspathoid group are:
Sodalite 3NaAlSiO4.NaCl
Nosean 3NaAlSiO4.NaSO4
Hayne 3NaAlSiO4.Ca(Cl,SO4)
Nepheline
Nepheline occurs in both volcanic and plutonic alkaline igneous rocks. In hand specimen,
Nepheline is difficult to distinguish from the feldspars, and thus must usually be identified by its
association with other alkalic minerals. Nepheline has a yellowish colored alteration product,
called cancrinite. Nepheline is hexagonal, and thus uniaxial, making it easy to distinguish from
the feldspars. Furthermore, it is optically negative, making it distinguishable from quartz. It
usually shows no cleavage, has low birefringence, and low relief (refractive indices are smaller
than the feldspars). The only other common mineral with which nepheline could be confused is
apatite, which is also uniaxial negative. Apatite, however, shows much higher relief than does
nepheline.
Sodalite
Sodalite occurs predominantly in alkali-rich plutonic igneous rocks, like syenites, but can also be
found in volcanic rocks. It is essentially 3 nepheline molecules with an added NaCl molecule. It
is a clear colored isometric mineral with low relief. Thus, the only thing sodalite might be
confused with is a hole in the thin section. The blue color of sodalite in hand specimen and its
association with other alkali-rich minerals is usually necessary to detect its presence in a rock.
Leucite
Leucite is found in alkalic volcanic rocks, and is rarely found in plutonic rocks. It is a tetragonal
mineral, however, its refractive indices and are so close together that it almost always
appears isometric. It usually occurs as small, slightly rounded, low relief grains that go extinct

upon insertion of the analyzer. Commonly, leucite contains tiny inclusions within the mineral,
and sometimes shows a slight twinning, barely visible with the analyzer inserted.
The feldspathoids are not a typical mineral group like other mineral groups that are related by
structure and chemistry. Their relation to each other is due primarily to their relationship to the
feldspar group of minerals. Feldspathoids are low silica igneous minerals that would have
formed feldspars if only more silica (SiO2) were present in the original magma. The aluminum to
silicon ratio is nearly 1:1 in most of the feldspathoids but is closer to 1:3 in most of the feldspars.
As would be predicted, feldspathoids are not found in igneous rocks that contain primary quartz.
Similar to the zeolites, the feldspathoids have large openings in the crystal structure. These
openings are mostly separated from each other and do not lend themselves to the movement of
ions and molecules that is allowed in the zeolite's structure. The openings do allow the structure
to contain large ions like chlorine, carbonate and sulfate. The lower density common to the
minerals of this group is evidence of the openess of their structure.
The sodalite group is a group within a group. It is composed of minerals with a similar isometric
structure and related chemistry. It is named for its most common member, sodalite.

The following are some of the more common feldspathoid minerals:

Cancrinite (Sodium Calcium Aluminum Silicate Carbonate)

Leucite (Potasium Aluminum Silicate)
Nepheline (Sodium Potasium Aluminum Silicate)
Sodalite Group:
o Hauyne (Sodium Calcium Aluminum Silicate Sulfate)
o Lazurite (Sodium Calcium Aluminum Silicate (Sulfate Sulfide Chloride))
o Nosean (Sodium Aluminum Silicate Sulfate)
o Sodalite (Sodium Aluminum Silicate Chloride)

The Zeolite Group of Minerals

The Zeolites are a popular group of minerals for collectors and an important group of minerals
for industrial and other purposes. They combine rarity, beauty, complexity and unique crystal
habits. Typically forming in the cavities (or vesicles) of volcanic rocks, zeolites are the result of
very low grade metamorphism. Some form from just subtle amounts of heat and pressure and can
just barely be called metamorphic while others are found in obviously metamorphic regimes.
Zeolite crystals have been grown on board the space shuttle and are undergoing extensive
research into their formation and unique properties.
The zeolites are framework silicates consisting of interlocking tetrahedrons of SiO4 and AlO4. In
order to be a zeolite the ratio (Si +Al)/O must equal 1/2. The alumino-silicate structure is
negatively charged and attracts the positive cations that reside within. Unlike most other
tectosilicates, zeolites have large vacant spaces or cages in their structures that allow space for
large cations such as sodium, potassium, barium and calcium and even relatively large molecules
and cation groups such as water, ammonia, carbonate ions and nitrate ions. In the more useful
zeolites, the spaces are interconnected and form long wide channels of varying sizes depending
on the mineral. These channels allow the easy movement of the resident ions and molecules into
and out of the structure. Zeolites are characterized by their ability to lose and absorb water
without damage to their crystal structures. The large channels explain the consistent low specific
gravity of these minerals.
Zeolites have many useful purposes. They can perform ion exchange, filtering, odor removal,
chemical sieve and gas absorption tasks. The most well known use for zeolites is in water
softeners. Calcium in water can cause it to be "hard" and capable of forming scale and other
problems. Zeolites charged with the much less damaging sodium ions can allow the hard water to
pass through its structure and exchange the calcium for the sodium ions. This process is
reversable. In a similar way zeolites can absorb ions and molecules and thus act as a filter for
odor control, toxin removal and as a chemical sieve.
Zeolites can have the water in their structures driven off by heat with the basic structure left
intact. Then other solutions can be pushed through the structure. The zeolites can then act as a
delivery system for the new fluid. This process has applications in medicine, livestock feeds and
other types of research. Zeolites added to livestock feed have been shown to absorb toxins that
are damaging and even fatal to the growth of the animals, while the basic structure of the zeolite

is biologically neutral. Aquarium hobbyists are seeing more zeolite products in pet stores as
zeolites make excellent removers of ammonia and other toxins. Most municipal water supplies
are processed through zeolites before public consumption. These uses of zeolites are extremely
important for industry, although synthetic zeolites are now doing the bulk of the work.

Zeolites have basically three different structural variations.

There are chain-like structures whose minerals form acicular or needle-like prismatic crystals, ie
natrolite.
Sheet-like structures where the crystals are flattened platy or tabular with usually good basal
cleavages, ie heulandite.
And framework structures where the crystals are more equant in dimensions, ie Chabazite.

A zeolite can be thought of in terms of a house, where the structure of the house (the doors, windows,
walls and roof) is really the zeolite while the furniture and people are the water, ammonia and other
molecules and ions that can pass in and out of the structure. The chain-like structures can be thought of
like towers or high wire pylons. The sheet-like structures can be thought of like large office buildings
with the sheets analogous to the floors and very few walls between the floors. And the framework
structures like houses with equally solid walls and floors. All these structures are still frameworks (like
the true tectosilicates that zeolites are).

These variations make the zeolite group very diverse, crystal habit-wise. Otherwise zeolites are
typically soft to moderately hard, light in density, transparent to translucent and have similar
origins. There are about 45 natural minerals that are recognized members of the Zeolite Group.
Industrially speaking, the term zeolite includes natural silicate zeolites, synthetic materials and
phosphate minerals that have a zeolite like structure. The complexity of this combined group is
extensive with over 120 structural variations and more are being discovered or made every year.
Collecting zeolites can be very enjoyable and fulfilling.
These are the members of the Zeolite Group:

The Analcime Family:

o Analcime (Hydrated Sodium Aluminum Silicate)
o Pollucite (Hydrated Cesium Sodium Aluminum Silicate)
o Wairakite (Hydrated Calcium Sodium Aluminum Silicate)
Bellbergite (Hydrated Potassium Barium Strontium Sodium Aluminum Silicate)
Bikitaite (Hydrated Lithium Aluminum Silicate)
Boggsite (Hydrated calcium Sodium Aluminum Silicate)
Brewsterite (Hydrated Strontium Barium Sodium Calcium Aluminum Silicate)
The Chabazite Family:
o Chabazite (Hydrated Calcium Aluminum Silicate)
o Willhendersonite (Hydrated Potassium Calcium Aluminum Silicate)
Cowlesite (Hydrated Calcium Aluminum Silicate)
Dachiardite (Hydrated calcium Sodium Potassium Aluminum Silicate)

Edingtonite (Hydrated Barium Calcium Aluminum Silicate)

Epistilbite (Hydrated Calcium Aluminum Silicate)
Erionite (Hydrated Sodium Potassium Calcium Aluminum Silicate)
Faujasite (Hydrated Sodium Calcium Magnesium Aluminum Silicate)
Ferrierite (Hydrated Sodium Potassium Magnesium Calcium Aluminum Silicate)
The Gismondine Family:
o Amicite (Hydrated Potassium Sodium Aluminum Silicate)
o Garronite (Hydrated Calcium Aluminum Silicate)
o Gismondine (Hydrated Barium Calcium Aluminum Silicate)
o Gobbinsite (Hydrated Sodium Potassium Calcium Aluminum Silicate)
Gmelinite (Hydrated Sodium Calcium Aluminum Silicate)
Gonnardite (Hydrated Sodium Calcium Aluminum Silicate)
Goosecreekite (Hydrated Calcium Aluminum Silicate)
The Harmotome Family:
o Harmotome (Hydrated Barium Potassium Aluminum Silicate)
o Phillipsite (Hydrated Potassium Sodium Calcium Aluminum Silicate)
o Wellsite (Hydrated Barium Calcium Potassium Aluminum Silicate)
The Heulandite Family:
o Clinoptilolite (Hydrated Sodium Potassium Calcium Aluminum Silicate)
o Heulandite (Hydrated Sodium Calcium Aluminum Silicate)
Laumontite (Hydrated Calcium Aluminum Silicate)
Levyne (Hydrated Calcium Sodium Potassium Aluminum Silicate)
Mazzite (Hydrated Potassium Sodium Magnesium Calcium Aluminum Silicate)
Merlinoite (Hydrated Potassium Sodium Calcium Barium Aluminum Silicate)
Montesommaite (Hydrated Potassium Sodium Aluminum Silicate)
Mordenite (Hydrated Sodium Potassium Calcium Aluminum Silicate)
The Natrolite Family:
o Mesolite (Hydrated Sodium Calcium Aluminum Silicate)
o Natrolite (Hydrated Sodium Aluminum Silicate)
o Scolecite (Hydrated Calcium Aluminum Silicate)
Offretite (Hydrated Calcium Potassium Magnesium Aluminum Silicate)
Paranatrolite (Hydrated Sodium Aluminum Silicate)
Paulingite (Hydrated Potassium Calcium Sodium Barium Aluminum Silicate)
Perlialite (Hydrated Potassium Sodium Calcium Strontium Aluminum Silicate)
The Stilbite Family:
o Barrerite (Hydrated Sodium Potassium Calcium Aluminum Silicate)
o Stilbite (Hydrated Sodium Calcium Aluminum Silicate)
o Stellerite (Hydrated Calcium Aluminum Silicate)
Thomsonite (Hydrated Sodium Calcium Aluminum Silicate)
Tschernichite (Hydrated Calcium Aluminum Silicate)
Yugawaralite (Hydrated Calcium Aluminum Silicate)

Zeolites have many "cousins" or minerals that have similar cage-like framework structures or have
similar properties and/or are associated with zeolites; but are not zeolites, at least as defined
mineralogically. These include the phosphates: kehoeite, pahasapaite and tiptopite; and the silicates:
hsianghualite, lovdarite, viseite, partheite, prehnite, roggianite, apophyllite, gyrolite, maricopaite,
okenite, tacharanite and tobermorite. It is interesting

THE MINERAL OLIVINE

Chemistry: (Mg, Fe)2SiO4, Magnesium Iron Silicate.

Class: Silicates
Subclass: Nesosilicates
Group: Olivine
Uses: As gemstones, industrial uses as refractory sands and abrasives, an ore of
magnesium and as mineral specimens.
Specimens
Also see variety specimens:
o

Peridot Specimens

Olivines
The olivines consist of a complete solid solution between Mg2SiO4 (forsterite, Fo) and Fe2SiO4
(fayalite, Fa). There is limited substitution of the following end members:
Ca2SiO4 - larnite
Mn2SiO4 - tephroite
CaMgSiO4 - monticellite (which is commonly found in metamorphosed
dolomites)
Also found substituting in octahedral sites are Ni+2 and Cr+3, particularly in Mg-rich olivines.
The phase diagram for the common end
members of the olivine solid solution
series shows that pure forsterite melts at
1890oC and pure fayalite melts at
1205oC. Thus, the olivines are
sometimes seen be be zoned from Mgrich cores to more Fe-rich rims,
although such zoning is usually limited
to 5 to 10% difference between the
cores and the rims..

Occurrence
Pure forsterite is limited to metamorphosed Mg-rich limestones and dolomitic
metamorphic rocks.
Fo90 - 95 is found in ultrabasic igneous rocks, particularly dunites (>90% by volume
olivine), and peridotites (Olivine + Cpx + Opx).
Fo60 - 90 is found in basic igneous rocks likes basalts and gabbros, and sometimes in
andesites, where it occurs with plagioclase and pyroxene.
Fa100 - 40 is found in Fe-rich siliceous igneous rocks like rhyolites and granites.
Mg-rich olivines rarely occur in quartz bearing rocks and quartz rarely occurs with Mgrich olivine because the reaction shown below runs to the right for most pressures and
temperatures.

Mg2SiO4 + SiO2 <=> 2MgSiO3

Fo
Qtz
En
Note however, that Fe-rich olivines can occur with quartz.

Structure
The structure of the olivines is illustrated on page 439 of Klein and Dutrow. Note that 2
different kinds of octahedral sites occur. One is a regular octahedron, labeled M2, and
the other is a distorted octahedron, labeled M1. Fe+2 and Mg+2 have no particular
preference for either site, but if Ca+2 is present it prefers the M2 site.

Identifying Properties
The olivines are orthorhombic (2/m2/m2/m) and usually green colored in hand
specimen.
The most characteristic property in thin section is their surface texture that kind of looks
like a piece of sandpaper (see photo on the back wall of the Mineralogy lab).
Because of their good {010} cleavage and common {100} parting, they show parallel
extinction relative to the cleavage or parting.
Maximum birefringence as seen in the interference colors in thin section varies between
3rd order blue (for Fo rich varieties) and 3rd order yellow (for Fa-rich varieties), but
remember that this is the maximum birefringence that will only be seen for grains with
and parallel to the microscope stage.

Fo-rich olivines are usually clear in thin section, but Fa-rich olivines show pale yellow,
greenish yellow, or yellow amber absorption colors and sometimes show pleochroism
with = = pale yellow, = orange, yellow, or reddish brown.
Because optical properties vary with composition of the olivine, 2V is useful in
distinguishing olivine compositions. Look at the graph on page 11 of Deer, Howie, and
Zussman. From the graph you can see that very Fo-rich olivines(>Fo90) are optically
positive with a 2V between 82 and 90o. Between Fo90 and Fa100 the olivine is optically
negative with 2V between 90 and 130 (2V between 90o and 50o. Thus, by estimating
the 2V, you should be able to estimate the composition of the olivine.
Olivines are distinguished from orthorhombic pyroxenes (opx) easily because olivines
show higher maximum birefringence and do not show the characteristic {110} cleavage
of the pyroxenes. They are distinguished from the clinopyroxenes (Cpx) which show
inclined extinction relative their {110} cleavage and show a biaxial positive character
with a 2V of 50 to 60o.
Olivine is actually a name for a series between two end members, fayalite and forsterite.
Fayalite is the iron rich member with a pure formula of Fe2SiO4. Forsterite is the magnesium
rich member with a pure formula of Mg2SiO4. The two minerals form a series where the iron and
magnesium are substituted for each other without much effect on the crystal structure. Fayalite
due to its iron content has a higher index of refraction, is heavier and has a darker color than
forsterite. Otherwise they are difficult to distinguish and virtually all specimens of the two
minerals contain both iron and magnesium. For simplicity sake and general public recognition,
they are often treated as one mineral, olivine. Olivine, however is not officially recognized as a
mineral (see other non-minerals such as apophyllite, tourmaline, mica, serpentine, chlorite
and apatite).
Olivine is known by many names. Besides its actual mineral names, forsterite and fayalite, it is
known as "chrysolite", "evening emerald" and peridot. The term chrysolite is an old German
name that was applied to gemmy olivine, but now is only sometimes used to refer to light
yellowish green olivine. Evening emerald is a name given to olivine's gemstone variety, peridot,
by some jewelers in some attempt to increase the apparent value of the stones.
Olivine's gemstone variety, known as peridot, is one of the most mispronounced of gemstone
names. The correct pronunciation has peridot rhyming with doe or depot. But peridot is often
pronounced incorrectly so that it rhymes with dot. Peridot is the birthstone of August and is
usually a very affordable colored gemstone. Unfortunately it is often compared to the rich dark
green of emerald and in this comparison it is found lacking. But peridot has its own unique
green-yellow color that is different from emerald and this comparison is rather unfair. Most
peridot is actually the magnesium rich forsterite and its color is caused by the presence of iron
ions. Fayalite's higher iron content make for darker, less attractive specimens that are not
generally used as gemstones. The best colored peridot has an iron percentage less than 15% and
includes nickel and chromium as trace elements that may also contribute to the best peridot
color. Peridot is a colorful, affordable and attractive gemstone.

Olivine is found in ultramafic igneous rocks and marbles that formed from metamorphosed
impure limestones. Mafic is a word that is used to define igneous rocks with a high iron and
magnesium content. The "MA" is for magnesium while the "F" is for ferrum, the latin word for
iron. The olivine minerals have a high melting point and are the first minerals to crystallize from
a mafic magma. Forsterite crystallizes first with fayalite crystallizing last when other minerals
such as the pyroxenes are just beginning to form. The early crystallization of olivine is the
reason that molten lavas can contain already crystallized grains of olivine. Some ultramafic rocks
can be composed of almost all olivine and these are called dunites or peridotites. Peridotites
contain the same chemical makeup as the molten magma in the Earth's mantle. Thus peridotite
could be called the most common rock by volume in the Earth, although on the Earth's surface
and in the crust it is not nearly as well represented.
Olivine can be altered to the mineral serpentine and this mineral is found in kimberlites,
ophiolites and gabbros that started out with large amounts of olivine at one time. Some
serpentine (especially from Snarum, Norway) has pseudomorphed crystals of serpentine
preserving the outward shape of what was originally an olivine crystal.
Olivine is also found in many iron-nickel meteorites. Not just as small grains but as
significantly sized crystals sometimes occupying over 50% of the meteorite's volume. Thinly cut
slices of these meteorites are extremely attractive with the polished steel gray of the iron and the
embedded grains of gemmy green olivine. The effect produces the closest mineral equivalent to
stained glass artwork.

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS:

Color is a light near emerald green to the more common pale yellowish green; also found
colorless, greenish brown to black. A near colorless specimen is likely nearly pure
forsterite, while a greenish-brown to black specimen may approach pure fayalite in
composition. Anything in-between is olivine.
Luster is vitreous.
Transparency: Crystals are transparent to translucent.
Crystal System is orthorhombic; 2/m 2/m 2/m.
Crystal Habits include flatten tabular to box shaped crystals, but good crystals are rare.
More commonly found as grains in alluvial gravels and as granular xenoliths in
magnesium rich volcanic rock. Also massive. Twinning is rare, but has produced star
shaped trillings.
Cleavage is poor in two directions at 90 degrees, is more distinct in fayalite.
Fracture is conchoidal.
Hardness is 6.5 - 7.
Specific Gravity is approximately 3.2 for forsterite - 4.3 for fayalite (above average for
non-metallic minerals).
Streak is white.
Other Characteristics: Index of refraction is 1.64 - 1.70 and has double refraction.
Associated Minerals are diopside, spinel, plagioclase feldspars, chromite,
hornblende, serpentine, iron-nickel meteorites and augite.

Notable Occurrences are numerous and include the ancient source of Zagbargad Island
in the Red Sea off the coast of Egypt; Mogok, Myanmar (formerly known as Burma);
South Africa; Ural Mountains, Russia; Kohistan, Pakistan; Norway; Sweden; France;
Minas Gerais, Brazil; Eifel, Germany; Chihuahua, Mexico; Ethiopia; Victoria, Australia;
China and Salt Lake Crater, Oahu, Hawaii; North Carolina; New Mexico and Peridot
Mesa, San Carlos Apache Reservation, Gila County, Arizona, USA.
Best Field Indicators are color, hardness, mafic igneous or metamorphic environment of
formation, lack of good cleavage and density.

The
Pyroxene Group
of Minerals

DIOPSIDE

AEGIRINE

HEDENBERGITE

SPODUMENE

Inosilicates (Single Chain Silicates)

The single chain silicates have a basic structural unit consisting of linked
SiO4 tetrahedra that each share 2 of their oxygens in such a way as to build
long chains of SiO4. The basic structural group is thus Si2O6 with an Si:O
ratio of 1:3. The most important inosilicates are the pyroxenes. These
have a general structural formula of:
XYZ2O6
where X = Na+, Ca+2, Mn+2, Fe+2, or Mg+2 filling octahedral sites called M2
Y = Mn+2, Fe+2, Mg+2 , Al+3, Cr+3, or Ti+4 filling smaller octahedral sites called M1
Z = Si+4 or Al+3 in tetrahedral coordination.
The pyroxenes can be divided into several groups based on chemistry and crystallography:
Orthorhombic Pyroxenes (Orthopyroxenes - Opx)
These consist of a range of compositions between enstatite - MgSiO3 and ferrosilite - FeSiO3
Monoclinic Pyroxenes (Clinopyroxenes - Cpx)
The Diopside- Hedenbergite series - Diopside (CaMgSi2O6) - Ferrohedenbergite
(CaFeSi2O6)

The Sodic Pyroxenes - Jadeite (NaAlSi2O6) and Aegerine (NaFe+3Si2O6)

Augite is closely related to the diopside - Hedenbergite series with addition of Al and
minor Na substitution - (Ca,Na)(Mg,Fe,Al)(Si,Al)2O6
Pigeonite is also a monoclinic pyroxene with a composition similar to the
orthopyroxenes with more Ca substituting for Fe, and Mg.
The compositional range of the Ca-rich, Alfree pyroxenes in shown in the triangular
composition diagram here. Note that there
is complete Mg-Fe substitution and small
amounts of Ca substitution into the
Orthopyroxene solid solution series. Mgrich varieties of orthopyroxene are called
hypersthene, whereas Fe-rich varieties are
called Ferrosilite. There is also complete
Mg-Fe solid solution between Diopside and
Ferrohedenbergite, with some depletion in
Ca. CaSiO3 is the chemical formula for
wollastonite, but wollastonite does not have
a pyroxene structure.

There is complete Mg-Fe solid solution between the pyroxenes, and as with most Mg-Fe solid
solutions, the Mg-rich end members crystallize at higher temperatures than the Fe-rich end
members.

Solid immiscibility is present between the Diopside - Hedenbergite series and the
Orthopyroxene series. This is seen in the phase diagram below which shows a hypothetical
phase diagram running from the orthopyroxenes to the clinopyroxenes. Note the solvi.
Pigeonite is only stable at higher temperatures and inverts to orthopyroxene if cooled slowly to
lower temperatures. Thus, pigeonite is only found in volcanic and shallow intrusive igneous
rocks, or as exsolution lamellae in a host augite or opx (more commonly in augite).

When pigeonite or augite exsolve they may form exsolution lamellae that form parallel to the
(001) plane. At lower temperature the exsolution of Opx or augite result in exsolution lamellae
that are parallel to the (100) plane.

All pyroxenes show perfect {110} cleavage. When

viewed looking down the c-crystallographic axis, the
cleavages intersect at near 90o angles (the angles are
actually 92 - 93o and 87 - 880). This 90 degree cleavage
angle is most useful in distinguishing pyroxenes from
amphiboles (in amphiboles the cleavages are at 56o and
124o.

Distinguishing Opx from Cpx in thin

section is accomplished by noting that in
all orthorhombic pyroxenes the
prismatic {110} cleavage will show
parallel extinction. If looking down the
c-axis the extinction will be symmetrical
relative to the two cleavage traces.

In Cpx, however, one would see

inclined extinction on all faces except
{100}. Thus, one should check several
grains for extinction before concluding
that the mineral is Opx, since there is
always a slight chance that one is
looking at a {100} face. Note that in
Cpx, the maximum extinction angle will
only be observed if one is looking at a
{010} face.

Occurrence and Distinction of the Pyroxenes

Augite - is commonly found in both plutonic and volcanic igneous rocks, as well as
high grade meta-igneous rocks like gneisses and granulites. It is easily distinguished
from amphiboles by the nearly 90 ocleavage angles, and is distinguished from Opx by
inclined extinction relative to the {110} cleavage, as discussed above. Augite also has
higher maximum birefringence than Opx, and shows 2nd to 3rd order interference
colors. Augite is optically positive with a 2V of about 60o. It shows high relief,
relative to quartz and feldspars and is commonly colorless to brown or green in thin
section, showing no pleochroism.

Hypersthene - is commonly found in both plutonic and volcanic igneous rocks and in
meta-igneous rocks as well. It is distinguished from augite by its lower interference
colors and lack of inclined extinction relative to {110}. Hypersthene is sometimes
pleochroic, showing light pink to light green colors. The chemical composition of
hypersthene can be estimated using 2V (see p. 163 of DHZ). Compositions close to
Enstatite are optically positive with a 2V of 60 to 90o, whereas intermediate
compositions are optically negative with a 2V of 50 to 90 o.
Pigeonite - is generally only found in volcanic igneous rocks, although, as mentioned
above, it can occur as exsolution lamellae in augites of more slowly cooled igneous
rocks. Pigeonite is distinguished from augite by its lower 2V of 0 to 30 o, and is
distinguished from hypersthene by its lack of pleochroism, lower 2V and inclined
extinction relative to the {110} cleavage.
Aegerine (acmite) - Aegerine Augite - are sodic pyroxenes and thus are found in
alkalic igneous rocks associated with sodic amphiboles, alkali feldspars, and nepheline.
The mineral is common in alkali granites, quartz syenites, and nepheline syenites (all
alkalic plutonic rocks), and are also found in sodic volcanic rocks like peralkaline
rhyolites.
Aegerine is distinguished from other clinopyroxenes by a low extinction angle relative
to the {110} cleavage (0 -10o, with augite having an extinction angle of 35 - 48o), and
by the green brown pleochroism present in aegerine. Aegerine is also optically negative
with a 2V of 60 to 70o, whereas Aegerine-augite has a higher 2V and can be optically
positive or negative. It is distinguished from the pleochroic sodic amphiboles by its
nearly 90o pyroxene cleavage angle.
Jadeite - is a sodium aluminum pyroxene
that is characterized by its presence in
metamorphic rocks formed at relatively
high pressure. It can form by a reaction of
Albite to produce :
NaAlSi3O8 = NaAlSi2O6 + SiO2
Albite
Jadeite
Quartz
Jadeite has a lower refractive index than all
other pyroxenes, and has low
birefringence, showing low order 1st and
2nd order interference colors.
It is monoclinic with an extinction angle of 33 to 40 o, and can thus be easily
distinguished form hypersthene. It is usually colorless in thin section, helping to
distinguish it from augite and aegerine, and has lower birefringence than augite and
aegerine.

The pyroxene minerals are inosilicates of the general formula XY(Si, Al)2O6. The X, represents
ions such as calcium, sodium, iron+2 and magnesium and more rarely zinc, manganese and
lithium. The Y, represents ions of generally smaller sized such as chromium, aluminum, iron+3,
magnesium, manganese, scandium, titanium, vanadium and even iron+2. Aluminum, while
commonly substituting for silicon in other silicates, does not often substitute for silicon in a
pyroxene.
The typical pyroxene structure contains chains of SiO3 tetrahedrons that every other one
alternates from the left side to the right side of the chain. Each of the tetrahedrons has one flat
edge that lies on the "base" of the structure as if the entire chain were a chain of connected three
sided pyramids on a flat desert. The orderliness of the tetrahedrons means that they repeat every
three tetrahedrons, ie. left-right-left. The chain structure explains the general prismatic to fibrous
character of the members of this group. The slope of the tetrahedral pyramids helps to determine
the cleavage angle of the pyroxenes at nearly 90 o degrees (actually 93o and 87o).
The pyroxenes are closely related to a group of inosilicates called the pyroxenoids. This
somewhat informal group of minerals has a similar chain structure but the chains in the
pyroxenoid structures are more . . . "kinked"!
The pyroxenes are an important group among the single chained inosilicates. They are common
rock forming minerals and are represented in most igneous and many metamorphic rocks. Their
presence in a rock indicate a high temperature of crystallization with a lack of water. If water
were present, a double chained amphibole would most likely have formed instead. The name
pyroxene comes from the Greek words for fire and stranger in a false allusion to their surprising
presence in volcanic lavas. Pyroxenes are sometimes seen as crystals embedded in volcanic glass
and the assumption was that they are impurities in the glass, hence the term "fire strangers".
However the pyroxenes are simply early forming minerals that crystallized before the lava
erupted.

These are the members of the Pyroxene Group:

Clinopyroxenes (monoclinic)
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o

Aegirine (Sodium Iron Silicate)

Augite (Calcium Sodium Magnesium Iron Aluminum Silicate)
Clinoenstatite (Magnesium Silicate)
Diopside (Calcium Magnesium Silicate)
Esseneite (Calcium Iron Aluminum Silicate)
Hedenbergite (Calcium Iron Silicate)
Hypersthene (Magnesium Iron Silicate)
Jadeite (Sodium Aluminum Silicate)
Jervisite (Sodium Calcium Iron Scandium Magnesium Silicate)
Johannsenite(Calcium Manganese Silicate)
Kanoite (Manganese Magnesium Silicate)
Kosmochlor (Sodium Chromium Silicate)
Namansilite (Sodium Manganese Silicate)
Natalyite (Sodium Vanadium Chromium Silicate)
Omphacite (Calcium Sodium Magnesium Iron Aluminum Silicate)
Petedunnite (Calcium Zinc Manganese Iron Magnesium Silicate)
Pigeonite (Calcium Magnesium Iron Silicate)
Spodumene (Lithium Aluminum Silicate)

Orthopyroxenes (Orthorhombic)
o
o
o
o

Donpeacorite (Manganese Magnesium Silicate)

Enstatite (Magnesium Silicate)
Ferrosilite (Iron Magnesium Silicate)
Nchwaningite (Hydrated Manganese Silicate)

Inosilicates (Pyroxenes and Amphiboles)

Inosilicates (Double Chain Silicates) - The Amphiboles

The amphibole group of minerals is based on the double-chain silicate structure as shown here.
The basic structural unit is (Si4O11)-6. The structural formula can be written as:

W0-1X2Y5Z8022(OH,F)2
where W = Na+1 or K+1 in the A site with 10 to 12 fold
coordination.
X = Ca+2, Na+1, Mn+2, Fe+2, Mg+2, Fe+3, in an M4 site with 6
to 8 fold coordination.

Y = Mn+2, Fe+2, Mg+2, Fe+3, Al+3. or Ti+4 in an M1 octahedral coordination site.

Z = Si+4 and Al+3 in the tetrahedral site.
There is complete solid solution between Na and Ca end members and among Mg and Fe end
members, with partial substitution of Al+3 for Si+4 in the tetrahedral site, and partial substitution
of F for OH in the hydroxyl site.
The composition of the common
(non-sodic) amphiboles are shown
in the diagram here. Note the
similarity to the pyroxene
compositional diagram, above.
Actinolite is the solid solution
between Tremolite
[Ca2Mg5Si8O22(OH)2] and
Ferroactinolite
[Ca2Fe5Si8O22(OH)2.]
Cummingtonite - Grunerite is a
solid solution between
Anthophyllite [Mg7Si8O22(OH)2]
and Grunerite [Fe7Si8O22(OH)2].

Hornblende is the most common amphibole and has more in common with the Tremolite Ferroactinolite series, with Al substituting into the Y sites and the tetrahedral site. It thus has
the complicated formula:
(Ca,Na)2-3(Mg,Fe,Al)5Si6(Si,Al)2O22(OH,F)2
The sodic amphiboles have the following formulae:
Glaucophane - Na2Mg3Al2Si8O22(OH)2
Riebeckite - Na2Fe3+2Fe2+3Si8O22(OH)2
Arfvedsonite - NaNa2Fe4+2Fe+3Si8O22(OH)2
All of the amphiboles except Anthophyllite are
monoclinic, and all show the excellent prismatic cleavage
on {110}. The angles between the cleavages, however
are 56o and 124o making all amphiboles easy to
distinguish from the pyroxenes. Looking at faces that
show only a single cleavage trace would show inclined
extinction, except in Anthophyllite.
Occurrence and Distinction of the Amphiboles
Tremolite - Occurs almost exclusively in low grade metamorphic rocks, particularly
those with a high Ca concentration, such as meta-dolomites, meta-ultrabasic rocks.
Tremolite in hand specimen is white in color and shows a fibrous habit and the
characteristic amphibole cleavage. In thin section it is distinguished from wollastonite
and diopside by its amphibole cleavage. In thin section it is clear with no pleochroism,
which distinguishes it from other amphiboles. It shows high relief, inclined extinction,
and is optically negative with a 2V of about 85o.
Actinolite - Also occurs almost exclusively in low grade metamorphic rocks,
particularly in meta-basalts and meta-gabbros where it is commonly associated with
chlorite. It is green in hand specimen and shows the characteristic amphibole cleavage,
usually showing an elongated habit. In thin section it shows a characteristic pale yellow
to green pleochroism, has high relief, and is optically negative with a 2V of 60 to 85o.
Hornblende - is a common mineral in both igneous and metamorphic rocks. In igneous
rocks it is found in andesites, dacites, and rhyolites, as well as in gabbros, diorites, and
granites. In metamorphic rocks it is a common constituent of meta-basalts that have
been metamorphosed to intermediate grades of regional metamorphism (amphibolites).
It is also found in some ultrabasic rocks. In hand specimen it is dark brown to black in
color and shows the characteristic amphibole cleavage. In thin section, it shows high
relief with a characteristic green - brown - yellow pleochroism. Optic sign and 2V

angle cover a wide range and not very useful in the distinction of hornblende.
Basaltic Hornblende (also called Oxy-hornblende)- is a dark brown to reddish brown
variety of hornblende that results from oxidation during crystallization of basalts,
andesites, dacites, and rhyolites. It usually has a dark reaction rim that consists of
opaque oxide, and is characteristically pleochroic in yellow to brown to reddish brown
colors.
Anthophyllite - does not occur in igneous rocks, but is a constituent of metamorphic
rocks. It is the only orthorhombic amphibole so it is easily characterized by its parallel
extinction relative to the {110} cleavage.
Cummingtonite - Grunerite - is more common in metamorphosed igneous rocks
where members of the series occur with hornblende. It has been found in siliceous
volcanic rocks as well. Cummingtonite is optically positive, while grunerite is optically
negative. Members of this series can be distinguished from orthorhombic Anthophyllite
by the inclined extinction of the monoclinic Cummingtonite-Grunerite series, and can
be distinguished from tremolite and actinolite by the higher refractive indices and
higher birefringence of the Cummingtonite Grunerite series.
Glaucophane - Riebeckite - Glaucophane is a common mineral in blueschist facies
metamorphic rocks that result from low temperature, high pressure metamorphism
along ancient subduction zones. Riebeckite is found in alkali granites, syenites, and
peralkaline rhyolites. Glaucophane is easily distinguished from the other amphiboles
by its characteristic blue-lavender pleochroism. Glaucophane is length slow, whereas
Riebeckite is length fast.
Arfvedsonite - occurs most commonly in peralkaline volcanic rocks and alkaline
plutonic igneous rocks, where it typically occurs with the sodic pyroxene aegerine. Its
blue green to yellow green pleochroism distinguish it from the other amphiboles.
The chart below, also found in your lab assignments, summarizes the properties used to
distinguish the amphiboles.

The Mica Group of Minerals

The micas are an important group of minerals. They represent the classic phyllosilicate mineral
and are usually the first minerals to be thought of from this subclass of the Silicates Class. Micas
are significant rock forming minerals being found in all three rock types: igneous, metamorphic
and sedimentary. Because thin flakes of mica are generally flexible and brittle, it is surprising
how resistant and durable mica crystals can be in withstanding high temperatures and pressures
in metamorphic regimes as well as the punishment of erosional environments. The term "mica"
is so familiar to the general public that it is often considered a mineral in itself. Of course it is
actually a group of minerals and most people who are knowledgeable about minerals know the
three most common mica minerals: muscovite, biotite, and lepidolite and perhaps a few of the
less common micas glauconite, paragonite, phlogopite and zinnwaldite. The Mica Group is
actually a rather large group of minerals with over 30 members.
Being true phyllosilicates, all micas are thus composed of sheets of silicate tetrahedrons. The
silicate sheets are composed of interconnected six membered rings. These rings are responsible
for the micas typical six sided pseudohexagonal symmetry, in actuality they are only monoclinic
or triclinic. Each tetrahedron in the rings shares three of their oxygens with three other
tetrahedrons and all the tetrahedrons in a given sheet point their unshared oxygen in the same
direction. The structure of micas is stacked like a building with several different layers. Two
tetrahedral layers (T) with their tetrahedral points pointing toward each other, sandwich small
metal ions such as aluminum in an octahedral layer (O). This tetrahedral-octahedral-tetrahedral
(TOT) sandwich is stacked with layers of large cations such as potassium or calcium. This cation
layer is known as the interlayer (i) because it is between the TOT sandwich layers. This i layer, is
needed to balance the formula due to the substitution of the +3 charged aluminum for +4 charged
silicons in the T layers. The whole structure can then be illustrated with the following sequence
of layers: ...iTOTiTOTiTOTiTOTi...
The Mica Group minerals are closely associated with the clay minerals. The clays have a similar
structure but include brucite and gibbsite layers between their silicate layers. However, often
crystals will be intergrown with mica and clay layers forming a composite crystal; as in a few
layers of pure biotite and then a few layers of pure vermiculite, then biotite, etc, etc. This type of
arrangement in a single crystal is making identification and classification of these minerals
extremely complicated and confusing. The mica minerals muscovite, glauconite and illite are
often considered clays due to their clay like properties.
The general formula for the micas is AB2-3(X, Si)4O10(O, F, OH)2. The tetrahedral layers by
themselves have a formula of (X, Si)2O5. In most micas the A ion is usually potassium but can

also be sodium, calcium, barium, cesium and/or ammonium. These ions occupy positions in the
interlayer i discussed above. The B ion can be either aluminum, lithium, iron, zinc, chromium,
vanadium, titanium, manganese and/or magnesium. These ions occupy positions in the
octahedral layers O. The X ion is usually aluminum but can also be beryllium, boron and/or iron
(+3) and they sit in the center of the tetrahedrons substituting for silicons by up to 50%.
There are three major divisions within the Mica Group; The True Micas, The Brittle Micas and
the a new division called The Interlayer-deficient Micas. The True Micas have a majority of
singularly charged ions in the A position (ions such as potassium and sodium). The Brittle
Micas have a majority of doubly charged ions in the A position (ions such as calcium or barium).
The Interlayer-deficient Micas, which used to be called the Hydromicas, have fewer i ions than
other micas, hence the name. The three divisions can further be divided into dioctahedral and
trioctahedral groups. The B ions occupy octahedrally coordinated sites, bonded to six oxygens
and two of the extra non-tetrahedral anions (hydroxide, fluorine and/or extra oxygen ions).
Dioctahedral micas have two (or less than 2.5) B ions in their formulas, whereas trioctahedral
micas have three (or at least 2.5 or more) B ions in their formulas.
These are the Mica Group Members:
The True Micas:
Dioctahedral:
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o

Aluminoceladonite (Potassium Aluminum Magnesium Iron Silicate Hydroxide)

Boromuscovite (Potassium Boro-silicate Hydroxide)
Celadonite (Potassium Iron Magnesium Silicate Hydroxide)
Chromphyllite (Potassium Chromium Aluminum Silicate Hydroxide Fluoride)
Ferro-aluminoceladonite (Potassium Aluminum Iron Magnesium Silicate
Hydroxide)
Ferroceladonite (Potassium Iron Magnesium Silicate Hydroxide)
Muscovite (Potassium Aluminum Silicate Hydroxide)
Variety: Fuchsite
Nanpingite (Cesium Aluminum Silicate Hydroxide)
Paragonite (Sodium Aluminum Silicate Hydroxide)
Roscoelite (Potassium Vanadium Aluminum Silicate Hydroxide)
Tobelite (Ammonium Aluminum Silicate Hydroxide)

Trioctahedral:
o
o
o
o
o
o

Annite (Potassium Iron Aluminum Silicate Hydroxide)

Aspidolite (Sodium Magnesium Aluminum Silicate Hydroxide)
Biotite (Potassium Magnesium Iron Aluminum Silicate Hydroxide Fluoride)
Eastonite (Potassium Magnesium Aluminum Silicate Hydroxide)
Ephesite (Sodium Lithium Aluminum Silicate Hydroxide)
Hendricksite (Potassium Zinc Aluminum Silicate Hydroxide)

o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o

Lepidolite (Potassium Lithium Aluminum Silicate Fluoride Hydroxide)

Masutomilite (Potassium Lithium Aluminum Manganese Silicate Fluoride)
Montdorite (Potassium Iron Manganese Magnesium Aluminum Silicate
Fluoride)
Norrishite (Potassium Lithium Manganese Silicate)
Polylithionite (Potassium Lithium Aluminum Silicate Fluoride)
Phlogopite (Potassium Magnesium Aluminum Silicate Hydroxide)
Preiswerkite (Sodium Magnesium Aluminum Silicate Hydroxide)
Siderophyllite (Potassium Iron Aluminum Silicate Hydroxide)
Tainiolite (Potassium Lithium Magnesium Silicate Fluoride)
Tetra-ferri-annite (Potassium Iron Silicate Hydroxide)
Tetra-ferriphlogopite (Potassium Magnesium Iron Silicate Hydroxide)
Trilithionite (Potassium Lithium Aluminum Silicate Fluoride)
Zinnwaldite (Potassium Lithium Iron Aluminum Silicate Hydroxide Fluoride)
The Brittle Micas:

Dioctahedral:
o
o

Chernykhite (Barium Vanadium Aluminum Silicate Hydroxide)

Margarite (Calcium Aluminum Silicate Hydroxide)

Trioctahedral:
o
o
o
o

Anadite (Barium Potassium Iron Magnesium Aluminum Silicate Hydroxide)

Bityite (Calcium Lithium Aluminum Beryllium Silicate Hydroxide)
Clintonite (Calcium Magnesium Aluminum Silicate Hydroxide)
Kinoshitalite (Barium Magnesium Aluminum Silicate Hydroxide)
The Interlayer-deficient Micas:

Dioctahedral:
o
o
o

Brammallite (Sodium Aluminum Silicate Hydroxide)

Glauconite (Potassium Sodium Iron Aluminum Magnesium Silicate Hydroxide)
illite (Potassium Aluminum Silicate Hydroxide)

Trioctahedral:
o

Wonesite (Sodium Magnesium Aluminum Silicate Hydroxide)

Mica
Mica Group
The micas can be divided into the dioctahedral micas and the trioctahedral micas, as discussed
above. Muscovite, Paragonite, and Margarite are the white micas, and represent the
dioctahedral group, and Biotite and Clintonite (Xanthophyllite) the black or brown mica,
represents the trioctahedral group. Muscovite and Biotite are the most common micas, but the
Lithium- rich, pink mica, Lepidolite, K(Li,Al)2 AlSi3O10(OH)2 is also common, being found
mostly in pegmatites.
Muscovite
Muscovite, KAl3Si3O10(OH)2, and Paragonite, NaAl3Si3O10(OH)2, are two potential end
members of the solid solution series involving K and Na. But, there is a large miscibility gap
between the two end members with Muscovite being between 65% and 100% of K-rich end
member, and Paragonite showing compositions between about 80% and 100% of the Na-rich
end member.
Occurrence - Muscovite is common constituent of Al-rich medium grade metamorphic rocks
where is found in Al-rich schists and contributes to the schistose foliation found in these rocks.
Muscovite is also found in siliceous, Al-rich plutonic igneous rocks (muscovite granites), but
has not been found as a constituent of volcanic rocks. In these rocks it is commonly found in
association with alkali feldspar, quartz, and sometimes biotite, garnet, andalusite, sillimanite, or
kyanite.
Properties - Muscovite is easily identified in hand specimen by its white to sometimes light
brownish color and its perfect {001} cleavage. In thin section, the {001} cleavage is easily
seen and it's high birefringence is exhibited by the large change in relief on rotation of the stage
and it's 2nd to 4th order interference colors. It is clear and shows no pleochroism (which
distinguishes it from Biotite), and it is biaxial negative with a 2V between 28 and 50 o. One of
the most diagnostic properties of the micas, including muscovite, is the mottled or birds-eye
extinction exhibited by these minerals.

Biotite
Biotite is a solid solution between the end members Phlogopite KMg 3AlSi3O10(OH)2 and
Annite KFe3AlSi3O10(OH)2, although pure Annite does not occur in nature. In addition, small
amounts of Na, Rb, Cs, and Ba may substitute for K, and like in other minerals, F can substitute
for OH and increase the stability of Biotite to higher temperatures and pressures.
Occurrence - Nearly pure phlogopite is found in hydrous ultrabasic rocks like kimberlite, and
is also found in metamorphosed dolomites. Biotite, with more Fe-rich compositions is
common in dacitic, rhyolitic, and trachytic volcanic rocks, granitic plutonic rocks, and a wide

variety of metamorphic rocks. In metamorphic rocks, biotite usually shows a preferred

orientation with its {001} forms parallel to the schistose foliation.
Properties - In hand specimen, Biotite is brown to black and shows the perfect {001}
micaceous cleavage. In thin section, it shows the perfect cleavage and mottled extinction
typical of all micas. It's most characteristic property is its pleochroism, showing yellow to
brown to green colors. Hornblende shows similar pleochroic colors, but is distinguished from
biotite by the differences in cleavage of the 2 minerals. Biotite is biaxial negative with a low
2V of 0o to 25o.

Compositionsilicate of potassium and aluminum (HsKAl-iSisOiO

Colorclear, white, gray, or greenish
Lustervitreous to pearly
Hardness2
Streakwhite
Cleavagevery perfect in one direction
Specific gravity2.7 to 3.1
Crystal systemmonoclinic
Mica is the family name of a group of closely related minerals
that
have very perfect cleavage in one direction only, and can be
split into
exceedingly thin sheets or flakes. The most abundant minerals in
this
group are muscovite (represented by the specimen) and biotite, a
black
or dark-brown mica. The color difference is caused by the
presence of
iron and magnesium in biotite. These minerals are important
constituents
of many types of igneous and metamorphic rocks.
Mica is usually easy to identify because of its perfect
cleavage, and
the fact that thin cleavage plates or flakes are very flexible
and elastic.
It is sufficiently soft to be scratched with the fingernail, a
property that
helps to differentiate it from other minerals with which it is
commonly
associated.
Various of the mica minerals are of considerable commercial
value.
Large cleavage plates of muscovite are used as insulation in the
manufacture
of electrical apparatus. A variety of biotite, called
vermiculite,
swells when heated, and is extensively used in heat and sound
insulating.
A pink, lithium-bearing member of the mica family, called
lepidolite,
is used as a source of lithium and in the manufacture of glass.

REFERENCE
http://www.materials.ac.uk/elearning/matter/crystallography/3dcrystallography/index.html

http://www.rockhounds.com/rockshop/xtal/index.shtml

http://www.tulane.edu/~sanelson/eens211/index.html

https://sites.google.com/a/philippinegeology.com/minerals-for-dummies/home/lecture-notes/lecturenotes

http://webmineral.com/crystall.shtml#.WBeE_4VOLIU

http://www.geosciences.fau.edu/Resources/CourseWebPages/Fall2012/GLY4200C_F12/index_4200_F1
2.html

http://www.virtual-geology.info/mineralogy/

https://brocku.ca/earthsciences/people/gfinn/optical/222lect.htm

http://serc.carleton.edu/NAGTWorkshops/mineralogy/optical_mineralogy_petrography.html

http://users.metu.edu.tr/lunel/

http://ruby.colorado.edu/~smyth/syl3010.html

https://brocku.ca/earthsciences/people/gfinn/methods/2p17.html

https://brocku.ca/earthsciences/people/gfinn/minerals/database.htm

http://www.d.umn.edu/~mille066/Teaching/Mineralogy06.htm

http://www.freebookcentre.net/earth-science-books-download/Mineralogy-Lecture-Notes.html

http://ion.uwinnipeg.ca/~wbuhay/teaching.htm

http://academic.sun.ac.za/natural/geology/undergraduate/modules/G214_course_notes_e.htm

http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~leeman/g311links.html

http://www.geo.cornell.edu/geology/classes/eas_2003_355/Minschedule2003.htm

http://www.geo.arizona.edu/geo3xx/geo306_mdbarton/classonly/306%20Web%20Materials/306_Lect
ure041101.htm

https://www.geochemsoc.org/publications/geochemicalnews/gn140jul09/theuniversalstage/

http://www.minerant.org/science.html#CRYST

http://www.hullgeolsoc.co.uk/goclthin2.htm

LECTURE ONE: Introduction to Light

How does light move?
Wave theory, rather than particle theory, effectively describes the
phenomena of polarization, reflection, refraction and interference, which
form the basis for optical mineralogy.

IN THIS LECTURE
Light
Electromagnetic Radiation
Wave Nomenclature
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Speed of Light
Wave front and wave normal
Isotropic versus anisotropic minerals
Polarisation of light

Electromagnetic Radiation
Wave Theory tells us that radiant energy like light has both electrical and
magnetic properties and is therefore called Electromagnetic Radiation. The
electric and magnetic components of light rays vibrate at right angles to each
other and to the direction of propagation.
Electric Component

Wave Nomenclature
Velocity V nm/sec, Wavelength nm, frequency f
Hz, Amplitude A nm

Magnetic Component

AIR

MINERAL

A
air

In optical mineralogy only the

Direction of
electric component, referred
Progation
to as the electric vector, is
considered and is referred to
as the vibration direction of
the light ray
Electromagnetic Spectrum
(nm)

Energy of light 10-8

increases with
decreasing wavelength
10-4

In a vacuum the velocity of

light is at a maximum: 3 x 1017
nm/sec. In all other materials,
the velocity of light slows
down. This is because the
wavelength of light decreases
Ultraviolet
Rays
as the density of the material
400
through which it is travelling
Violet
increases but the frequency
remains constant.
Blue

AIR

Light entering a mineral slows down and the

wavelength () decreases

500

Wave Normal and Wave Front

A wave front is a surface that connects the same points on adjacent waves.
Wave fronts are one wavelength apart. A wave normal is right angles to the
wave front and represents the direction the wave is moving in
Wave Front 2
Wave Front 1

Green
600

700

Yellow

Infrared
Wa
ve

Nor
m

Cosmic Rays
Gamma Rays

100
Visible Light

104

108

1024

1020

X-rays
16
Ultraviolet Rays 10

Infrared

1012

Microwaves

108

Orange
Red

f(Hertz)

Energy

f = V/

1012

Radiowaves

104
1016 Long Electric
Waves

100

al

Isotropic VS Anisotropic Minerals

Minerals can be subdivided, based on the interaction of the light ray
travelling through the mineral and the nature of the chemical bonds
holding the mineral together, into two classes.

Polarisation of Light
Light emanating from any source vibrates in all directions at right angles to the direction of propagation and
is unpolarized. If the electric vector is constrained to
lie within one plane then the light is plane-polarised and
vibrates in only one direction.

ISOTROPIC: (a) Same velocity of light in all directions, (b) Wave

Normal and Light Ray are parallel, (c) Examples are volcanic glass and
minerals of the isometric (cubic) system such as Fluorite, Garnet and
Halite.
ANISOTROPIC: (a) Velocity of light is different in different
directions, (b) Wave Normal and Light Ray are NOT parallel, (c)
Anisotropic minerals belong to tetragonal, hexagonal, orthorhombic,
monoclinic and triclinic systems

Plane polarised light

Unpolarised light

Lecture Notes - Optics 1: Electromagnetic Waves, Snell's Law

We now embark on a four-week digression to consider the physics of the interaction of light
with non-opaque minerals. Application of these principles through the use of a polarizing microscope allows geologists to confirm the hand specimen identification of minerals, to identify
mysterious unknown samples, to examine the microscopic textural information contained in
rocks, etc.
Although light has properties in common with both waves and particles, the wave theory is most
useful in understanding the interaction of polarized light with crystals. Light is the visible form
of electromagnetic radiation. Each light wave consists of propagating electric and magnetic
fields that may be characterized by electric and magnetic vectors oriented perpendicular to each
other and to the direction of propagation in isotropic substances. Because the electrical interaction of light with crystals is much stronger than the magnetic interaction, we will focus on the
electric vector.
As a light wave pases a point, the electric and magnetic vectors at that point grow and shrink as
the electric and magnetic fields rise and fall (see Nesse, Figure 1.2). Plotting the magnitude of
the electric vector with time as a light wave passes, one obtains a graph of a sine function. The
direction indicated by the rising and falling electric vector as light passes is called the vibration
direction for the light wave of interest. The distance between wave crests is the wavelength (),
which for light in a vacuum is between about 400 and 700 nm. The frequency (f) of vibration
for light is about 1015 hertz. The wavelength (m), frequency f (s-1), and veolcity v (m/s) of an
electromagnetic wave are related by the expression: v = f.
wavelength

propagation direction
or ray path
electric vector

Two light waves can interfere with each other to produce a resultant wave. If the two waves are
in phase, the resultant wave will have a greater amplitude. However, if the two waves are out of
phase by a value near /2, the resultant wave will have a much reduced amplitude. Here are two
examples with the resultant wave shown below the two interfering waves:

Optics 1

Light travels fastest in a vacuum where its velocity is 3x108 m/s. In other substances (notably
minerals!) the velocity of light is less than 3x108 m/s. The ratio of the velocity of light in a
vacuum to the velocity of light in another medium is called the refractive index of the medium.
Refractive indices are always greater than one. Refractive indices for minerals are typically
between 1.4 and 2.0. The refractive index of water (at 25C) is 1.33. The refractive index of air
(at 25C and 1 bar) is 1.0003. Because the frequency of light is the same in all media, the wavelength of light must be shorter when its velocity is lower (v = f).
When a ray of light passes from one medium to another, the propagation direction generally
changes. This process, called refraction, is the principle behind lenses and may be used to
explain many common observations from bent oars to internal reflection in prisms. The
degree of refraction or bending depends on the relative refractive indices of the two mediums
according to a relationship called Snells Law

1
Sin 1
Sin 2

n2
n1

n1 < n2

n1
n2
2

where n1 and n2 are the refractive indices of the two media and 1 and 2 are the angles of incidence and refraction. Note that the angles relate the ray path to the line that is perpendicular to
the interface. Note also that the same relation applies whichever direction the light is traveling.
Snell's Law is named for Willebrod Snel (1580-1626), a Dutch mathematician and astronomer
who described this relationship in 1621. (Snel was married in 1608 and had 18 children, of
whom only 3 survived.)

Optics 1

Because the sine function cannot have a value greater than one, when n1 < n2 there may be no
value of 1 that will satisfy the expression
Sin 1 = Sin 2

n2
n1

for some values of 2. Thus, for light passing from a medium with a higher refractive index to a
medium with a lower refractive index there is a critical angle of incidence, above which there is
total reflection rather than refraction. This feature of refraction is used to construct refractometers to measure the refractive indices of liquids and large crystals.

Critical Angle

80

n2 /n 1

n1<n 2

60
40
20

0.2

0.4

0.6

n1 /n 2

0.8

Lecture Notes - Optics 2: Becke Lines, Dispersion

The refractive index of a cubic (system) crystal or a homogeneous non-crystalline material (such
as glass or a fluid) does not vary with the direction of light propagation. Therefore, these
substances are isotropic with respect to the propagation of light. The single refractive index n
of an isotropic solid may be determined by observing refraction effects when small grains of the
solid are placed in liquids of known refractive indices.
When small grains of an isotropic solid are placed in a drop of oil under a cover slip on a glass
slide, refraction and reflection at the edge of the grains focus the light locally to form a bright
Becke Line around the mineral grain (see Nesse, Figs. 3.4 and 3.5). Becke lines are most
easily seen with the medium power objective of a microscope and with the substage diaphram
mostly closed. The greater the difference in refractive index between the oil and the mineral, the
brighter the Becke line and the greater the relief of the mineral. Relief is a qualitative measure
of the contrast (shadows and Becke lines) between the mineral and the oil caused by refraction
and reflection at their interface. When the mineral and oil have the same refractive index, the
mineral will be almost invisible in the oil (very low relief) and the Becke line(s) will be faint and
colored.
If the microscope stage is lowered, the Becke line will appear to move toward the medium
(mineral or oil) that has the higher refractive index. Shadows and bright areas due to oblique
illumination may also be used to determine relative refractive indices. The refractive index of
the isometric mineral is determined by repeated tests using different oils until a refractive index
match is obtained.

mineral
grain

noil > nmineral

oil

mineral
grain

nmineral > noil

oil

Optics 2

The refractive index of most materials varies with the wavelength of light, a property called
dispersion. Generally, the index of refraction is higher for shorter wavelengths (higher
frequencies) of light and decreases monotonically with increasing wavelength. However, some
highly colored minerals exhibit abnormal dispersion for those wavelengths of light that are
strongly absorbed (see Nesse, Fig. 1.11). The coefficient of dispersion is defined as the
difference (nF-nC) between the refractive indices for the F (486 nm) and C (656 nm) Fraunhofer
lines (prominent wavelengths in a sunlight spectrum).
Because the coefficient of dispersion is typically lower for the mineral than for the oil, it is not
possible to get a match of refractive indices for all the wavelengths of light simultaneously.
When the oil has refractive indices near to those of the mineral, Becke lines for shorter
wavelengths (blues) will move into the oil while Becke lines for longer wavelengths (reds) will
move into the mineral, as the stage is lowered. This problem can be avoided if monochromatic
light source such as a sodium lamp is used. If white light is used, then one tries to find the
match for yellow light (nD where D = 589 nm). In this case, a yellowish-orange Becke line will
move into the mineral and a pale blue line will move into the oil, as the stage is lowered. See
Table 3.1 in Nesse for more information.
1.63

Refractive Index

1.62
1.61

3 imersion oils

1.60 mineral
1.59
1.58
1.57
1.56
400

(nm)

(log scale)

700

Lecture Notes - Optics 3: Double Refraction, Polarized Light

Experiment: observations with optical calcite.
Light passing through a calcite crystal is split into two rays. This process, first reported by
Erasmus Bartholinus in 1669, is called double refraction. The two rays of light are each plane
polarized by the calcite such that the planes of polarization are mutually perpendicular. For
normal incidence (a Snells law angle of 0), the two planes of polarization are also perpendicular to the plane of incidence.
For normal incidence (a 0 angle of
incidence), Snells law predicts that the
angle of refraction will be 0. In the
case of double refraction of a normally
incident ray of light, at least one of the
two rays must violate Snells Law as we
know it. For calcite, one of the two rays
does indeed obey Snells Law; this ray is
called the ordinary ray (or O-ray). The
other ray (and any ray that does not obey
Snells Law) is an extraordinary ray
(or E-ray).

For ordinary rays the vibration direction, indicated by the electric vectors in our illustrations, is
perpendicular to the ray path. For extraordinary rays, the vibration direction is not perpendicular
to the ray path. The direction perpendicular to the vibration direction is called the wave normal.
Although Snells Law is not satisfied by the ray path for extraordinary rays, it is satisfied by the
wave normals of extraordinary rays. In other words, the wave normal direction for the refracted
ray is related to the wave normal direction for the incident ray by Snells Law.
mal

wavelength

or
ve n

wa

propagation direction
or ray path

All transparent crystals except those in the cubic system have the property of double refraction.
For most crystals the image separation is not large enough to be visible. However, we will

Optics 3

observe other optical properties that result from the double refraction. For hexagonal and tetragonal crystals, there will be one O-ray and one E-ray. For orthorhombic, monoclinic, and
triclinic crystals, there will be two E-rays. In general, the refractive indices for non-cubic crystals depend on vibration direction. Non-cubic crystals are, therefore, said to be optically anisotropic. In most cases the refractive indices for the two rays produced by double refraction are
not the same. One of the two rays will have a higher refractive index (and a lower velocity); this
ray is called the slow ray. The other ray is then the fast ray.
Ordinary light is not polarized. Looking along a ray of light, the electric vectors make all angles
with the vertical. Light that is plane polarized in the vertical plane has only vertical electric
vectors. The plane of polarization is
the plane that includes both the vibration direction and the ray path. Light
plane
unpolarized
may be polarized by crystals, by
polarized
light
light
polarizing filters, and by reflection.
Reflected light is partially polarized,
favoring the vibration direction
perpendicular to the plane of the ray path (including both the incident and reflected rays).

Ele

ctr

ic V

ect

or

in C

rys

tal

Polarizing filters exclude all light not vibrating in the preferred direction of the filter. Polarizing
sunglasses, by orienting their polarizing material vertically, selectively exclude the polarized
portion of light reflected by horizontal surfaces. Transparent crystals do not exclude light,
whatever its plane of polarization. Transparent anisotropic crystals resolve the electric vectors
of incident light into two perpendicular electric vectors by the process of double refraction.
Upon emergence from the crystal, the two rays add together again according to the rules of
vector addition. However, because the two rays have not traveled through the crystal with the
same velocity, the combined emerging ray will not be identical to the incident ray.

Electric Vector in Air

Ele

Electric Vector in Air

Electric Vector in Air

ctr

ic V

ect

or

in C

rys

tal

Polarizing microscopes are equipped with polarizing filters both below and above the stage of
the microscope. The lower filter (fixed, but rotatable) is called the polarizer and on our microscopes has its direction of polarization oriented E-W when viewed from above. (Beware, some
older microscopes have their polarizing filters oriented N-S!) The upper filter (removable, but
not rotatable) is called the analyzer and has its direction of polarization oriented N-S when
viewed from above. Because the polariztion directions of these two filters are perpendicular, all
of the light passing through the polarizer will be blocked by the analyzer, unless the analyzer is
removed or an anisotropic crystal is placed between the two filters.

Optics 3

extinction

partial
transmission

Note that if the incident light is already polarized, special orientations exist for which all of the
incident light is resolved along one of the two preferred vibration directions in the crystal. In
this special case, there is no double refraction and the emerging ray will be indentical to the
incident ray. If a crystal is oriented so that one of its two vibration directions is "parallel to the
polarizer" (that is parallel to the plane of polarization of the polarizing filter), then all light
emerging from the crystal would be polaized E-W and would be blocked by the analyzer. When
this happens, the crystal appears dark and is said to be "at extinction."

maximum
transmission

extinction

Lecture Notes - Optics 4: Retardation, Interference Colors

In anisotropic crystals, the two rays of light produced by double refraction travel at different
velocities through the crystal. It takes the slow ray longer to traverse the crystal than it takes the
fast ray. The fast ray will have passed through the crystal and traveled some distance beyond
the crystal before the slow ray reaches the surface of the crystal. This distance is called the
retardation.

n O< n

(+)

n E< n

(-)

The retardation may be calculated as follows. If tS is the time in seconds that it takes the slow
ray to traverse the crystal and tF is the time it takes the fast ray to traverse the crystal, then the
distance that the fast ray travels beyond the crystal before the slow ray emerges is
= c (tS - tF)

{units: m = (m/s)(s)},

where c is the velocity of light in a vacuum, which is very close to the velocity of light in air.
For a crystal of thickness h with velocities vF and vS, tF and tS may be replaced by h/vF and h/vS
{units: (m)/(m/s) = s}, respectively, to give
=c

h h
c
c
=h
vS vF
vS vF

Recalling the definition of the refractive index n, the equation for becomes
= h (nS - nF).
Because refractive indices are dimensionless, will be in the same units as h, normally nanometers (nm). Note that the difference in path length for the O and E rays has been neglected in this
calculation. In fact, for calcite the angle is only about 5, so the path length difference is only
about a factor of 0.005. For most other minerals the angle is much smaller.

Optics 4

The birefringence of a mineral grain is defined as the absolute value of the difference between
the refractive indices of the two rays |nS - nF| for that grain. The maximum birefringence of a
mineral is defined as the difference between the largest and smallest refractive indices for that
mineral. Because thin sections are always the same thickness (h=3000 nm), the birefringence for
a mineral in a particular orientation should be the same in all thin sections. Retardation for a
particular mineral will be greatest when the mineral is oriented so that the two rays have the
maximum and minimum refractive indices for the mineral.
When the two rays of light emerge from an anisotropic crystal, they will recombine (following
the rules of vector addition) to produce a resultant ray. If there were no retardation, the resultant
ray would be identical to the incident ray. No light would pass the analyzer and the crystal
would appear dark (extinct). However, retardation leads to a new resultant that does have an
electric vector component that will pass the analyzer. If the light source is monochromatic, the
crystal will appear lighter or darker, depending on the retardation. If the light source is polychomatic (white light), the crystal will exhibit interference colors.
To understand the origin of interference colors, we must examine the electric vectors at various
points along a pair of light waves (emerging from an anisotropic crystal) and the resultant light
wave. If the two rays of monochromatic light are in phase, the resultant wave will have the

/4

/2

time or position along wave ---->

same plane of polarization as the incident wave:

If the two rays of monochromatic light are out of phase due to retardation, then the resultant

/4

time or position along wave ---->

/2

3 Optics 4

wave will have a new orientation. If the two rays are /2 out of phase, the resultant will be:
/4

/2

time or position along wave ---->

% Transmissio n
by analyzer

If the two rays are /4 out of phase, the resultant will be circularly polarized:
Transmission of the resultant wave when the analyzer (the upper polarizing filter) is in place will
depend on the orientation(s) of the resultant vibration directions with respect to the orientation of
the analyzer. In most cases, some of the resultant wave is transmitted and interference colors are
observed. However, if the one of the vibration directions of the crystal is parallel to that of the
polarizer, then all of the light will pass through the crystal maintaining the analyzers plane of
polarization. Because there is in effect only one ray in this case, there is no interference when
the light emerges from the crystal and, therefore, no interference color. Extinction is the dark
appearance of a crystal between crossed polarizers when a vibration direction in the crystal is
parallel to the vibration direction of the polarizer. Anisotropic crystals will become extinct four
times as the stage of a polarizing microscope is rotated 360. The maximum amount of light
will be transmitted by the
analyzer when stage is rotated
100
45 from an extinction position.
For monochromatic light
illuminating a crystal at 45
from extinction, the intensity
of the light transmitted by the
analyzer as a function of the
retardation is given by this ->
graph. Note that no light
passes the analyzer when the
retardation is an integral
0
number of wavelengths for

0
2
the wavelength of light used.
Retardation
This effect can be observed by
viewing a quartz wedge
between crossed polarizers in sodium light. Retardation for the quartz wedge increases with
thickness so that a series of parallel dark bands (for = , 2, etc.) can be observed.

Because the light source in our microscopes is not monochromatic, the actual interference colors
observed result from the summation of dark bands for all visible wavelengths. The characteristic
sequence of colors as a function of retardation is shown as the chart of interference colors in

Optics 4

Nesse and elsewhere. You will have seen these colors on soap bubbles and oil slicks, where they
are produced by the interference of light waves reflected off the front and back surfaces of these
films. However, in these cases no polarization or retardation is involved; the colors are due to
destructive interference of the two (out of phase) reflected rays. Note that interference colors are
not the same as the rainbow or spectrum produced from white light by a prism or a diffraction
grating.
Retardation is a function of the mineral, its orientation, and its thickness. If the thickness is
doubled, so is the retardation. Similarly, if a second crystal of the same mineral with the same
orientation is placed on top of the crystal being studied, the retardation will increase. In fact, if a
second crystal of any mineral is placed on top with its slow vibration direction parallel to the
slow vibration direction of the crystal being studied, the retardation will increase. This effect is
called addition of retardation.
Petrographic microscopes are equipped with a quartz plate designed to be placed in the light
path above the crystal with the slow vibration direction of the quartz crystal oriented at 45 to the
planes of the polarizing filters. The slow vibration direction of the plate is indicated on the plate
by a double pointed arrow or similar mark. Use of this plate permits identification of the slow
and fast vibration directions of a crystal by watching for addition or subtraction of the retardation. The thickness of the quartz plate is selected to add to (or subtract from) the retardation
exactly 550 nm. Older microscopes were equipped with a similar plate made of gypsum (of a
different thickness!) that caused the same amount (550 nm) of addition (or subtraction).
Crystals that occur in a prismatic form may be characterized has having the slow direction either
parallel to their long dimension or perpendicular to it. The former are called length slow and the
latter length fast. These two cases may be easily distinguished by insertion of a quartz plate
when the long direction of the mineral is 45 from the planes of the polarizer. If the crystal has
no long direction, this test is not possible.

Length Slow
Retardation Increases
"Addition"

Length Fast
Retardation Decreases
"Subtraction"

Lecture Notes - Optics 5: Uniaxial Minerals, Interfences Figures, Indicatrix

Tetragonal and hexagonal crystals all have one unique rotation axis, the c-axis, which is a 4fold,4, 6-fold, or6, 3-fold,3 axis. Measurements of refractive indices for tetragonal and
hexagonal crystals demonstrate that the c-axis is also a unique direction with respect to the
velocity of light. These crystals are said to be uniaxial because of the unique optical features of
the c-axis. For uniaxial crystals, the refractive index is called n for light rays with their wave
normals parallel to the c-axis (vibration direction perpendicular to the c-axis). The refractive
index is called n for light rays with their wave normals along any direction in the plane perpendicular to the c-axis (vibration direction parallel to the c-axis). Refractive indices for any other
vibration direction in a uniaxial crystal are between n and n in value and are called n.
Uniaxial crystals may be either positive or negative, depending on the relative values of n and
n. If n > n > n, the crystal is positive. If n < n < n, the crystal is negative.
The vibration directions for a uniaxial crystal in normally incident light may be determined by
locating the vertical projection of the c-axis of that crystal onto a horizontal plane (which would
be parallel to the microscope stage). The vibration directions for the two rays will be parallel to
and perpendicular to the projection of the c-axis, respectively. Note that based on this recipe, if
the c-axis is vertical, it will project at a point and the vibration directions will be indeterminate.
If a prismatic, uniaxial positive crystal was elongated in the direction of the c-axis, slabs cut from
the crystal at various angles to the c-axis would have one of the following three types of optic
orientation:

Recall that the retardation of an anisotropic crystal depends on the thickness of the crystal and
on the difference between the refractive indices of the two refracted rays. For most orientations,
then, =h| n - n |. The maximum retardation possible for a given crystal in a slab of constant
thickness (h) is (max) =h| n - n | = h , where | n - n | is the maximum birefringence
of the crystal. The maximum retardation for a uniaxial mineral of will be exhibited by a crystal
with its c-axis horizontal. The minimum retardation ( (min) = 0) will be exhibited by a crystal
with its c-axis vertical.
It is possible to determine whether a uniaxial mineral is positive or negative by a simple optical
test using a petrographic microscope. The procedure is as follows:
Locate a crystal of the mineral that exhibits the minimum retardation
Carefully focus on the crystal at using a low power objective lens
Change to a high power objective lens and focus again

Optics 5

Insert the condenser lens

Insert the Bertrand lens
At this point you should see a uniaxial interference figure that looks something like this:
The dark cross is made of lines called
isogyres. The surrounding circles are colored
isochromes. The colors of the isochromes
occur in the same sequence as the colors in
the chart of interference colors. To determine
the optic sign from the interference figure,

Insert the plate

If there is addition in the northeast quadrant, the mineral is uniaxial positive
If there is subtraction in the northeast
quadrant, the mineral is uniaxial negative

Optics 5

The uniaxial interference figure is produced in part by the condenser lens, which illuminates the
crystal with a cone of light such that rays of light enter the crystal at many angles in addition to
the usual normal incidence. Similarly, the Bertand lens allows us to see rays refracted at many
angles. The result is like seeing the interference colors (retardation) of many crystals simultaneously. The orientations of these crystals are shown schematically by the previous figure, as well
as in Nesse (Figure 6.15).
The variation of refractive index with direction may be shown graphically in three dimensions by
a surface called the indicatrix. This surface is constructed from the end points of lines extending in all directions from an origin of the crystallographic coordinate system drawn so that the
length of each line proportional to the refractive index for light vibrating in that direction.
According to Neumanns Principle, the symmetry elements of any physical property of a crystal
must include the symmetry elements of the point group of that crystal. Because the variation of
refractive index with vibration direction must follow Neumanns Principle, the symmetry elements of the indicatrix for any crystal must include all the symmetry elements of its crystal class.
The physics of light further constrains the indicatrix to be a second order surface (refractive
index is a second rank tensor property), that is a surface that can be described by an equation of
the form:

X
n

+ nY

+ nZ

= 1

where n, n, and n are refrative indices for light vibrating parallel to the X, Y, and Z directions
of a cartesian coordinate system.

There are only five qualitatively different types of indicatrices that satisfy these constraints:

Sphere
Isometric System
n = n = n n

Hexagonal System n = n n, n n
n > n (+) Prolate elipsoid of revolution
Tetragonal System c-axis = n
n < n () Oblate elipsoid of revolution

Orthorhombic System n n n (n n) (n n) (+)

2V > 2V
General elipsoid
Monoclinic System
(n n) (n n) ()
2V > 2V
General elipsoid
Triclinic System

Optics 5

The optical indicatrix may be used as an aid in determining the vibration directions for normally
incident light in anisotropic crystals. Imagine a plane passing through the indicatrix in the same
orientation with respect to the coordinate system of the indicatrix as the bottom surface of the
crystal is oriented with respect to the crystallographic coodinate system. (These two coordinate
systems have a fixed relative orientation for any crystal.) The intersection of the plane with the
indicatrix surface will be an elipse. The two vibration directions will be the semiaxes of the
elipse.
Every elipsoid has at least one central cross section that is a circle. Spheres have an infinite
number of circular cross sections. Elipsoids of revolution have one. All other elipsoids have
two. Crystals cut parallel to the circular cross section exhibit no retardation between crossed
polarizing filters: they remain extinct upon rotation of the microscope stage. For this reason, the
direction perpendicular to the circular cross section is called an optic axis. Uniaxial crystals
have one optic axis. Biaxial crystals have two optic axes.
The acute angle between the two optic axes in biaxial crystals is called the indicatrix 2V. For
biaxial positive crystals, the acute angle is centered on Z and the acute 2V is 2V. For biaxial
negative crystals, the acute angle is centered on X and the acute 2V is 2V.
2

1
0.5

-1 -0.5

0.5

-2

-1

1
-0.5

-1

-2

-1

Lecture Notes - Optics 6: Measurement of n and n, Spindle Stage

The variation of the velocity of light with vibration direction in uniaxial minerals can be fully
characterized by determining just two refractive indices, n and n. These two indices may be
determined using oils and Becke line tests in a manner similar to that used for isotropic minerals.
However, care must be taken to select and orient the grain being tested so that the results of the
Becke line test are meaningful.
If an anisotropic mineral is at extinction, then one of its two principle vibration directions is
parallel to the (E-W) polarizing filter. All of the light passing through the crystal is then vibrating along the (now E-W) principle direction. Therefore, a Becke line test on a mineral at extinction will measure the refractive index for the principle vibration direction oriented E-W. If the
crystal is then rotated 90 to the next extinction position, a Becke line test may be performed on
the other principle vibration direction (now oriented E-W).
For a uniaxial crystal of random orientation, the two principle vibration directions have refractive
indices n and n. This means that a crystal with its c-axis in any orientation may be used to
measure n. However, n can be determined only if the c-axis is horizontal, so that one of the
principle refractive indices is n (i.e. n = n). Thus, for uniaxial minerals Becke line tests should
always be performed on crystals with their c-axis horizontal.
A uniaxial mineral with its c-axis horizontal will exhibit the maximum retardation possible for
that mineral (at constant thickness). Therefore, to measure n and n the procedure to follow is:
(a) Determine whether the mineral is uniaxial positive (n > n) or unaxial negative (n < n).
(b) Identify the mineral grain on your slide with the maximum retardation.
(c) Confirm that the c-axis is horizontal by checking for a flash figure.
(d) Rotate the stage until the grain is at extinction (between crossed polars).
(e) Perform a Becke line or oblique illumination test (in plane polarized light).
(f) Rotate the stage 90 to the next extinction position.
(g) Perform a Becke line or oblique illumination test (in plane polarized light).
In general, both n and n will be above or below the refractive index of the oil being used and
the procedure is repeated with an appropriately higher or lower index oil. Eventually, an oil will
be found that has a refractive index between n and n. If the mineral is positive, then n will be
the high index and n the low index. If the mineral is negative, n will be the high index. At this
point, n and n must be pursued individually until a match is obtained. Because is low for
many minerals, n and n will typically be similar in value. Because the optic sign is known, the
quartz plate may be used to identify n and n.
A spindle stage is a device designed to enable you to rotate a mineral grain about an axis that is
perpendicular to the rotation axis of your microscope. A uniaxial mineral grain mounted on a
spindle stage can always be oriented so that its c-axis is horizonal. When the spindle position
that makes the c-axis horizontal is discovered, Becke line tests can be performed as outlined
above. However, use of the spindle stage has the distinction that the oils are changed, but not the
crystal (its glued to the spindle!).

Optics 6

To find the spindle position that makes the c-axis horizontal, it is first necessary to find the
stage position that makes the spindle E-W. The following steps are required to orient the
spindle E-W (see Bloss p.20):
(a) Set the spindle position to 0 (S=0)
(b) Identify a stage position with the spindle approximately E-W (~MR).
(c) Rotate the stage clockwise until the crystal is extinct. Record the stage position (M0).
(d) Return the stage to where the spindle is approximately E-W (~ MR).
(e) Set the spindle position to 180 (S=180).
(f) Rotate the stage anticlockwise until the crystal is extinct. Record the stage position (M180).
(g) Calculate the exact E-W position (MR) from the equation:
MR =

M0 + M180
2

(h) Rotate the stage to position MR.

With the spindle oriented E-W, it is now easy to find the spindle angle (S) that makes the c-axis
horizontal.
(a) Rotate the spindle until the crystal becomes extinct. At this point, the c-axis must be
oriented in the vertical E-W plane.
(b) Record the spindle angle (SV).
(c) Rotate the spindle 90 to (SV+90) or (SV-90) and the c-axis will be horizontal!

Lecture Notes - Optics 7: Biaxial Minerals

The interference figure obtained for a biaxial mineral depends on the orientation of the mineral
with respect to the microscope stage. Four types of interference figure are commonly considered:
(a) BxA figure - the acute bisectrix (a line that bisects the acute angle between the two optic
axes) is vertical (perpendicular to the plane of the microscope stage). The acute bisectrix is
the vibration direction for positive minerals, the vibration direction for negative minerals.
(b) BxO figure - the obtuse bisectrix (a line that bisects the obtuse angle between the two optic
axes) is vertical. The obtuse bisectrix is the vibration direction for positive minerals, the
vibration direction for negative minerals.
(c) O.A. figure - one of the two optic axes is vertical (an optic axis figure).
(d) O.N. figure - the vibration direction is vertical. The optic axial plane (O.A.P.) is horizontal (an optic normal figure). This figure is also called a flash figure.
The Birnie video tape discusses these and other biaxial interference figures and shows examples
of them.
The distribution of interference colors observed in a BxA figure can be understood by considering the refractive indices and vibration directions expected for the conoscopic incident light.
Imagine that at each point in the figure a small crystal exists with its acute bisectrix inclined in a
vertical plane extending from the point to the center of figure. The degree of inclination from the
vertical increases with the radial distance from the center of the figure. The refractive indices
and vibration directions at each point are given by the (horizontal) cross section of the indicatrix
for the inclined bisectrix (see figure).

tic
op ane
pl

tic
op ane
pl

biaxial (-)

biaxial (+)

Optics 7

Where one of the two vibration directions is E-W, the retardation is zero. The distribution of
these points produces two black, curved isogyres. The point of maximum curvature for the
isogyre is called the melatope. Retardation increases in all directions away from the melatope.
If the birefringence of the mineral is large, the interference figure will show isochromes arranged concentrically about the melatopes. Each melatope is the point of emergence of an optic
axis. The trace of the optic axial plane (O.A.P.), a symmetry plane, passes through the two
melatopes.
Interference figures for biaxial minerals are more varied than those of uniaxial minerals and can
be difficult to interpret. However, if a careful choice of mineral grain is made (on the basis of
retardation), interpretation is straightforward. Always look for a mineral grain with the minimum retardation. Its interference figure should be a nearly centered optic axis figure. The
optic sign may be determined from the optic axis figure by inserting the quartz accessory plate
when the centered isogyre is concave to the NE. If there is addition to the retardation in the NE
(constructive interference), the mineral is positive. The 2V may be estimated from an optic axis
figure based on the curvature of the centered isogyre (see handout). 2V may also be estimated
from the separation of the melatopes in a BxA figure (Tobis Method).
For minerals with a 2V greater than 65 both isogyres in a BxA figure will leave the field of
view during rotation of the stage. Do not attempt to determine the optic sign using an interference figure in which the isogyres leave the field of view. In these cases you may easily confuse
a BxA figure and a BxO figure. You will determine the wrong sign using the normal procedure
on a BxO figure. The maximum observable separation of the isogyres depends on the numerical
apature (n.a.) of the objective lens and the refractive index of the mineral. The 65 2V limit
applies to a n.a. of 0.85 and a of 1.6. Smaller n.a. values and larger values will lead to
smaller observable maximum 2V values (see Table 7.1 in Nesse).
Three principal refractive indices must be determined for biaxial minerals. Grains showing the
maximum retardation and giving an optic normal (flash) figure may be used to determine n and
n. Grains showing the minimum retardation and giving an optic axis figure may be used to
determine n. Once the proper grains are identified, the procedures are identical to those used for
uniaxial minerals. By measuring a set of extinction angles for a crystal mounted on a spindle
stage, a computer program developed by Donald Bloss may be used to determine 2V immediately and to identify the spindle and stage positions required to measure (i.e. to orient E-W) the
n, n, and n indices.

LECTURE 7 (4 hours): BIAXIAL MINERALS

OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF BIAXIAL MINERALS

INTRODUCTION
In biaxial minerals there are two optical directions along which the velocities of
light rays vibrating perpendicular to each other have equal velocities, and have same
RIs, hence biaxial.
RVS OF BIAXIAL CRYSTALS
RVS is very complex double surface in 3-D (FIG. 7.1); so sections to this surface
are studied initially. In biaxial crystals that belong to orthorhombic, monoclinic and
triclinic systems, there are three principle directions that are called optical directions that
are perpendicular to each other. These are called X, Y and Z optical directions and have
fixed optical properties. Only when propagation direction of light rays is parallel to these
directions then the wave front is r to the direction of propagation of light. In all other
directions wave fronts will be oblique to the direction of propagation of light rays
(FIG. 7.2).
Light rays travelling along X, Y and Z optical direction have fixed velocities for
particular species of biaxial minerals, ie. 1/, 1/ and 1/, where at all times 1/>1/>1/
so 1/ is the fastest, 1/ slowest and 1/ has an intermediate velocity (TABLE 7.1). In
other directions light rays have intermediate values between 1/ and 1/. Light rays
travelling parallel to the optical directions describe circular sections. Whereas the other
two rays vibrating perpendicular to this optical direction describe elliptical sections when
considered together with the original ray vibrating parallel to the optical direction
(FIG. 7.3). The RVS can be best visualized as sections cut perpendicular to various
optical directions (FIG. 7.4). In section X-Y, perpendicular direction is Z and 1/
vibrating parallel to it will describe a circle with smallest radius, and 1/ and 1/ both
greater than 1/ will describe an ellipse. Here we have small circle enclosed by a larger
ellipse (FIG. 7.4). In section Y-Z, perpendicular direction is X and 1/ vibrating parallel
to it will describe a circle with largest radius and 1/ and 1/ both smaller than 1/ will
describe an ellipse. Here we have large circle enclosing a smaller ellipse (FIG. 7.4). In
section X-Z, perpendicular direction is Y and 1/ vibrating parallel to it will describe a
circle with intermediate radius and 1/>1/ and l/<1/ will describe an ellipse
intersecting the circlie at 4 points. Along the intersecting lines connecting these four
points velocities of light rays vibrating perpendicular to each is equal to 1/. These two
directions are called optic axes of biaxial crystals. The acute angle between the optic
axes is called optic axial angle 2V (FIG. 7.5).
The sign of biaxial mineral is determined by the position of acute birectrix
(Bxa). If Bxa is X or FAST ray the mineral is negative, on the other hand if Bxa is Z or
SLOW ray the mineral is said to be positive.

The plane X-Z is called the optic axial plane, and Y direction is called optic
normal. 3-D diagram of positive RVS is show in Fig. 7.3 & 7.5.
INDICATRIX OF BIAXIAL CRYSTALS
Since there are three principle directions, there are three RI's of , , and along
X, Y and Z optical direction, respectively, where <<. The shape of the indicatrix is
tri-axial ellipsoid (FIG. 7.6). All sections through tri-axial ellipsoid are ellipses, except
two unique sections that are circular (FIG. 7.7). They are called circular sections, and
perpendicular direction to these circular sections indicates the two optic axes (FIG. 7.7).
Again the acute angle between the two optic axes is 2V, the section containing two optic
axes is the optic axial plane and Y= is the optic normal. If is the Bxa RI, the
mineral is negative, in contrast if is the Bxa RI, the mineral is positive (FIG. 7.8).
ORIENTATION OF MINERAL SECTIONS
In biaxial minerals optical directions X, Y, Z have different orientations when
compared with crystallographic direction a:b:c of the crystals.
In orthorhombic minerals a: b: c are perpendicular to each other and hence
optical directions X, Y, Z are parallel to crystallographic axes, in any combinations, ie.
a=X,Y,Z; b=X,Y,Z; c=X,Y,Z (FIG. 7.9 & 7.10). All sections will show parallel
extinction (FIG. 7.11). Sections cut perpendicular to Y will have maximum
birefringence. Sections cut perpendicular to X or Z will either give acute-bisextrix
(Bxa) or obtuse-bisectrix (Bxo)-figure depending on the sign of crystal. Acute bisectrix
figure is used to determine the sign of the crystal. Sections cut perpendicular to optic axes
will give continuous extinction, and are also useful to determine the optic sign.
In monoclinic minerals axial angle () between c and a are greater than 90. Here,
b=Y and therefore c and a do not correspond to Z and X. Hence, there will be obliqe
extinction (FIG. 7.12) at sections perpendicular or oblique to b=Y axis. Sections
perpendicular to b=Y axis will also show maximum birefringence and maximum
extinction angle either Zc, Xa, Xc, or Za. Sections parallel to b=Y will give
parallel extinction. Some monoclinic minerals with two sets of prismatic cleavage, cut
//l to c-axis will show symmetrical extinction (FIG. 7.12). Most sections will have
similar behavior as that of orthorhombic crystals with regards to birefringence and optic
sign.
In triclinic minerals none of the axial angles are equal to 90. Therefore optical
directions do not correspond to a:b:c, and hence all sections will show oblique
extinctions compared to crystal outline or cleavages. Most sections will have similar
behavior as that of orthorhombic and monoclinic crystals with regards to birefringence
and optic sign.

OPTIC FIGURE AND DETERMINATION OF OPTIC SIGN

Two types of mineral sections are useful for determination of optic sign of biaxial
minerals.
Sections cut r to Bxa: Again conoscopic viewing is necessary, ie., with
convergent polarized light, high power objective and analyser and Bertrand Lens are inposition, to obtain the optic figure (FIG. 7.13). In these sections optic figure has two
different positions.
At 90 position (FIG. 7.14) there is a black cross like that of uniaxial minerals,
but in biaxial minerals one arm of the isogyres is much thicker and contains Y optical
direction. The other arm is much thinner especially at points where optic axes are
emerging. This arm contains the optic axial plane and the distance between two optic
axes indicates 2V. Where to arms cross is the point where acute birectrix emerges aligned
parallel to the optic axis of the microscope. If the birefringence of the mineral is high or if
the section of the mineral grain is thick there appears isochromes concentric around the
optic axes. This 90 position is not used for the determination of the minerals optic sign.
At 45 position (FIG. 7.14 & 7.15) the cross separates into two hyperbolas each
one occupying opposing quadrants of the microscopic view. The 45 position, where
hyperbolas occupy NE and SW quadrant is the most useful for determination of the optic
sign. In this position Y optical direction or optic normal is aligned NW-SE. Optic axial
plane is aligned NE-SW, where optic axial plane intersecting the hyperbolas, are the
position of optic axes and the distance between them is related to 2V. If 2V is small
hyperbolas are very close, infact when 2V=0 uniaxial-like figure is obtained. If 2V is
great (ie., 2V=60) hyperbolas will lie outside the field of view (FIG. 7.16). Isochromes
are aligned concentrically about both optic axes. 2 nd to higher order interference bands
are common to both optic axes and appear like dumbells, constricted along optic normal
(FIG. 7.14 & 7.15).
Optic sign of the biaxial mineral is best determined by comparing a 3-D view of
the RVS and optic figure observed in the microscope where both are oriented parallel to
each other (FIG. 7.17 & 7.18). Optic sign is determined by comparing ray velocities of
l/ and l/ with that of l/ at the central portion of the optic figure and behind the isogyre
in NE quadrant, and hence determining the Bxa, as to whether it is X or Z. Assuming we
have a positive biaxial mineral, the acute bisectrix is Z and is vertical, X is horizontal and
lying NE-SW and Y is also horizontal lying NW-SE. In the central portion of the optic
figure l/ vibrates NE-SW and l/ vibrates NW-SE. At the optic axis toward NE both
rays vibrating perpendicular to each other have the same velocity l/ hence extinction
occurs. Beyond the hyperbola l/ changes to l/. So here, l/ vibrates NE-SW and l/
vibrates NW-SE. When an accessory plate with NE-SW direction having SLOW ray
inserted, l/ that is the FAST ray also vibrating NE-SW will have SLOW- FAST
interaction and SUBTRUCTION of interference colour results. At the hyperbola due to
accessory plate's l , retardation black is replaced with red, when gypsum-plate is used or
white if mica-plate is used with retardation, respectively. Inside the hyperbola toward

NE l/ which is the SLOW ray is vibrating NE and will have SLOW-SLOW interaction
with accessory plates NE SLOW direction and ADDITION of interference colours
results, and hence, Bxa is Z and the biaxial mineral is positive.Biaxial negative crystals
produce opposite effect when accessory plate is inserted.
Sections cut r to Optic Axes: These sections appear isotropic when viewed
orthoscopically. Under conoscopic examination there appears only one hyperbola if 2V is
not too small. In these sections one of the optic axis of the biaxial mineral is aligned
parallel to the optic axis of the microscope and is at the crossed hairs of the ocular. When
the hyperbola aligned 45 position as its arms in the NW-SE quadrant its apex points
towards the acute bisectrix that will be outside the field of view. NE-SW direction is
similarly optic axial plane and optic normal or Y direction is perpendicular to it at the
Bxa is again outside the field of view. If we have a biaxial negative crystal, outside
hyperbola vibrate l/ and l/, whereas inside the hyperbola vibrate l/ and l/. As the
accessory plate is inserted SLOW-SLOW interaction occurs outside the hyperbola
resulting in ADDITION and SLOW-FAST interaction occurs inside hyperbola resulting
in SUBTRACTION. Subtraction indicates l/ vibrates parallel to the Bxa hence the
crystal is negative (FIG. 7.19).
These sectiona are also very important to estimate the value of 2V. If 2V=0
hyperbola's arms are 90 to each other and the other hyperbola also appears at the
crossed-hairs to produce a uniaxial-like figure. If 2V=90 hyperbola is observed at 45
position as a straight line. The curvature of the hyperbola's arm indicates the value of 2V
(FIG. 7.20).
Sections cut //l to Bxo: In these sections hyperbolas are well outside the field of
view, and their apices are away from each other. As the microscope stage is rotated
hyperbolas come momentarily into the field of view and quickly dissapear. This is a flash
figure. These sections are not useful for determination of optic sign.
Sections cut //l to Optic Normal: These sections will have the highest
birefringence when observed orthoscopically. Under conoscopic examination these
sections may also show flash figure and they are not useful for determination of optic
sign. In eccentric biaxial interference figures arms of isogyres will always curve as they
cross the field of view during the rotation of the microscope stage (FIG. 7.21).
SIGN OF ELONGATION
The biaxial minerals of the orthorhombic, monoclinic and triclinic symmetry
systems can be elongated parallel to all crystallographic axes, but commoniy parallel to
c-axis. Therefore, when c=Z or cZ=small angle, inserting accessory plate when mineral
is aligned NE-SW, if ADDITION of interference colour occurs then the mineral has
POSITIVE ELONGATION or SLOW ALONG. However if c=X or cX=small angle,
upon insertion of accessory plate SUBTRUCTION of interference colours results then
the mineral has NEGATIVE ELONGATION or is FAST ALONG.

Some biaxial mineral like Epi group is alongated along b==Y direction.
Depending on the sections of the crystals these minerals will have variable sign of
elongation since components vibrating perpendicular to Y could be Z resulting
POSITIVE ELONGATION or could be X resulting NEGATIVE ELONGATION
(FIG. 7.22).
OTHER OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF BIAXIAL MINERALS:
Shape: Euhedral crystals may produce hexagonal (Hor), octagonal (Pyx) basal
sections, and rectangular elongated prismatic sections.
Colour: Coloured minerals like Amp and Bio show excellent pleochroism of two
or three different colours. Sections perpendicular to optic axes show no pleochroism
(FIG. 7.22)
Cleavage: Perfect cleavage in l-, 2- or 3-directions may be present.
Relief: Variable low (Feld), very high (Kya). Mus may show twinkling.
RI: Very important most mineral RI>CB, A-Feld<CB.
Birefringence: Low (Feld)very high (Tit), Chl may show anomalous
birefringence.
Extinction: Parallel in orthorhombic minerals; oblique and parallel in monoclinic
and always oblique in triclinic minerals. Minerals with 2 cleavages may show
symmetrical extinction (eg. Hor & Pyx). Mottled extinction is observed in mica group
minerals.
Compositional Zoning: Various groups of minerals may show excellent
compositional zoning eg., Plag, Pyx, Amp, Epi etc.
Exsolution: Exsolution lamellae of Cl-Pyx, 0-Pyx, Alb, Ort etc. in host crystals
of 0-Pyx, Cl-Pyx, Ort (Perthite) and Ab (Anti-perthite), respectively, is distinct.
Twinning: Simple twinning with single compositional plane in A-Felds, Pyx,
Amp etc., and polysynthetic twinning with several compositional planes in Plag group is
common.
Sign of Elongation: Variable with length-fast and length-slow minerals. Epi
group shows elongation (FIG. 7.22).
Optic Angle: Variable with 2V ranging 0(Bio)90(some Plag species).

Optic Sign: Variable poitive and negative. Also variable within solid solution
series such as Plag and Oli group.
Intergrowth: Several mineral pairs show interesting intergrowth: Q & A-Feld
graphic; Qua & Plag myrmekitic, and Bio-Pyx or Jad-Zoi symplectic.
Inclusion: Some minerals have abundant inciusions (eg.. Hor) to give sieve
texture.
Alterations: Sometimes characteristic feature to identify the mineral species, eg.
Serp or after Oli or Pyx, Chl after Hor or Bio, pinnite after Cord, Kao after A-Feld
etc.

LECTURE 6 (3 hours): ISOTROPIC AND UNIAXIAL MINERALS

INTRODUCTION
To understand the optic properties of isotropic, uniaxial and biaxial minerals,
distribution of the velocity of light and distribution of RI in the mineral is studied with
the help of RVS's and Indicatrix, respectively.

OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF ISOTROPIC MINERALS

RVS OF ISOTROPIC CRYSTALS
The velocity of light (1/n) is same in all directions in isotropic substances ie.,
gases liquids, amorphous solids; like glass and minerals crysallizing in isometric or cubic
system. Therefore, the RVS, which is defined or described as the surface that forms after
a certain time by the all light rays originating from a source within an isotropic media,
will be a sphere. Here wave fronts will be perpendicular to the ray directions and wave
normals will always be parallel to the direction of propogation (FIG. 6.1). Hence, any
section cut through the RVS of an isotropic substance will produce a circle whose radius
is fixed. Thus, along any section the velocity of light will be fixed, and vibration direction
of light will be same as that of the polarizer ie., E-W. Therefore, if analyzer is in position
there will be no light passing through the ocular. Thus, mineral will remains extinct,
frthermore, at continuous extinction because extinction is continued when the stage is
rotated.
INDICATRIX OF ISOTROPIC CRYSTALS
Since velocity is proportional to l/n , and n remains constant at all directions the
indicatrix will be a sphere with a radius of n (FIG. 6.2). Any section cut through the
indicatrix representing a section cut parallel to that direction of the isotropic mineral will
produce a circle. Since all radii of a circle are equivalent, the indicatrix section indicates
that there will be only one RI=n, and there is no constraint on the orientation of the
vibration direction of the light as it passes through the isotropic material. Hence, the
vibration direction of light ray will remain parallel to that of the lower polaroid, ie., E-W.
Consequently as it is explained above, when light reaches to the analyser, it will
be completely absorbed, and the crystal will be at continuous extinction (FIG. 6.3).
OTHER OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF ISOTROPIC MINERALS
Colour: is important to distinguish various species of isotropic mineral, ie., pale
purple (Flu), dark greeen (Spi), pinkred (Gar) etc.
Relief: very important Hal: low, Flu: moderate, Gar: very high.
RI: very important, ie., Flu<CB, Gar>>CB (TABLE 6.1).
Cleavage: very important in Hal cubic, Flu 3 directions.

Fracture: Gar shows distinct fracture.

Anomalous and Anomalous Extinction: sometimes shown by Gar species
such as Gro-Andr.
Compositional zoning: may be shown by most isotropic minerals. Typical eg.,
Gro-Andr.
Inclusions: may be important as in GarSieve texture.
Alteration: Gar commonly alters along fractures and along edges.

OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF UNIAXIAL MINERALS

INTRODUCTION
Wave front is always perpendicular to the direction of propagation for ordinary
light (), but only perpendicular to the direction of propagation for extra-ordinary light
() in special sections //1 (principle section) or r (basal section) to c-axis. In oblique
sections wave fronts will also be oblique to the direction of propagation (FIG. 6.4).
Hence, wave normal is along the propagation direction for ordinary light, but along the
propagation direction for extra-ordinary light at special sections. Otherwise, it is at an
angle to the propagation direction.
RVS OF UNIAXIAL CRYSTALS
The white light coming from E-W vibrating polarizer is split into two plane
polarized light vibrating in planes perpendicular to each other. 1/ rays vibrate in planes
induding the c-axis, whereas 1/ rays vibrate in planes perpendicular to the c-axis. Along
the c-axis 1/ and 1/ have the same velocity. This unique direction is called the optic
axis, and hence, uniaxial minerals. In uniaxial crystal 1/ is also called ordinary ray,
because its velocity is constant throughout the crystal. Therefore, RVS of ordinary light
is a sphere (FIG. 6.5). On the other hand, the velocity of 1/, which is also called extraordinary ray, changes with respect to the crystallographic axes. Its velocity is equal to
1/ along c-axis or the optic axis, however its velocity increases or decreases vibrating
parallel to c-axis and perpendicular to the horizontal crystallographic axes, where a: a: c
in tetragonal or a: a: a: c in hexagonal crystals. Therefore, the RVS of 1/ is an elliptical
spheroid (FIG. 6.5). If 1/ increases to a maximum value where 1/>1/ the uniaxial
mineral is said to be negative, 1/ is FAST, On the other, hand if 1/ decreases to a
minimum value where l/< the uniaxial mineral is said to be and positive, and 1/ is
SLOW.
Therefore, in uniaxial crystals the RVS is a double surface and can be visualized
as sections cut parallel to c-axis or as a 3-D diagram (FIG. 6.6). As a rule of thumb:
ellipse within a circle means the mineral is positive, while, circle within an ellipse means
the mineral is negative.

INDICATRIX OF UNIAXIAL CRYSTALS

Since there are two principle optical directions there are two RI's of and o. At
sections perpendicular to c-axis ie., at basal sections, two rays have same RI, ie. =.
However, at sections parallel to c-axis, ie., principle sections the value of varies either
> to a maximum value, or < to a minimum value. If > the shape of the elliptical
spheroid is prolate (egg shape) and the mineral is said to be positive. If <) the shape
of the elliptical spheroid is oblate (discus shape) and the mineral is said to be negative
(FIG. 6.7).
ORIENTATION OF MINERAL SECTIONS
There are three different types of sections in uniaxial minerals that have different
optical properties (FIG. 6.8):
Sections cut perpendicular to c-axis: Also known as basal sections. When RVS
and the Indicatrix are considered there are two rays vibrating perpendicular to each
other, but their velocities 1/=1/ and RI's =. Therefore, these sections behave like
isotropic minerals when they are observed with crossed polar and show continuous
extinction. These sections do not show pleochroism. Also as we shalt shortly see, they
are very usefl to determine the optic sign of the uniaxial crystals.
Sections cut parallel to c-axis: Also known as principle sections. Again when
RVS and Indicatrix are considered two rays show maximum difference in velocities
1/> or <1/ or RI's > or <, respectflly. Therefore the sections show maximum
birefringence and parallel extinction, ie. mineral becomes extinct when mineral
outlines or prismatic cleavages are parallel to E-W and N-S directions. These sections are
not useful for optic sign determination.
Sections cut obligue to c-axis: At these sections difference between the velocities
1/ and 1/ and RI's and have intermediate values. They show intermediate
biferingence but show parallel extinction. These sections are also used for optic sign
determination.
OPTIC FIGURE AND DETERMINATION OF OPTIC SIGN
When basal sections which show continuous extinction are observed with
convergent polarized white light (FIG. 6.9), high power objective (conoscopic viewing)
and analyser with Bertrand Lens are in-position, there appears an image of uniaxial optic
figure at the back of objective lens (FIG. 6.10)). The centered uniaxial optic figure
consists of a central block cross, with illuminated quadrants which sometimes show
concentric colour bands. When the stage of microscope is rotated black cross, also called
isogyres (E-W ; N-S) remains stationary. Because the c-axis of the mineral is aligned
parallel to the axis of the microscope. The centre of the isogyre arms crossing indicates
the emergence of the optic axis or c-axis of the uniaxial mineral. Isogyres form due to
annulling effect of and when they become parallel to the E-W polarizers and N-S
analysers polarization planes, as we explain when discussing extinction (FIG. 6.11).
However, within the quadrants and interfere to produce illumination and 1 stnth

order inteference bands which are also called isochromes. The number of interference
bands are related to the birefrigence of the mineral and the thickness of the mineral grain
(FIG. 6.12).
In oblique sections the optic axis of the mineral is not aligned with the axis of the
microscope. Therefore, when the microscope stage is rotated the isogyre arms also rotate.
This is called off-centered figure (FIG. 6.13). In order to determine the position of the
arms again the 2 nd quadrant is chosen, and the procedure is repeated as above to
determine the optic sign.
In principle sections the arms of the isogyres are momentarily observed and
move into the field of view from opposing quadrants and move out rapidiy as the
microscope stage is rotated. This figure is called flash figure and it is not usually used to
determine the optic sign.
Optic sign of the uniaxial mineral is determined by comparing the velocity of l/
as to whether it is FAST or SLOW. The comparison is made with the predetermined
SLOW direction of an accessory plate. There are three accesssory plates with SLOW
direction indicated on them. It is generally perpendicular to its length. The mica-plate
has retardation giving 1st order white (FIG. 6.14a&b), the gypsum-plate has
retardation giving 1 st order red (FIG. 6.15), while quartz-plate (FIG. 6.16)or quartz wedge has variable retardation from 0 to 7 giving 1st to 7th order interference colours. If
the phase difference between 1/ and accesorry plate is constructive, ie., if both are
SLOW-SLOW, respectively, addition of interference colours result; in contrast, if phase
difference is destructive, ie., if FAST-SLOW, respectively, subtraction of interference
colours occur. It is convenient to choose the 2nd quadrant for determination of the optic
sign of the mineral, because in this quadrant 1/ vibrates parallel to NE-SW direction
which is parallel to the SLOW direction of the accessory plate when it is inserted into the
accessory plate slot. If ADDITON occurs when the accessory plate is inserted SLOWSLOW interaction has occurred which shows that the mineral is POSITIVE, vice versa,
if SUBTRUCTION occurs, this shows FAST-SLOW interaction has occurred, hence,
the mineral is NEGATIVE.
When a mica-plate is used isogyres become white and there appears two black
dots on the NW(1 st) and SE(3rd) quadrants if the crystal is positive, or vice versa
(FIG. 6.14a&b).
When a gypsum-plate is used, and if the mineral has several isochromes, isogyres
become red and there appears two black isochromes at the 1st order red isochromes
positions on the NW(1 st) and SE(3rd) quadrants, if the crystal is positive, or vice versa. If
the positive mineral and has low birefringence, again isogyres become red, and NE(2 nd)
and SW(4th) quadrants become blue-green of the 2nd order, while NW(1st) and SE(3rd)
quadrants become yellow of the 1st order (FIG. 6.15).
When a quartz-wedge is used as an accessory plate, upon continuous insertion of
the plate, movement of interference colours result. If the mineral is positive, colours

move-in from NE(2nd) and SW(4th) quadrants towards optic axis, and move-out from
NW(1st) and SE(3rd) quadrants, and vice versa.
SIGN OF ELONGATION
The uniaxial minerals of the tetragonal and hexagonal symmetry are generally
elongated parallel to the c-axis. Therefore, they have elongated principle sections with 1/
ray vibration parallel to the elongation direction.
When elongated crystals are rotated into NE-SW direction under normal
orthoscopic viewing, accessory plate is inserted and its effect on the birefringence of the
mineral surface is determined. Similariy, if ADDITION occurs the mineral is said to
have POSITIVE ELONGATION or it is SLOW-ALONG, vice versa, if
SUBTRACTION occurs the mineral is said to have NEGATIVE ELONGATION or it
is FAST-ALONG.
OTHER OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF UNIAXIAL MINERALS
Shape: Euhedral crystals of tetragonal system may produce square basal and
rectangular elongated prismatic-sections. Euhedral crystals of hexagonal system may
produce triangular (Tou.) or hexagonal (Apa., Qua) basal -and rectangular elongated
prismatic-sections with triangular tips.
Colour: Coloured minerals like Tou show excellent pleochroism in prismatic
principle sections, basal sections show no pleochroism since =.
Cleavage: Cal may show perfect rhombic cleavage.
Parting: Tou and Apa may show parting perpendicular to c-axis.
Relief: Qua has low relief; Apa and Tou moderate relief; while Cal twinkles.
RI: very important most mineral RI>CB
Birefringence: Qua and Apa very low 1st1 order greyish white, Tou low to
moderate 1st order yellow to 2nd order green; Cal very high up to 7th order beige.
Extinction: parallel in prismatic section (FIG. 6.17), Cal may show symmetrical
extinction with respect to rhombic cleavage (FIG. 6.18), most basal sections as in Apa
and Qua show continuous extinction.
Compositional Zoning: Tou may exhibit compositional zoning.
Sign of Elongation: Apa and Tou show characteristic length-fast orientation.
Optic Sign: Qua is positive, and Apa, Tou, Cal are negative.