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Studies of Management & Organization
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Int. Studies ofMgt. & Org.9 Vol. 24, No. 3, pp. 18-35
M.E. Sharpe, Inc., 1994
and Brislin, 1983; Mendenhall and Oddou, 1986; Tung, 1987). However, although there is a substantial literature, mainly from the United
Studies in the 1970s found that, amongst U.S. MNCs, only twothirds provided any training at all (Baker and Ivancevich, 1971) and
less than a quarter provided any formal orientation training (Baker and
Ivancevich, 1971; Lanier, 1979). In the 1980s, a study of the largest
U.S. MNCs found that "only 25 percent offer extensive pre-departure
orientation training programs" (Baliga and Baker, 1985, p. 35). According to Tung (1982), only 32 percent of U.S. companies surveyed
provided training. European and Japanese MNCs did more: 69 percent
among European, and 57 percent among Japanese.
Evidence for European MNCs is rather sparse. There is some evidence that the Europeans did more training in the 1970s and in the
1980s; more than half of Swedish companies provided formal training
(Torbirn, 1982), as did about half of a general survey of European
corporations (Tung, 1982, p. 66).
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training, and nearly all will make arrangements for it "if necessary
Formal training courses were used by nearly half the European MNC
(Brewster, 1988).
Very little is known about the training that is done; but it is encour
aging that nearly all the evidence points in the same direction. The
most important finding here is that training is closely correlated wit
expatriate skills and expatriate performance. Tung (1982) argues that
there is a clear negative correlation between lack of training and expa
triate failure. Statistically, her argument may not be strong, but th
ing on managers from the United States sent to South Korea). However, he found that both documentary and interpersonal approaches
were equally effective.
Tung (1982), Rahim (1983), and Mendenhall and Oddou (1986). The
suggest that the depth of training provided should depend on the task
the environment, and the individual, or on the length of stay, the extent
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of integration into the host culture, and the cultural "difference" of the
host country from the home country.
Hypotheses
The provision of training
Most of the studies (including, for example, Murray and Murray, 1986,
and Brewster, 1991) find that, while companies are often uncertain
about the value of training for expatriate assignments, the expatriates
themselves tend to be more positive. This is not surprising. They are
being put into a new and difficult position, in an environment that they
do not understand, and with great expectations of performance weighing on them. The support implicit in the provision of training, the
opportunity to reflect in a time of turmoil, and the chance to absorb
valuable information should lead us to expect that:
is appropriate for one partner will suit the other. Therefore, we tested
the proposition that:
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Age
Heller (1980) conjectured that the more mature person is more likely to
have the criteria necessary to adjust to working in a foreign environment: experience, ability to do the job, breadth, and broad horizons.
We considered similarly that more mature expatriates are likelier to
H3. Younger expatriates will find the training more valuable than
older expatriates.
Previous expatriate experience
It has been argued that previous expatriate experience will facilitate
adjustment to a new expatriate environment (Church, 1982). Torbirn
(1982), however, found that while previous expatriate work experience
was related to higher level of adjustment, the amount did not seem to
matter: adjustment was not related to the duration of previous experience. Later studies by Black (1988) found that previous overseas work
ates themselves have made this point (Brewster, 1991). This led to
testing the proposition:
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ment. Tung (1987) quotes two to three years for U.S. MNCs and
five or more years for European MNCs; Black (1988) estimates
three to five years; Brewster (1991) found that the "average" varied
with the nationality of the MNC. It is arguable that those assigned
Location
For many companies involved in making international transfers, distinctions between different parts of the world are reflected in the most
explicit of ways, by different payments or salaries. The literature too
reflects this distinction, but goes beyond it to argue that it is the "cultural" distance between home and host culture that creates the problem
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try as playing a major role as a mutual support mechanism: she notes the
We felt that the presence or absence of a significant expatriate community might modify the adjustment processes of expatriates, and thus
modify their perceptions of the training program.
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social activity included host nationals as: (1) almost none with host
nationals, nearly all with other expatriates; (2) 25 percent host nation-
Methodology
This study attempted to test these hypotheses by analyzing participant
responses to a well-established and well-supported expatriation program
being run in the United Kingdom. The courses were run by the Centre for
International Briefing at Famham Castle in southern England.
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The population for this study was a sample of 690 expatriates (and
their spouses) who attended courses between 1988 and 1992. The
sample was not entirely random, but consisted of all course members
whose employing organization was able to provide a forwarding address for the expatriate. We have no reason to believe that this sample
is uncharacteristic of the population as a whole.
Two questionnaires were designed, one to be answered by the expatriate and one to be answered by the spouse. In many cases, the ques-
Response rate
Of the 690 questionnaires sent out, 251 expatriate questionnaires were
returned for a response rate of 36 percent. One hundred and sixty-four
Population characteristics
The majority of responding course members were male (95 percent),
married (80 percent), British (82 percent; 14 percent were from elsewhere in Europe), and in full-time employment with their sponsoring
organization when selected for the international assignment (95 percent). While course members' ages generally ranged from 25 to 55, the
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Frequencies, means, and standard deviations of the variables characterizing expatriates, spouses, and their expatriate environments are displayed in Table 1. Correlations between these variables are displayed
First (HI), expatriates and their partners are very positive about the
value of this kind of preparation prior to the assignment. Murray and
Murray (1986) suggest that information briefings make little difference
selves believe firmly that such briefings have helped them in their
assignments.
Expatriates and their partners (H2) tended to be almost equally positive about the program, although there was some variation with regard
Expatriates were divided into three age groups; under 30, 30-39,
over 39. There were no significant differences between the responses
of these age groups (H3).
Expatriates were asked whether this was their first expatriate assignment or they had previous expatriate experience. They were also asked
to list their most recent six expatriate assignment destinations and du-
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Table 1
Personal and environmental variables
Frequency Percentage
Age of the expatriate ("Age")
Stddev: 0.5
Returned
76
30
StdDev.:0.55
("Em
4 years 40 1 7
5 years or over 1 1 5
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Table 3
Expatriate
Small
2
19
cases
Medium
12
14
14
cases
Large
54
28
cases
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ity with host nationals" modified spouse responses to six of the same
twelve questions: the two variables, however, tended to influence different responses so that, between them, nine of the twelve responses
were modified by these two variables.
The interaction of these two variables, then, appears to be as follows: larger expatriate communities lead to lower levels of interaction
We propose that:
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Large
Mutual
support
expatriate
community
Reports
I "Helpful"
expatriate
community
spouses find it comparatively easy to adjust to the host environment. This easy adjustment also leads them to determine
the program to have been "very helpful" or "helpful."
Small expatriate communities will be less able to provide support to the newly arrived spouse, and will have less scope for
isolating the spouse from the host environment. If social interaction with host nationals is possible and is accepted by the
spouse, then this interaction may provide a significant measure
of support and assistance in adjusting to the new environment.
The process of adjustment is, however, likely to be more difficult than it would have been in a location having a significant
expatriate community. A spouse in this situation, therefore,
may have some difficulty in adjusting to the host environment.
This will be reflected back in their attitude to the training,
which they will judge as having been less successful in helping
them to adjust.
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tered: it is usually the husband's job that is the raison d'tre for the
family's stay abroad. His associates and companions in the sponsoring
organization define the context within which social relationships and
friendship circles are established. Second, while the husband's role is
continuous, it is the wife who must transfer family life to the new
surroundings, build new friendships, and deal with issues of health and
schools. Furthermore, the role of the wife is likely to change: working
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This research program has shown that expatriates and their partners are
ates and (possibly to a greater extent) their spouses adjust to the host
environment. While cross-cultural training may simply assist an al-
ready easy adjustment process for expatriates and spouses who are
supported by a significant expatriate community, a higher degree of
cross-cultural training may be required for expatriates and spouses
assigned to locations having a limited expatriate community in order to
enable them to utilize better the assistance and support of host nationals to ease their adjustment into the new environment.
References
Baker, J.C., and Ivancevich, J.M. "The Assignment of American Executives
Abroad: Systematic, Haphazard or Chaotic?" California Management Review,
13, 3 (1971): 39-44.
Baliga, G.M., and Baker, J.C. "Multinational Corporate Policies for Expatriate
(1985): 31-38.
Black, J.S. "Work Role Transitions: A Study of American Expatriate Managers in
Japan." Journal of International Business Studies, 19 (1985): 277-294.
(1990): 119-134.
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Gullahom, J.T., and Gullahom, J.E. "An Extension of the U-Curve Hypot
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Harris, P.R., and Harris, D.L. "Intercultural Education for International Managers." International and Intercultural Communications Annual, 3 (1976): 7085.
Lanier, A.R. "Selecting and Preparing Personnel for Overseas Transfers." Personnel Journal, 58,3 (1979): 106-163.
Laurent, A. "The Cultural Diversity of Western Conceptions of Management."
International Studies of Management and Organization, 13, 1-2 (1983): 7596.
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Murray, F., and Murray, A. "Global Managers for Global Business." Sloan Management Review. 27. 2 986): 75-78.
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