1

JA N UA RY 2 012

ENG AGING
T HE A D OL E S C EN T L E A RNER

2012 International Reading Association

BYDOUG L A S FISHE R A N D N A N C Y F RE Y

d
n
a
y
t
i
x
e
l
p
m
o
Text C
s
g
n
i
d
a
e
R
e
s
Clo

These sources, while not without

value, cannot capture the nuance,
subtlety, depth, or breadth of ideas
developed through complex text.
(CCSS, 2010, Appendix A, p. 4)

he advent of the Common

Core State Standards (CCSS)
for English Language Arts is
drawing renewed attention to the
characteristics and uses of texts,
both print and digital, in secondary
classrooms. The CCSS, which
have been adopted by 45 states
and the District of Columbia as of
December 2011, are intended to
articulate a shared set of standards
in order to foster communication,
collaboration, and assessment among
educators across the nation. The
English Language Arts portion of
the standards call for a coordinated
effort of literacy instruction in English,
science, history/social sciences, and
technical subjects.
Overall, the CCSS challenge us to
think about how we teach students
across the disciplines. The developers
intent to formulate standards that
are fewer, clearer, and higher (Bill
and Melinda Gates Foundation, 2010)
is designed to illuminate a pathway
to college and career. The ELA
standards call for teaching students

how to understand the vocabulary of

their disciplines, to collaborate with
fellow learners, and to communicate
through discussion and writing. Much
of this learning emanates from the
texts used in each discipline, including
scientific studies, essays, speeches,
technical documents, and narrative
forms. Of special note is the topic of
text complexity and its implications for
curriculum and instruction:
Being able to read complex text
independently and proficiently
is essential for high achievement
in college and the workplace
and important in numerous life
tasks. Moreover, current trends
suggest that if students cannot
read challenging texts with
understandingif they have not
developed the skill, concentration,
and stamina to read such texts
they will read less in general. In
particular, if students cannot read
complex expository text to gain
information, they will likely turn to
text-free or text-light sources, such
as video, podcasts, and tweets.

It is essential to note here that

increasing students ability to read the
complex texts of a discipline should
not be misinterpreted as pass and
pray in essence, pass out hard
books and pray for the best. As
Allington (2002) stated, you cant
learn much from books you cant
read (p. 16). In order to steadily build
students capacity for comprehending
complex texts, teachers must carefully
scaffold these reading experiences. As
well, knowing the characteristics of
a text, and of the learner, are critical
to being able to accurately identify
what a complex text is. In this column,
we examine the nature of texts and
of the learners who read them. In
addition, we discuss how scaffolded
instruction can increase learners
ability to comprehend the texts
deeply.

What Makes a
Text Complex?
Observe shoppers at a bookstore or
library and youll get an idea of the
array of techniques they use to size
up a text to determine if its right for
them. Some will read the back cover
or fan the pages to eye the font size.
Others will turn the book sideways to
see how thick it is. Some will turn to
the table of contents or the index to
gain a sense of its contents. A smaller
proportion will read the introduction
in an effort to decide whether it
meets their needs. These techniques,
however informal, encapsulate the
array of tools used to determine the
complexity of a text. These include
quantitative measures related to the
words and sentences, the qualitative
factors surrounding the content,
and the unique characteristics of

the reader and his or her purpose for

reading.
Quantitative Factors. As humans,
we gravitate toward numbers. Assign
a grade level or other quantitative
measure to a text and were good to
go. After all, that number allows us to
rapidly determine whether it is right for
our students or not. But how did it get
there?
Most quantitative readability formulas,
including familiar ones such as the
Fry (Fry, 2002), the Dale-Chall (Chall
& Dale,1995), and the Flesch-Kincaid
(Flesch,1948), rely on varying algorithms
that factor word length and frequency
of use in English, number of syllables,
and sentence length. This approach to
calculating readability has existed since
the mid-twentieth century. Even newer
readability formulas, such as those used
by Lexile (Smith, Stenner, Horabin, &
Smith, 1989) and Degrees of Reading
Power (Koslin, Zeno, & Koslin, 1987)
rely on these relatively straightforward
methods of measuring a text. However,
these formulas rely on the surface
qualities of a text and do not provide

information about the content or the

way in which the ideas that are built
across the text hang together, a factor
called coherence.
Most teachers have learned through
experience that quantitative factors,
although informative, do not go far
enough to provide the kind of guidance
needed to select text. I remember
my first year of teaching. I was at the
middle school, said seventh grade
social studies teacher Mae-Ling Yung.
I had to set up my classroom pretty
quick, so I went to the bookroom at the
school and just started pulling books
that said Grade 7 on the spine. But
as I started using them, she said, I
realized that some were much too easy
for my students, while others were just
ridiculously difficult. I learned my lesson
that yearI need to read it to figure out
whether its right for us or not.
Ms. Yungs frustration with her
method of selecting texts highlights
the limitations of relying on only one
element of a texts characteristics:
Ignore content, the reader, and the
task at ones own peril. Those who

advocate for the use of readability

formulas like those mentioned above
also provide a similar caution and advise
that such quantitative measures should
be used to initially screen a text, but
only in conjunction with other ways of
assessing a texts suitability (Gunning,
2003). The qualitative factors related to
content, levels of meaning and purpose,
text structure and organization, and
even the presence of visual supports,
contribute to a texts complexity.
Qualitative Factors. The appeal of
quantitative factors is in the ease of
calculation, made all the more efficient
through the use of computers and
digital texts. But qualitative measures
need a human being to assess them;
they cant be measured in the same
way as quantitative methods allow for
(CCSS, 2010). Qualitative factors include
the following:

Content analysisAlthough the

readability measure on a text may
be relatively low, the content can
be quite challenging. One of our
favorite examples is Kurt Vonneguts
Cats Cradle (1998). The authors
unique style using short sentences
punctuated by longer ones, as well
as lots of dialogue and poetry, results
in an elementary-level readability,
but the science fiction novels deeply
satirical commentary on war, the
coming apocalypse, and spies would
elude a child, and in fact would
challenge older ones as well.

Levels of meaning and purpose

Well use Vonneguts novel again to
illustrate this factor. On the surface,
the Cats Cradle is an entertaining
tale about a chase for a valuable
substance that can turn water solid at
room temperature. But its reputation
as one of the most important novels
of the 20th century is not due the
authors ability to weave a good
yarn. Vonnegut likely had more
subversive intentions when he wrote
the book, especially in offering biting

commentary on the roles of religion

and technology in a society. Without
an understanding of the time it was
published (at the height of the Cold
War) and its references to historical
events (such as the development of
the atomic bomb and the bombing
of Hiroshima and Nagasaki), a reader
would not discern the authors more
subtle messages.

Text structure and organization

Most texts use text structures

that allow the reader to follow a

plot (narrative), gain information
(informational), or be persuaded
(expository). These structures include
problem and solution, chronological
order, cause and effect, and compare
and contrast. In addition, some
texts, especially narrative pieces, rely
on dramatic structures including
exposition, rising and falling action,
climax, and denouement. Texts
are generally a bit easier to read
when they include more signal

How Do Texts Differ Across the

Disciplines?
By the time students enter middle school, the texts they use in
their core and elective courses differ widely from one another.
In elementary school, portions of their science and social studies
texts drew on their knowledge of narrative to explain concepts,
such as telling about the Oregon Trail from the perspective of a
child. But these texts become far more specialized in secondary
classrooms. Fang and Schleppegrell (2010) describe features of
discipline-specific texts:
Science: Technical vocabulary and dense sentences that require
the reader to draw on multiple concepts simultaneously. For
example: Eukaryotic cells also have a variety of subcellular
structures called organelles, well-defined, intracellular bodies
that perform specific functions for the cell. (Modern Biology,
2006, p. 75, cited in Fang & Schleppegrell, 2011, pp. 588589).
History/Social Science: Nominalizations (nouns derived from
adjectives and verbs) that reference abstract ideas, and the
presence of evaluative judgments. For example,
In retrospect, the Volstead Act was hopelessly inadequate,
because it grossly underestimated the willingness of the
lawbreakers to risk conviction, the degree of human ingenuity
displayed to get around its provisions, and the ease with
which the lawbreakers would be able to subvert all those
whose job was to enforce it. (Behr, 1996, cited in Fang &
Schleppegrell, 2011, p. 589)
Mathematics: Math texts switch between both natural
language and mathematical language and symbols, requiring
readers to make similar shifts in the grammars of both. Consider
this word problem: If a rectangular solid has side, front and
bottom faces with areas of 2x, y/2 and xy cm2 respectively, what
is the volume of the solid in centimeters cubed? (problem 33,
cited in Fang & Schleppegrell, 2011, p. 590).

words that alert the reader to a

structure, such as first, next, and
finally in a chronologically ordered
text. Organizational features such
as headings and subheadings make
the reading easier. In addition,
texts that provide examples,
embedded definitions, and extended
descriptions are usually a bit easier to
understand than those that assume
high levels of prior knowledge on the
part of the reader.

Visual supportsIt isnt the mere

presence or absence of visual
supports like photographs, diagrams,
and charts that makes a text more
or less difficult. If it were, we could
simply flip through the pages of a
book and be done with it. But visual
supports that are closely tied to the
main part of the text can be helpful.
For example, a science passage on
the rock cycle can become easier
to understand if accompanied by
a clear, accurate illustration that
closely matches what is offered in
the text. If, however, the same great
illustration is only briefly referenced
in the passage, it is less helpful.
Conversely, an ill-designed chart in a
mathematics textbook can make the
main part of the text more confusing,
not less.
Just as a qualitative examination of a
text to determine its appropriateness
requires an expert eye, so does
inspection of the reader. Each student
brings a host of strengths and areas
of need to a text, and these variables
further influence their understanding
of it. These factors specific to the
reader include language proficiency,
background knowledge and
experiences, and level of motivation.
The Reader. Every time we read,
we bring a host of experiences,
knowledge, and opinions to the text.
In turn, the text acts upon us as we
read to further evoke and inform those
experiences. Rosenblatt (1978) called

this transaction and noted that

the reciprocal relationship between
the reader and the text influences
its understanding. Although widely
accepted today, it was a revolutionary
stance when Rosenblatt first proposed
this in the early twentieth century,
when the primary role of the reader
was limited to correctly interpreting
what the author meant. These
unique factors, once believed to be
unimportant, have taken center stage
in the ensuing decades. Today, it would
be unthinkable to fail to consider
language, knowledge, experiential, and
motivational factors when considering
a text.

Language proficiency factors

Students identified as English
learners do additional cognitive work
because they must attend both to
the message of the text and to the
necessary cognitive resources needed
to make sense of a text written in
a less familiar language. In similar
fashion, students with learning
or reading disabilities must use
compensatory resources to process

text efficiently. We find it helpful to

think of all our students as language
learners; that is, learners of the
language of the discipline. All readers
must tackle unfamiliar vocabulary
and rhetorical structures that can
make a text more difficult.

Background knowledge factors

Formal academic learning acquired
by a reader affects his or her ability
to understand the text. Formal
knowledge includes the academic
knowledge needed to correctly
interpret the reading. In evaluating
a text, it is helpful to consider
what background knowledge is
core to the reading, and what is
incidental. A challenge is that while
we want students to have adequate
background knowledge, we dont
want to frontload this to the point
where the reading itself becomes
unnecessary. For example, a working
knowledge of the racial relations in
the American South of the 1930s
is core background knowledge for
understanding To Kill a Mockingbird
(Harper Lee, 1960), while knowledge

Whats Core and Whats Incidental

Background Knowledge?
Its essential to determine what is core background knowledge
which may need to be taught in advance of a readingand what
is incidental and can therefore be allowed to emerge during and
even after the reading. We rely on a series of four questions to
allow us to identify each:
1. Representation: Is it essential?
2. Transmission: Can it be easily explained, or must it be taught?
3. Transferability: Will it be used for future understanding?
4. Endurance: What will be remembered after the details are
forgotten? (Fisher & Frey, 2009, p. 36).
Identification of core background knowledge necessary for a
reading also guides the development of questions we ask during
the discussion of the text. By checking for understanding in this
way, we can also locate students who may not have the presumed
background knowledge needed, allowing us to fill in the gaps
through subsequent instruction.

of the fashions of the time is

incidental and not necessary to
address in great detail. This is not
to say that incidental background
knowledge is unimportant; Lee
details how characters are dressed as
a way of describing their social and
economic status, and class conflict
is a theme in the novel. However,
instruction prior to the reading is not
needed, as it can be easily addressed
during it.

The readers experiencesClosely

related to the academic knowledge
needed to bring to a reading are
the collective experiences a student
has had. Variance in experiences
may include economic, social,
familial, and individual factors and
are undoubtedly present in every
classroom. When it comes to a
reading, these experiences should
be taken into account. These
may involve the whole class, as in
U.S. History, where virtually every
student lacks the experience of a
society without child labor laws
and therefore cant draw on this
to understand the need for legal
changes in the Progressive Era.
At other times, it is situational, as
with a student whose own life
experiences have not adequately
prepared her to understand the
familial responsibilities felt by Tom
Joad in The Grapes of Wrath (Joseph
Steinbeck, 1939).

The readers motivationThe

intrinsic interest a reader brings to a
text can make it accessible in ways
that defy conventional measures
of ability. We recall a time when
one of our students, a survivor of
political persecution in an African
nation, devoured A Long Way Gone:
Memoirs of a Boy Soldier (Ishmael
Beah, 2008). His motivation to read
an autobiographical recounting of
forced conscription in Sierra Leones
civil war trumped his nascent skills as
an English language learner. It is also

Text

Going Through Changes

(Photo of pancakes)

At a dinner table, a cook is

making pancakes. He mixes
together an egg, milk, and
flour into a batter. When the
batter is placed on the griddle,
it becomes solid and golden
brown.
The batter has had a chemical
change. All the atoms of
the original ingredients are
still in the batter. But the
griddles heat has arranged
those atoms in a different
pattern. Like the pancake
batter, many substances go
through chemical changes.
These changes can break
down complex substances
into simpler parts. Or they can
join simple parts into complex
substances.

It usually takes energy to

combine substances in a
chemical reaction. This
kind of reaction is called an
endothermic reaction.

Teacher commentary during the think-aloud

As I look over this piece of text, I see a photo of
pancakes cooking on a griddle. Some are golden
brown and others are still a beige batter color. The
title of this reading is Going Through Changes. I
wonder if the pancakes, some uncooked and others
fully done, represent changes at a chemical level. Ill
read the first paragraph.

Strategies modeled/
practiced
Predicting and using titles
and graphics provides
focus and motivation to
read further.

So the cooking batter does represent chemical

changes. I see from reading these paragraphs that
chemical changes involve substances breaking down
and substances joining together.
I think the next section will tell me about how this
process of breaking down and building up occurs.
Do you have any ideas? (Maria listens as the
students share a few possibilities.)
Janette, a student in Marias class, responds,
Maybe the next section will talk about molecules
being broken down or atoms being joined
together.
Dave adds, Yes, I remember when I was in 8th
grade we talked about how salt molecules are
broken down when salt is added to water. Maria
then continues. OK, lets read on to see if were
correct.
An endothermic reaction. Wow, Im not sure what
that means, but I do know that thermic sounds like
a word part from thermometer or thermal and both
of those terms relate to heat.
Maybe endothermic also relates to heat in some
way. Ill continue to read. Maybe Ill gain an
understanding of the meaning of this word if I read
on.

The prediction is confirmed

by reading the text.
Note that sometimes
the prediction is refuted
after reading the text.
Afterward, the main
ideas are identified by
summarizing a few lines of
the text, which is followed
by another prediction
based on the text just read.

Segmenting words into

word parts brings attention
to root words or affixes
that might offer clues
to meaning. In addition,
understanding that
clarification might come
from context or from
continued reading.

For example, heat was needed

to turn the batter into a
pancake.

I guess I was rightendothermic does relate to

heat.

Again, confirmation of a
prediction, in this case of
a words meaning, may be
confirmed or refuted by
reading upcoming text.

If iron and powdered sulfur

were mixed together, nothing
would happen. But apply heat
to those combined substances
and you would form iron
sulfide. This is an entirely new
substance.

So heat added to a mixture can cause a new

substance to form. Interesting. Maybe endothermic
means that heat is added.

Synthesizes and restates

examples offered in the
text can help the reader to
infer word meaning.

From You can read this textIll show you how: Interactive comprehension instruction, by D. Lapp, D. Fisher, and M. Grant, 2008, Journal
of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 51(5), 372382. Copyright 2008 by the International Reading Association. Reprinted with permission.
Note: Quotes from TIME and Teacher Created Materials (1993).

FIGURE 1

Sample Teacher Modeling in Physics

likely that his experiences provided

him with a deeper understanding of
the authors message.
The quantitative and qualitative
measures of a text, as well as the
characteristics of the reader must be
taken into consideration when selecting
a complex piece. These factors should
further inform the design of the task
itself. After all, a text is just ink on
a page (or an image on a screen)
until a reader interacts with it. These
interactions are realized through the
tasks we design.

Five Ways to
Ensure a Task
Will Work or Fail
McRae and Guthrie (2009)
summarized the research on the
relationship between task design
and student motivation to read.
These conditions are essential to
keep in mind when considering
the kinds of tasks students will
be engaged in when reading and
discussing complex texts. First,
the instruction practices that
impact motivation positively:
1. Relevance
2. Choice
3. Success
4. Collaboration
5. Thematic units
And the five practices to avoid
because they have a negative
effect:
1. Non-relevance
2. Excessive control
3. Difficult lessons
4. Frequent individual work
5. Disconnected units

The Task. Reading complex texts is

not supposed to be a private affair
readings should be punctuated with
teacher modeling and think-alouds,
collaborative learning in the company of
peers, and discussion propelled through
text-based questions.

Teacher-led tasks provide students

with insight into how the text is
understood by an expert in the
discipline: you! This is accomplished
through modeling, especially when
students, after reading the passage
themselves, get to hear how you
read the text. Prosodic reading,
the smooth, fluent, and expressive
oral reading of a text, promotes
comprehension for them. They
get to hear how you pronounce
words, use phrase boundaries,
and apply intonation, as an active
reader who is making meaning
while reading. Of course, this is
much more effective when you have
read the passage several times in
advance. In addition, think-alouds
(Davey, 1983) give students insight
into how you use your background
knowledge, resolve problems when
comprehension breaks down, or
solve an unfamiliar word or phrase.
Figure 1 contains a sample of a
physics teachers think-aloud as she
read a passage from a science article
(Lapp, Fisher, & Grant, 2008).

Collaboration with peers offers

students the opportunity to further
clarify their understanding of
complex text. Simple instructional
routines such as Think-Pair-Square
(Kagan, Kagan, & Kagan, 1997)
allow students to discuss the text
first with a partner, then with
another pair of students as a group
of four. Of course, the conversation
needs to have parameters so that
it is an enriching experience and
not merely a chance to socialize
for a few minutes. By teaching
discussion-based strategies such
as accountable talk (Michaels,

OConnor, & Resnick, 2008),

students can learn to apply
elements of argumentation in
order to reach deeper levels of
understanding in the company
of peers. (More information
about fostering discussion in the
classroom can be found in the June
2011 issue of this column, The First
20 Days: Establishing Productive
Group Work in the Classroom.)

Text-based questions are designed

to encourage students to return
to the reading in order to locate
information. An intended outcome
of this approach is to cause students
to engage in multiple readings
of a piecea necessity when
considering a complex text. We use
the Question-Answer Relationship
framework (Raphael, 1986) to move
students from the literal level of
meaning to inferential levels, where
students can apply critical and
creative thinking skills. QAR describes
four types of questions.
1. Right There questions ask for
information using the question
stem itself to locate the answer,
usually within a single sentence.
2. Think and Search questions are
also at the literal level, but require
the reader to compile the answer
across several sentences or
paragraphs.
3. Author and You questions require
students to use their inferential
skills as they pair information from
the text with their background
knowledge.
4. On Your Own questions invite
students to formulate opinions
based on their experiences as well
as what they have learned from
the text.
Woven through these experiences
are opportunities for discussion and

June 6, 1944
Soldiers, Sailors and Airmen of the Allied Expeditionary Force!
You are about to embark upon the Great Crusade, toward which we have striven these many months.
The eyes of the world are upon you. The hopes and prayers of liberty-loving people everywhere march
with you. In company with our brave Allies and brothers-in-arms on other Fronts, you will bring about the
destruction of the German war machine, the elimination of Nazi tyranny over the oppressed peoples of
Europe, and security for ourselves in a free world.
Your task will not be an easy one. Your enemy is well trained, well equipped and battle hardened. He will
fight savagely.
But this is the year 1944! Much has happened since the Nazi triumphs of 1940-41. The United Nations
have inflicted upon the Germans great defeats, in open battle, man-to-man. Our air offensive has
seriously reduced their strength in the air and their capacity to wage war on the ground. Our Home
Fronts have given us an overwhelming superiority in weapons and munitions of war, and placed at our
disposal great reserves of trained fighting men. The tide has turned! The free men of the world are
marching together to Victory!
I have full confidence in your courage and devotion to duty and skill in battle. We will accept nothing less
than full Victory!
Good luck! And let us beseech the blessing of Almighty God upon this great and noble undertaking.
SIGNED: Dwight D. Eisenhower
From D-day statement to soldiers, sailors, and airmen of the Allied Expeditionary Force, 6/44, Collection DDE-EPRE: Eisenhower, Dwight D:
Papers, Pre-Presidential, 1916-1952; Dwight D. Eisenhower Library; National Archives and Records Administration.

FIGURE 2

General Dwight D. Eisenhowers D-Day Invasion Statement to Troops

composition. In the next section, we will

detail how these tasks are organized
into a process called close reading.

Building Capacity
Through Close
Reading
The practice of close reading is not
a new one, and in fact has existed
for many decades as the practice of
reading a text for a level of detail not
used in everyday reading. The purpose
is to build the habits of readers as
they engage with the complex texts
of the discipline and to build their
stamina and skills for being able to

do so independently. However, close

reading doesnt mean that you simply
distribute a complex reading and then
exhort them to read it again and again
until they understand it. This is likely to
provoke exactly the kind of negative
reaction McRae and Guthrie (2009)
cautioned against in their examination
of tasks that motivate and detract
from learning. Instead, close reading
should be accompanied by purposeful,
scaffolded instruction about the
passage.
Select Short, Worthy Passages.
Because close readings can be timeconsuming, it is often best to select
shorter pieces of text for instruction.

In Figure 2 and Figure 3, you will find

two short pieces from General Dwight
D. Eisenhower, both written just before
the launch of the D-Day operation in
June 1944. (Digital images of these
primary source documents can be
retrieved at http://ourdocuments.gov/
doc.php?flash=true&doc=75 and www.
archives.gov/education/lessons/d-daymessage/ respectively).
U.S. History teacher Melissa West
selected both of these for a close
reading so her students could
better understand the uncertainty
of success and the risk of failure. I
want them to see that leadership in
war is extraordinarily difficult, and

June 5, 1944
Our landings in the Cherbourg have failed to gain a satisfactory foothold and I have withdrawn the
troops. My decision to attack at this time and place was based upon the best information available. The
troops, the air and the Navy did all that Bravery and devotion to duty could do. If any blame or fault
attaches to the attempt it is mine alone.
From Dwight D. Eisenhower Library Pre-Presidential Papers. Principal File: Butcher Diary, 1942-1945. ARC Identifier: 186470.

FIGURE 3

Eisenhowers Draft Statement in Event of the Operations Failure

that our historical rear-view mirror

glances dont always let us see the
contemporary issues of the day, she
said. She selected the letter General
Eisenhower wrote to the Allied troops
as they embarked on this mission. But
tellingly, he also drafted a message to
be delivered in the event the operation
failed.
Design the Lesson so Students Reread. These two readings are not very
long, and I know their tendency is going
to be to read them quickly and move
on, Ms. West said. I want to make
sure they stay with these two readings,
and take the time to compare the
differences in the messages. Therefore
she has designed the overall lesson to
encourage students to read the texts
several times. I prepare my questions
in advance so I can remember to ask
them for information they need from
the reading, she said. In addition, she
has constructed a series of tasks that
will require them to read the messages
at least three times.
Ask Students to Read With a
Pencil. After introducing the two
pieces to her students to set the
context, Ms. West asked them to read
both over independently. Importantly,
she did not draw their attention to
the dates, or tell them about how
they revealed Eisenhowers internal
conflict. Its important that they see
the struggle leaders must confront,
especially in having to keep these

struggles fairly private, she said.

Instead, she asks them to annotate the
text, or as she puts it, to read with a
pencil, reminding them to circle words
or phrases that are powerful, and to
underline those that are confusing
(For more information on annotating
text, please see the December 2011
Members Only column, Notetaking and
Notemaking For Academic Success).
For the next several minutes, her
students read silently and mark the text.
Ms. West also has two students with
disabilities that make it difficult for them
to read the text independently; they
listen to a podcast version of the two
readings she made for them as they
follow along.
Remind Students to Note
Confusions. As she examines her
students notes, she finalizes her
decisions about the modeling and
thinking-aloud she will do next.
I already have a draft plan of my
think aloud prepared, but I find that
sometimes their confusions vary from
one period to the next. Wanting to
be sure she gets a clearer idea of any
difficulties they might have, she then
leads a short discussion about their
impressions, initial observations, and
confusions.
Model the Text. Id like you to
follow along as I read through these
two pieces, Ms. West tells them. Im
going to read it twice. The first time,

Im going to read it straight through,

with no interruptions. The second time,
Im going to tell you about what Im
thinking as I read it. She begins by
reading Eisenhowers message to the
Allied troops, then the draft message
written in the event the invasion was a
failure.
The second time, she thought aloud.
After reaching the fourth sentence
of the first text, she remarked, Im
noticing how hes using inspirational
language in the first part of this
message. Hes got an exclamation mark
in the title, which is unusual, and in the
first sentence he references the Great
Crusade. Right away Im reminded of
what I know about the Crusades of
the Middle Ages, and their belief that
they were eliminating evil, or at least a
Christian version of it, from the Earth.
She continues reading aloud, noting the
use of exclamation marks throughout
the text. Publicly, he seemed very
enthusiastic and confident, and he used
that in this message, she concluded.
She then turns her attention to the
second piece, reading it all the way
through. Its so much shorter than
the first message, she says, only four
sentences long. Im also seeing that
even though its written by the same
man, hes not using any exclamation
marks this time. Im wondering if that
same confidence isnt there. She now
places both pieces of text side by side
on the document camera. Wow, now

10

Think and Search questions for

Reading 2: Does Eisenhower use
similar words and phrases in this
message? (Only oneBravery and
devotion to duty)

Author and You question for

Im noticing the datesa day apart.

She continues, Im really struck by the
very different tones of these messages,
both written about the same time.
Discuss the Text. Turning her attention
to the class, Ms. West invites discussion,
but she knows that it is often richer
when her students have an opportunity
to first talk with peers in small groups.
Id like for you to talk about your initial
impressions of these two readings with
your table groups, and listen to theirs,
she tells them. As they talk, she visits
several groups to listen to conversations,
then calls the class back together. So
lets talk about this, she says. After
each table shares summaries of their
conversations, she transitions to textdependent questions to cause them to
analyze the messages more closely.
Ask Text Dependent Questions.
Using a Question-Answer Relationships
framework (Raphael, 1986) as a guide,
she moves students from text-explicit
to text-implicit questions. She prepared
both the questions and possible
answers in advance so she could steer
their attention as needed to evidence in
the text. Ive got them understanding

that they need to be able to support

their assertions with evidence, she
said. But unless I know where that
evidence is, its really difficult for me to
be able to teach toward the underlying
patterns in the text.

Right There questions for Reading

1: Who is Eisenhower addressing?
(Allied troops) What was the goal
of the invasion? (the destruction
of the German War machine, the
elimination of Nazi tyranny, and
security for ourselves)

Right There questions for Reading

2: What event does Eisenhower
describe? (withdrawal of the troops)
Who does he fault? (himself)

Think and Search questions for

Reading 1: What words and phrases
does he use to evoke religious images
and ideology? (Great Crusade,
prayers, devotion, beseech the
blessing of Almighty God) What
words and phrases does he use to
inspire the troops as a righteous
mission? (liberty-loving people, free
men of the world, great and noble
undertaking)

Reading 1: Ikes message to the

troops acknowledges the difficulty
of the mission, but assures them
that they will be triumphant. In
what ways does he accomplish this?
(He describes the fierceness of the
enemy, the defeats and setbacks
earlier in the war. But he also reminds
them that there have been many
victories since then. In addition, he
reminds them of the support at
home and in the collective strength
of a multi-national response. He
also tells them of their skill, bravery,
and training) Why is it essential that
the general of the Allied Forces
acknowledges both? (If he doesnt,
the troops might feel that he is not
realistic, and does not understand the
complexity of the invasion, and result
in undermining their confidence
in their leader. Their confidence in
him and his judgment is essential to
completing a successful mission.)

Author and You questions for

Reading 2: Eisenhowers tone is very
different in the second message.
What is the tone? (His tone is terse
and gets to the point. He doesnt
blame anyone and places all fault
on himself, even though many
others were involved). Why is this an
appropriate tone for a defeat? (As
a military general, it is important for
him to demonstrate his leadership in
defeat as well as in victory. Anyone
can be triumphant; fewer are able
to face defeat publicly in order to
maintain his respect for his troops,
demonstrate courage, and accept
blame.)
The previous questions require students
to shift their focus from one reading
to the other. With these last questions,

11

Ms. West wants them to compare and

contrast both documents in order to
draw conclusions about the man who
wrote them, and the circumstances that
prompted both.

On Your Own questions for both

readings: General Eisenhower

wrote both of these messages
within hours of one another. What
conclusions can you draw about a
man who must entertain two very
different beliefs simultaneously? (His
leadership abilities were extraordinary
in being able to exhort his troops
before battle, while at the same
time understanding the very real
possibility that it might result in
an awful defeat. It is likely that
his pragmatic assessment of both
possible outcomes is reflective of the
care he had for his troops, as well as
the great responsibility he carried on
his shoulders. At the same time, it
was necessary for him to be toughminded and decisive. These traits are
essential for military command.)

After this close reading of the two

documents and discussion of these

questions, Ms. Wests students are

ready to write. In the remaining time
in the period, her American History
students use evidence from both
of these documents to address the
following question:
The US Army lists twelve
responsibilities of every military
leader. Among them are the
following:

Ensure the physical, moral,

personal, and professional
wellbeing of subordinates.

Effectively communicate vision,

purpose, and direction.

Build discipline while inspiring

motivation, confidence,
enthusiasm, and trust in
subordinates.

(US Army, 2007, p. 6).

In what ways do these two
messages demonstrate General
Eisenhowers commitment to his
responsibilities? Be sure to use
evidence from both texts to support
your claims.
As a US History teacher, its important
that I use primary source documents
so that students can witness history
unfolding. Sometimes they view this
only as being about events in the
past, without fully appreciating the
complexities of the moment, she
said. I hope that these experiences
with close readings of text allow them
to place themselves in the context of
the times to more fully appreciate the
uncertainty of the moment.

Conclusion

Anticipate and manage change

and be able to act quickly and
decisively under pressure.

Treat subordinates with dignity,

respect, fairness, and consistency.

The factors that make a text complex

include quantitative and qualitative
measures, including content, cohesion,
and organization. In turn, both the
reader and the task must be considered
in making these determinations.
Importantly, text differs across
disciplines, and many students are
not equipped to engage in deep
understanding of the readings that
define a content area. The practice of
close reading invites students to read
repeatedly and is guided by discussion
of text-dependent questions. When
practices such as close reading are
consistently implemented across
content areas, students become better
equipped to handle more difficult texts.

12

R EF ER EN C E S

Douglas Fisher and Nancy Frey

Allington, R.L. (2002). You cant learn much from books

you cant read. Educational Leadership, 60(3), 1619.
Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. (2010). Fewer, clearer,
higher: Moving forward with consistent, rigorous
standards for all students. Retrieved January 10, 2012,
from http://www.gatesfoundation.org/highschools/
Documents/fewer-clearer-higher-standards.pdf
Chall, J.S., & Dale, E. (1995). Manual for the new DaleChall readability formula. Cambridge, MA: Brookline.

are professors in the College of

Education at San Diego State
University and teacher leaders at
Health Sciences High and Middle College. They are interested
in quality instruction for diverse learners and are coauthors

Common Core State Standards. (2010). Common Core

State Standards for English Language Arts and Literacy
in History/Social Sciences, Science, and Technical
Subjects: Appendix A: Research supporting key
elements of the standards and glossary of key terms.
Retrieved January 10, 2012, from www.corestandards.
org/assets/Appendix_A.pdf

with Diane Lapp of In a Reading State of Mind: Brain

Davey, B. (1983). Think-aloud: Modeling the cognitive

processes of reading comprehension. Journal of
Reading, 27(1), 4447.

sdsu.edu.

Research, Teacher Modeling, and Comprehension Instruction

(International Reading Association, 2009). You may contact
Doug at dfisher@mail.sdsu.edu and Nancy at nfrey@mail.

Fang, Z., & Schleppegrell, M.J. (2010). Disciplinary

literacies across content areas: Supporting secondary
reading through functional language analysis. Journal
of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 53(7), 587597.
Fisher, D., & Frey, N. (2009). Background knowledge:
The missing piece of the comprehension puzzle.
Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Flesch, R. (1948). A new readability yardstick. Journal of
Applied Psychology, 32(3), 221233.
Fry, E. (2002). Readability versus leveling. The Reading
Teacher, 56(3), 286292.
Gunning, T.G. (2003). The role of readability in todays
classroom. Topics in Language Disorders, 23(3), 175189.
Headquarters of the Department of the Army. (2007).
Army leadership: Army regulation 600-100 [Publishing
Directorate]. Retrieved January 10, 2012, from
www.apd.army.mil/pdffiles/r600_100.pdf
Kagan, L., Kagan, M., & Kagan, S. (1997). Cooperative
learning structures for teambuilding. San Clemente,
CA: Kagan Cooperative Learning.
Koslin, B.L., Zeno, S., & Koslin, S. (1987). The DRP: An
effective measure of reading. New York: College
Entrance Examination Board.
Lapp, D., Fisher, D., & Grant, M. (2008). You can
read this textIll show you how: Interactive
comprehension instruction. Journal of Adolescent and
Adult Literacy, 51(5), 372382.
McRae, A., & Guthrie, J.T. (2009). Promoting reasons for
reading: Teacher practices that impact motivation. In
E.H. Hiebert (Ed.), Reading more, reading better (pp.
5576). New York: Guilford.
Michaels, S., OConnor, C., & Resnick, L. (2008).
Deliberative discourse idealized and realized:
Accountable Talk in the classroom and in civic life.
Studies in Philosophy and Education, 27(4), 283297.
Raphael, T.E. (1986). Teaching children question-answer
relationships, revisited. The Reading Teacher, 39(6),
516522.
Rosenblatt, L.M. (1978). The reader, the text, the
poem: The transactional theory of the literary work.
Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press.
Smith, D.R., Stenner, A. J., Horabin, I., & Smith, M. (1989).
The Lexile scale in theory and practice: Final report.
Washington, DC: MetaMetrics. [ERIC Document
Reproduction Service No. ED 307577]
TIME & Teacher Created Materials. (1993). Science:
Exploring nonfiction. Lesson 4: Chemical reactions
Going through changes. New York: Authors.

Additional Resources From IRA

International Reading Association. (n.d.). Common Core Standards: Overview.
Retrieved January 10, 2012, from www.reading.org/Resources/ResourcesByTopic/
CommonCore-resourcetype/CommonCore-rt-overview.aspx
Use this portal to access the latest information and resources about the Common Core
State Standards, including archived webinars, Reading Today articles, and links to IRAs
online social network, Engage. The Common Core Collaborative Community on Engage is
actively discussing issues related to text complexity, close reading, and informational texts.

Buehl, D. (2011). Developing Readers in the Academic Disciplines. Newark, DE:

International Reading Association.
Buehls book, published this year, discusses the importance of building literacy within the
academic disciplines and places texts at the center of instruction. Chapters are devoted
to such topics as matching readers with text, using inquiry and essential questions, and
considering instructional strategies that work well in content classrooms.

Blatteau, L.H. (2008). In the Style of Ernie Pyle: Reporting on World War II. Retrieved
January 10, 2012, from www.readwritethink.org/classroom-resources/lesson-plans/
style-ernie-pyle-reporting-1107.html
This U.S. History lesson plan designed for high school students includes a close reading
of a war report issued by legendary journalist Ernie Pyle. Using multimedia resources,
students read, discuss, and write about Pyles use of language to convey both the factual
and emotional aspects of war. Even if you are not a history teacher, the lesson resources
provide a good guide for developing a close reading in your content area.

Fang, Z., & Schleppegrell, M.J. (2010). Disciplinary literacies across content areas:
Supporting secondary reading through functional language analysis. Journal of
Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 53(7), 587597.
The authors examine the discipline-specific characteristic of texts in core content areas and
detail a process for helping students closely examine these language structures to better
comprehend complex texts.

13

FIGURE 1. Sample Teacher Modeling in Physics

Text

Going Through Changes

(Photo of pancakes)

At a dinner table, a cook is

making pancakes. He mixes
together an egg, milk, and
flour into a batter. When the
batter is placed on the griddle,
it becomes solid and golden
brown.
The batter has had a chemical
change. All the atoms of
the original ingredients are
still in the batter. But the
griddles heat has arranged
those atoms in a different
pattern. Like the pancake
batter, many substances go
through chemical changes.
These changes can break
down complex substances
into simpler parts. Or they can
join simple parts into complex
substances.

It usually takes energy to

combine substances in a
chemical reaction. This
kind of reaction is called an
endothermic reaction.

Teacher commentary during the think-aloud

As I look over this piece of text, I see a photo of
pancakes cooking on a griddle. Some are golden
brown and others are still a beige batter color. The
title of this reading is Going Through Changes. I
wonder if the pancakes, some uncooked and others
fully done, represent changes at a chemical level. Ill
read the first paragraph.

Strategies modeled/
practiced
Predicting and using titles
and graphics provides
focus and motivation to
read further.

So the cooking batter does represent chemical

changes. I see from reading these paragraphs that
chemical changes involve substances breaking down
and substances joining together.
I think the next section will tell me about how this
process of breaking down and building up occurs.
Do you have any ideas? (Maria listens as the
students share a few possibilities.)
Janette, a student in Marias class, responds,
Maybe the next section will talk about molecules
being broken down or atoms being joined
together.
Dave adds, Yes, I remember when I was in 8th
grade we talked about how salt molecules are
broken down when salt is added to water. Maria
then continues. OK, lets read on to see if were
correct.
An endothermic reaction. Wow, Im not sure what
that means, but I do know that thermic sounds like
a word part from thermometer or thermal and both
of those terms relate to heat.
Maybe endothermic also relates to heat in some
way. Ill continue to read. Maybe Ill gain an
understanding of the meaning of this word if I read
on.

The prediction is confirmed

by reading the text.
Note that sometimes
the prediction is refuted
after reading the text.
Afterward, the main
ideas are identified by
summarizing a few lines of
the text, which is followed
by another prediction
based on the text just read.

Segmenting words into

word parts brings attention
to root words or affixes
that might offer clues
to meaning. In addition,
understanding that
clarification might come
from context or from
continued reading.

For example, heat was needed

to turn the batter into a
pancake.

I guess I was rightendothermic does relate to

heat.

Again, confirmation of a
prediction, in this case of
a words meaning, may be
confirmed or refuted by
reading upcoming text.

If iron and powdered sulfur

were mixed together, nothing
would happen. But apply heat
to those combined substances
and you would form iron
sulfide. This is an entirely new
substance.

So heat added to a mixture can cause a new

substance to form. Interesting. Maybe endothermic
means that heat is added.

Synthesizes and restates

examples offered in the
text can help the reader to
infer word meaning.

From You can read this textIll show you how: Interactive comprehension instruction, by D. Lapp, D. Fisher, and M. Grant, 2008, Journal
of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 51(5), 372382. Copyright 2008 by the International Reading Association. Reprinted with permission.
Note: Quotes from TIME and Teacher Created Materials (1993).

14

FIGURE 2. General Dwight D. Eisenhowers D-Day Invasion Statement to Troops

June 6, 1944
Soldiers, Sailors and Airmen of the Allied Expeditionary Force!
You are about to embark upon the Great Crusade, toward which we have striven these
many months. The eyes of the world are upon you. The hopes and prayers of liberty-loving
people everywhere march with you. In company with our brave Allies and brothers-in-arms
on other Fronts, you will bring about the destruction of the German war machine, the
elimination of Nazi tyranny over the oppressed peoples of Europe, and security for ourselves
in a free world.
Your task will not be an easy one. Your enemy is well trained, well equipped and battle
hardened. He will fight savagely.
But this is the year 1944! Much has happened since the Nazi triumphs of 1940-41. The
United Nations have inflicted upon the Germans great defeats, in open battle, man-to-man.
Our air offensive has seriously reduced their strength in the air and their capacity to wage
war on the ground. Our Home Fronts have given us an overwhelming superiority in weapons
and munitions of war, and placed at our disposal great reserves of trained fighting men. The
tide has turned! The free men of the world are marching together to Victory!
I have full confidence in your courage and devotion to duty and skill in battle. We will accept
nothing less than full Victory!
Good luck! And let us beseech the blessing of Almighty God upon this great and noble
undertaking.
SIGNED: Dwight D. Eisenhower

From D-day statement to soldiers, sailors, and airmen of the Allied Expeditionary Force, 6/44, Collection DDE-EPRE: Eisenhower, Dwight D:
Papers, Pre-Presidential, 1916-1952; Dwight D. Eisenhower Library; National Archives and Records Administration.

15

FIGURE 3. Eisenhowers Draft Statement in Event of the Operations Failure

June 5, 1944
Our landings in the Cherbourg have failed to gain a satisfactory foothold and I have
withdrawn the troops. My decision to attack at this time and place was based upon the best
information available. The troops, the air and the Navy did all that Bravery and devotion to
duty could do. If any blame or fault attaches to the attempt it is mine alone.

From Dwight D. Eisenhower Library Pre-Presidential Papers. Principal File: Butcher Diary, 1942-1945. ARC Identifier: 186470.