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Instructionalscaffolding
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Instructionalscaffoldingisalearningprocessdesignedtopromoteadeeperleveloflearning.Scaffoldingisthe
supportgivenduringthelearningprocesswhichistailoredtotheneedsofthestudentwiththeintentionofhelping
thestudentachievehis/herlearninggoals(R.KeithSawyerTheCambridgeHandbookoftheLearningSciences.
NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress,2006).
Instructionalscaffoldingistheprovisionofsufficientsupporttopromotelearningwhenconceptsandskillsare
beingfirstintroducedtostudents.Thesesupportsmayincludethefollowing:
resources
acompellingtask
templatesandguides
guidanceonthedevelopmentofcognitiveandsocialskills
Useofinstructionalscaffoldinginvariouscontexts:
modelingatask
givingadvice
providingcoaching
Thesesupportsaregraduallyremovedasstudentsdevelopautonomouslearningstrategies,thuspromotingtheir
owncognitive,affectiveandpsychomotorlearningskillsandknowledge.Teachershelpthestudentsmasteratask
oraconceptbyprovidingsupport.Thesupportcantakemanyformssuchasoutlines,recommendeddocuments,
storyboards,orkeyquestions.

Contents
1
2
3
4
5

6
7
8

Essentialfeatures
Effectivescaffolding
Theoryofscaffolding
Levelsandtypesintheeducationalsetting
4.1 Directiveandsupportivescaffolding
Theroleofguidance
5.1 Guidanceandcognitiveload
5.2 Amountofguidance
5.3 Contextofguidance
5.4 Timingofguidance
5.5 Constructivismandguidance
5.6 Instructivismandguidance
5.7 Applications
5.8 Scaffoldingmediatedbytechnology
5.8.1 Benefitsinonlinelearningenvironments
Seealso
Notes
References

Essentialfeatures
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Therearethreeessentialfeaturesofscaffoldingthatfacilitatelearning.[1][2]Thefirstfeaturehastodowiththe
interactionbetweenthelearnerandtheexpert.Thisinteractionshouldbecollaborativeforittobeeffective.The
second,learningshouldtakeplaceinthelearner'szoneofproximaldevelopment.Todothattheexpertneedstobe
awareofthelearner'scurrentlevelofknowledgeandthenworktoacertainextentbeyondthatlevel.Thethird
featureofscaffoldingisthatthescaffold,thesupportandguidanceprovidedbytheexpert,isgraduallyremovedas
thelearnerbecomesmoreproficient.Thesupportandguidanceprovidedtothelearneriscomparedtothescaffolds
inbuildingconstructionwherethescaffoldsprovideboth"adjustableandtemporal"supporttothebuildingunder
construction.[3]Thesupportandguidanceprovidedtolearnersfacilitateinternalizationoftheknowledgeneededto
completethetask.Thissupportisweanedgraduallyuntilthelearnerisindependent.[3]

Effectivescaffolding
Forscaffoldingtobeeffectiveteachersneedtopayattentiontothefollowing:
1.Theselectionofthelearningtask:Thetaskshouldensurethatlearnersusethedevelopingskillsthatneedto
bemastered.[4]Thetaskshouldalsobeengagingandinterestingtokeeplearnersinvolved.[5]
2.Theanticipationoferrors:Afterchoosingthetask,theteacherneedstoanticipateerrorsthelearnersare
likelytocommitwhenworkingonthetask.Anticipationoferrorsenablesthescaffoldertoproperlyguide
thelearnersawayfromineffectivedirections.[6]
3.Theapplicationofscaffoldsduringthelearningtask:Scaffoldscouldbeorganizedin"simpleskill
acquisitionortheymaybedynamicandgenerative".[6]
4.Theconsiderationofemotiveoraffectivefactors:Scaffoldingisnotlimitedtoacognitiveskillbutitalso
relatestoemotiveandaffectfactors.Duringthetaskthescaffolder(expert)mightneedtomanageand
controlforfrustrationandlossofinterestthatcouldbeexperiencedbythelearner.[4]Encouragementisalso
animportantscaffoldingstrategy.[7]

Theoryofscaffolding
Scaffoldingtheorywasfirstintroducedinthelate1950sbyJeromeBruner,acognitivepsychologist.Heusedthe
termtodescribeyoungchildren'sorallanguageacquisition.Helpedbytheirparentswhentheyfirststartlearning
tospeak,youngchildrenareprovidedwithinformalinstructionalformatswithinwhichtheirlearningisfacilitated.
AscaffoldingformatinvestigatedbyBrunerandhispostdoctoralstudentAnatNiniowhosescaffoldingprocesses
aredescribedindetailisjointpicturebookreading(Ninio&Bruner,1978).Bedtimestoriesandreadaloudsare
additionalexamplesofbookcenteredinteraction(Daniels,1994).ScaffoldingisinspiredbyLevVygotsky's
conceptofanexpertassistinganovice,oranapprentice.Scaffoldingischangingthelevelofsupporttosuitthe
cognitivepotentialofthechild.Overthecourseofateachingsession,onecanadjusttheamountofguidancetofit
thechild'spotentiallevelofperformance.Moresupportisofferedwhenachildishavingdifficultywitha
particulartaskand,overtime,lesssupportisprovidedasthechildmakesgainsonthetask.Ideally,scaffolding
workstomaintainthechild'spotentiallevelofdevelopmentintheZPD.AnessentialelementtotheZPDand
scaffoldingistheacquisitionoflanguage.AccordingtoVygotsky,language(andinparticular,speech)is
fundamentaltochildren'scognitivegrowthbecauselanguageprovidespurposeandintentionsothatbehaviorscan
bebetterunderstood.[8]Throughtheuseofspeech,childrenareabletocommunicatetoandlearnfromothers
throughdialogue,whichisanimportanttoolintheZPD.Inadialogue,achild'sunsystematic,disorganized,and
spontaneousconceptsaremetwiththemoresystematic,logicalandrationalconceptsoftheskilledhelper.[9]
Empiricalresearchsuggeststhatthebenefitsofscaffoldingarenotonlyusefulduringatask,butcanextend
beyondtheimmediatesituationinordertoinfluencefuturecognitivedevelopment.Forinstance,arecentstudy
recordedverbalscaffoldingbetweenmothersandtheir3and4yearoldchildrenastheyplayedtogether.Then,
whenthechildrenweresixyearsold,theyunderwentseveralmeasuresofexecutivefunction,suchasworking
memoryandgoaldirectedplay.Thestudyfoundthatthechildren'sworkingmemoryandlanguageskillsatsix
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yearsofagewererelatedtotheamountofverbalscaffoldingprovidedbymothersatagethree.Inparticular,
scaffoldingwasmosteffectivewhenmothersprovidedexplicitconceptuallinksduringplay.Therefore,theresults
ofthisstudynotonlysuggestthatverbalscaffoldingaidschildren'scognitivedevelopment,butthatthequalityof
thescaffoldingisalsoimportantforlearninganddevelopment.[10]
Wood,Bruner,andRoss's(1976)ideaofscaffoldingparallelstheworkofVygotsky.Theydescribedscaffoldingas
thesupportgiventoayoungerlearnerbyanolder,moreexperiencedadult.Thisconcepthasbeenfurther
developedbyJesperHoffmeyeras'semioticscaffolding'.ThoughthetermwasneverusedbyVygotsky,
interactionalsupportandtheprocessbywhichadultsmediateachild'sattemptstotakeonnewlearninghascome
tobetermed"scaffolding."Scaffoldingrepresentsthehelpfulinteractionsbetweenadultandchildthatenablethe
childtodosomethingbeyondhisorherindependentefforts.Ascaffoldisatemporaryframeworkthatisputupfor
supportandaccesstomeaningandtakenawayasneededwhenthechildsecurescontrolofsuccesswithatask.
AconstructthatiscriticalforscaffoldinginstructionisVygotsky'sconceptofthezoneofproximaldevelopment
(ZPD).Zoneofproximaldevelopmentisthatfieldbetweenwhatalearnercandobyhimself(expertstage)and
whatcanbeachievedwiththesupportofaknowledgeablepeerorinstructor(pedagogicalstage)(Ellis&
Worthington,1994).Vygotskywasconvincedthatachildcouldbetaughtanysubjectefficientlyusingscaffolding
practicesbyimplementingthescaffoldsattheZoneofproximaldevelopment.Studentsareescortedandmonitored
throughlearningactivitiesthatfunctionasinteractiveconduitstogetthemtothenextstage.Thusthelearner
obtainsorraisesnewunderstandingsbypresentingontheirpriorknowledgethroughthesupportdeliveredbymore
capableindividuals(Raymond,2000).Severalpeerreviewedstudieshaveshownthatwhenthereisadeficiencyin
guidedlearningexperiencesandsocialinteraction,learninganddevelopmentareobstructed(Bransford,Brown,
andCocking,2000).
Inwritinginstruction,typicallysupportispresentedinverbalform(discourse).Thewritingtutorengagesthe
learner'sattention,calibratesthetask,motivatesthestudent,identifiesrelevanttaskfeatures,controlsfor
frustration,anddemonstratesasneeded(Rodgers,2004).Throughjointactivities,theteacherscaffolds
conversationtomaximizethedevelopmentofachild'sintrapsychologicalfunctioning.Inthisprocess,theadult
controlstheelementsofthetaskthatarebeyondthechild'sabilityallthewhileincreasingtheexpectationsofwhat
thechildisabletodo.Speech,acriticaltooltoscaffoldthinkingandresponding,playsacrucialroleinthe
developmentofhigherpsychologicalprocesses(Luria,1979)becauseitenablesthinkingtobemoreabstract,
flexible,andindependent(Bodrova&Leong,1996).FromaVygotskianperspective,talkandactionworktogether
withthesocioculturalfabricofthewritingeventtoshapeachild'sconstructionofawarenessandperformance
(Dorn,1996).Dialoguemayrangefromcasualtalktodeliberateexplanationsaboutfeaturesofwrittenlanguage.
Thetalkembeddedintheactionsoftheliteracyeventshapesthechild'slearningasthetutorregulatesherlanguage
toconformtothechild'sdegreesofunderstanding.Clay(2005)showsthatwhatmayseemlikecasual
conversationalexchangesbetweentutorandstudentactuallyoffermanyopportunitiesforfosteringcognitive
development,languagelearning,storycompositionforwriting,andreadingcomprehension.Conversations
facilitategenerative,constructive,experimental,anddevelopmentalspeechandwritinginthedevelopmentofnew
ideas(Smagorinsky,2007).
InVygotsky'swords,"whatthechildisabletodoincollaborationtodayhewillbeabletodoindependently
tomorrow"(Vygotsky,1987,p.211).
Someingredientsofscaffoldingarepredictability,playfulness,focusonmeaning,rolereversal,modeling,and
nomenclature.[11]

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AccordingtoSayeandBrush,therearetwolevelsofscaffolding:softandhard(2002).Anexampleofsoft
scaffoldingintheclassroomwouldbewhenateachercirculatestheroomandconverseswithhisorherstudents
(SimonandKlein,2007).Theteachermayquestiontheirapproachtoadifficultproblemandprovideconstructive
feedback.AccordingtoVanLier,thistypeofscaffoldingcanalsobereferredtoascontingentscaffolding.The
typeandamountofsupportneededisdependentontheneedsofthestudentsduringthetimeofinstruction(Van
Lier,1996).Unfortunately,applyingscaffoldingcorrectlyandconsistentlycanbedifficultwhentheclassroomis
largeandstudentshavevariousneeds(Gallagher,1997).Scaffoldingcanbeappliedtoamajorityofthestudents,
buttheteacherisleftwiththeresponsibilitytoidentifyadditionalscaffolding.
Incontrastwithcontingentorsoftscaffolding,embeddedorhardscaffoldingisplannedinadvancetohelpstudents
withalearningtaskthatisknowninadvancetobedifficult(SayeandBrush,2002).Forexample,whenstudents
arediscoveringtheformulaforthePythagoreanTheoreminmathclass,theteachermayidentifyhintsorcuesto
helpthestudentreachanevenhigherlevelofthinking.Inbothsituations,theideaof"expertscaffolding"isbeing
implemented(HoltonandClarke,2006):theteacherintheclassroomisconsideredtheexpertandisresponsible
forprovidingscaffoldingforthestudents.
Reciprocalscaffolding,amethodfirstcoinedbyHoltonandThomas,isamethodthatinvolvesagroupoftwoor
morecollaborativelyworkingtogether.Inthissituation,thegroupcanlearnfromeachother'sexperiencesand
knowledge.Thescaffoldingissharedbyeachmemberandchangesconstantlyasthegroupworksonatask
(HoltonandClarke,2006).AccordingtoVygotsky,studentsdevelophigherlevelthinkingskillswhenscaffolding
occurswithanadultexpertorwithapeerofhighercapabilities(Stone,1998).Conversely,Piagetbelievesthat
studentsdiscardtheirideaswhenpairedwithanadultorstudentofmoreexpertise(Piaget,1928).Instead,students
shouldbepairedwithotherswhohavedifferentperspectives.Conflictswouldthentakeplacebetweenstudents
allowingthemtothinkconstructivelyatahigherlevel.
Technicalscaffoldingisanewerapproachinwhichcomputersreplacetheteachersastheexpertsorguides,and
studentscanbeguidedwithweblinks,onlinetutorials,orhelppages(YellandandMasters,2007).Educational
softwarecanhelpstudentsfollowaclearstructureandallowsstudentstoplanproperly(LaiandLaw,2006).

Directiveandsupportivescaffolding
SillimanandWilkinson(1994)distinguishtwotypesofscaffolding:'supportivescaffolding'thatcharacterisesthe
IRF(InitiationResponseFollowup)patternand'directivescaffolding'thatreferstoIRE(InitiationResponse
Evaluation).Saxena(2010)[12]developsthesetwonotionstheoreticallybyincorporatingBhaktin's(1981)[13]and
vanLier's(1996)[14]works.WithintheIREpattern,teachersprovide'directivescaffolding'ontheassumptionthat
theirjobistotransmitknowledgeandthenassessitsappropriationbythelearners.Thequestionanswerevaluation
sequencecreatesapredeterminedstandardforacceptableparticipationandinducespassivelearning.Inthistypeof
interaction,theteacherholdstherighttoevaluateandasks'knowninformation'questionswhichemphasisethe
reproductionofinformation.Thenatureandroleofthetriadicdialoguehavebeenoversimplifiedandthepotential
fortherolesofteachersandstudentsinthemhasbeenundermined(NassajiandWells,2000).[15]
If,inmanagingthetalk,teachersapply'constructivepower'(Saxena,2009)[16]andexploitstudents'responsesas
occasionsforjointexploration,ratherthansimplyevaluatingthem,thentheclassroomtalkbecomesdialogic
(Nystrand,1997).[17]Thepedagogicorientationofthistalkbecomes'participationorientation',incontrastto
'display/assessmentorientation'ofIRE(vanLier,1996).[14]Inthiskindofpatternofinteraction,thethirdpartof
thetriadicdialogueoffers'followup'andteachers'scaffoldingbecomes'supportive'.Ratherthanproducing
'authoritativediscourse'Bakhtin's(1981),[13]teachersconstructs'internallypersuasivediscourse'thatallows
'equality'and'symmetry'(vanLier,1996:175),[14]whereintheissuesofpower,control,institutionalmanagerial
positioning,etc.arediffusedorsuspended.Thediscourseopensuptherolesforstudentsasthe'primaryknower'
andthe'sequenceinitiator'(NassajiandWells,2000),[15]whichallowsthemtobethenegotiatorandcoconstructor
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ofmeaning.Thesuspensionofasymmetryinthetalkrepresentsashiftintheteacher'sideologicalstanceand,
therefore,demonstratesthatsupportivescaffoldingismorethansimplyamodelofinstruction(Saxena,2010:
167).[12]

Theroleofguidance
Guidanceandcognitiveload
Learnersupportinscaffoldingisknownasguidance.Whileittakesonvariousformsandstyles,thebaseof
guidanceisanytypeofinteractionfromtheinstructorthatisintendedtoaidand/orimprovestudentlearning.[18]
Whilethisabroaddefinition,theroleandamountofguidanceisbetterdefinedbytheinstructor'sapproach.
Instructionistsandconstructionistsapproachgivingguidancewithintheirowninstructionalframeworks.
Scaffoldinginvolvespresentinglearnerswithproperguidancethatmovesthemtowardstheirlearninggoals.
Providingguidanceisamethodofmoderatingthecognitiveloadofalearner.Inscaffolding,learnerscanonlybe
movedtowardtheirlearninggoalsifcognitiveloadisheldincheckbyproperlyadministeredsupport.
Instructioniststendtogiveahigherlevelofguidanceinlightoftheinquirydrivenstyleoflearning.Witheach
pieceofacomplextaskbeingbrokendown,instructorsgiveguidanceforeachoftheseparatedpartsofthe
learning.Inthisway,higherguidanceisafunctionofreducingcognitiveloadwhenstudentsareworkinginamore
individualmanner.
Constructivistsapproachguidancedifferentlyasaresultoftheirfocusontransfer.Theconceptoftransferfocuses
onalearner'sabilitytoapplylearnedtasksinacontextotherthanthemodalityinwhichitwaslearned.[18]This
resultsinconstructivistsgivingalowerlevelofguidance,aslearnersworkthroughacompletetask,onlybeing
givenguidanceintransfer.Theroleofguidanceistoensurethatcognitiveloadismoderatedwhilethelearner
worksatmorecompleteandcomplextaskguidanceisgivenduringaspectsofthetaskthatwillhelpenable
transfer.

Amountofguidance
Researchhasdemonstratedthathigherlevelofguidancehasagreatereffectonscaffoldedlearning,butisnota
guaranteeofmorelearning.[19]Theefficacyofhigheramountofguidanceisdependentonthelevelofdetailand
guidanceapplicability.[18]Havingmultipletypesofguidance(i.e.workedexamples,feedback)cancausethemto
interactandreinforceeachother.Multipleconditionsdonotguaranteegreaterlearning,ascertaintypesof
guidancecanbeextraneoustothelearninggoalsorthemodalityoflearning.Withthis,moreguidance(ifnot
appropriatetothelearning)cannegativelyimpactperformance,asitgivesthelearneroverwhelminglevelsof
information.[18]However,appropriatelydesignedhighlevelsofguidance,whichproperlyinteractwiththe
learning,ismorebeneficialtolearningthanlowlevelsofguidance.

Contextofguidance
Constructivistspaycloseattentiontothecontextofguidance,becausetheybelieveinstructionplaysamajorrolein
knowledgeretentionandtransfer.[18]Researchstudies[20][21]demonstratehowthecontextofisolatedexplanations
canhaveanaffectonstudentlearningoutcomes.Forexample,Hake's(1998)largescalestudy[22]demonstrated
howpostsecondaryphysicsstudentsrecalledlessthan30%ofmaterialcoveredinatraditionallecturestyleclass.
Similarly,otherstudies[23][24][25]illustratehowstudentsconstructdifferentunderstandingsfromexplanationin
isolationversushavingafirstexperiencewiththematerial.Afirstexperiencewiththematerialprovidesstudents
witha"needtoknow".[18]A"needtoknow"allowslearnerstoreflectonpriorexperienceswiththecontent,which
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canhelplearnersconstructmeaningfrominstruction.[18]Workedexamples[26]areguidingtoolsthatcanactasa
"needtoknow"forstudents.Workedexamplesprovidestudentswithstraightforwardgoals,stepbystep
instructionsaswellasreadytosolveproblemsthatcanhelpstudentsdevelopastrongerunderstandingfrom
instruction.[27][28]

Timingofguidance
Guidinghasakeyrolebothinconstructivismand'instructivism'.Forinstructiviststhetimingofguidanceis
immediate,eitheratthebeginningorwhenthelearnermakesamistake,whereasinconstructivismitcanbe
delayed.[18]Ithasbeenfoundthatimmediatefeedbackcanleadtoworkingmemoryloadasitdoesnottakein
considerationtheprocessofgradualacquisitionofaskill,[29]whichalsorelatestotheamountofguidancebeing
given.Researchonintelligenttutoringsystemssuggeststhatimmediatefeedbackonerrorsisagreatstrategyto
promotelearning,asthelearnerisabletointegratethefeedbackfromshorttermmemoryintotheoveralllearning
andproblemsolvingtaskthelongerthewaitonfeedback,theharderitisforthelearnertomakethis
integration.[29]Yet,inanotherstudyitwasfoundthatprovidingfeedbackrightaftertheerrorcandeprivethe
learneroftheopportunitytodevelopevaluativeskills.[30]WiseandO'Neillbringthesetwo,seemingly
contradictoryfindings,andarguethatitdoesnotonlyprovetheimportanceoftheroleoffeedback,butthatpoints
outatimingfeatureoffeedback:immediatefeedbackintheshorttermpromotesmorerapidproblemsolvingbut
delayingfeedbackcanresultinbetterretentionandtransferinthelongterm.[18]

Constructivismandguidance
Constructivismviewsknowledgeasa"functionofhowtheindividualcreatesmeaningfromhisorherown
experiences".[31]Constructivistsadvocatethatlearningisbetterfacilitatedinaminimallyguidedenvironment
wherelearnersconstructimportantinformationforthemselves.[32]Accordingtoconstructivism,minimalguidance
intheformofprocessortaskrelatedinformationshouldbeprovidedtolearnersuponrequestanddirectinstruction
oflearningstrategiesshouldnotbeusedbecauseitimpedesthenaturalprocesseslearnersusetorecallprior
experiences.Inthisview,forlearnerstoconstructknowledgetheyshouldbeprovidedwiththegoalsandminimal
informationandsupport.Applicationsthatpromoteconstructivistlearningrequirelearnerstosolveauthentic
problemsor"acquireknowledgeininformationrichsettings".[33]Anexampleofanapplicationofconstructivist
learningisscienceinstruction,wherestudentsareaskedtodiscovertheprinciplesofsciencebyimitatingthesteps
andactionsofresearchers.[34]

Instructivismandguidance
Instructionismareeducationalpracticescharacterizedforbeinginstructorcentered.Someauthorssee
instructionismasahighlyprescriptivepracticethatmostlyfocusesontheformationofskills,thatisveryproduct
orientedandisnotinteractive[35]orthatisahighlystructured,systematicandexplicitwayofteachingthatgives
emphasistotheroleoftheteacherasatransmitterofknowledgeandthestudentsaspassivereceptacles.[36]The
'transmission'ofknowledgeandskillsfromtheteachertothestudentinthiscontextisoftenmanifestedintheform
ofdrill,practiceandrotememorization.[36]An'instructionist',then,focusesonthepreparation,organizationand
managementofthelessonmakingsuretheplanisdetailedandthecommunicationiseffective.[37][38]Theemphasis
isontheupfrontexplicitdeliveryofinstruction.[18]
Instructionismisoftencontrastedwithconstructivism.Bothofthemusethetermguidanceasmeanstosupport
learning,andhowitcanbeusedmoreeffectively.Thedifferenceintheuseofguidanceiffoundinthe
philosophicalassumptionsregardingthenatureofthelearner,[36]buttheyalsodifferintheirviewsaroundthe
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quantity,thecontextandthetimingofguidance.[18]Anexampleofapplicationofinstructionismintheclassroom
isdirectinstruction.

Applications
Instructionalscaffoldingcanbethoughtofasthestrategiesthatateacherusestohelplearnersbridgeacognitive
gaporprogressintheirlearningtoaleveltheywerepreviouslyunabletoaccomplish.[39]Thesestrategiesevolve
astheteachersevaluatethelearnersinitiallevelofabilityandthenthroughcontinuedfeedbackthroughoutthe
progressionofthetask.Intheearlystudies,scaffoldingwasprimarilydoneinoral,facetofacelearning
environments.Inclassrooms,scaffoldingmayincludemodellingbehaviours,coachingandprompting,thinkingout
loud,dialoguewithquestionsandanswers,plannedandspontaneousdiscussions,aswellasotherinteractive
planningorstructuralassistancetohelpthelearnerbridgeacognitivegap.Thiscanalsoincludepeermentoring
frommoreexperiencedstudents.
Thereareawidevarietyofscaffoldingstrategiesthatteachersemploy.Oneapproachtolookingattheapplication
ofscaffoldingistolookataframeworkforevaluatingthesestrategies.Thismodelwasdevelopedbasedonthe
theoreticalprinciplesofscaffoldingtohighlighttheuseofscaffoldingforeducationalpurposes.[39]Ithighlights
twocomponentsofaninstructorsuseofscaffolding.Thefirstistheinstructorsintentionsandthesecondrefersto
themeansbywhichthescaffoldingiscarriedout.
ScaffoldingIntentions:Thesegroupshighlighttheinstructorsintentionsforscaffolding[39]
ScaffoldingMeans:These
groupshighlightthewaysin
whichtheinstructor
scaffolds[39]
Anycombinationofscaffolding
meanswithscaffolding
intentioncanbeconstruedasa
scaffoldingstrategy,however,
whetherateachingstrategy
qualifiesasgoodscaffolding
generallydependsuponits
enactmentinactualpracticeand
morespecificallyuponwhether
thestrategyisapplied
contingentlyandwhetheritis
alsopartofaprocessoffading
andtransferof
responsibility.[40]
Examplesofscaffolding:[41]
Instructorscanuseavarietyofscaffoldstoaccommodatedifferentlevelsofknowledge.Thecontextoflearning
(i.e.noviceexperience,complexityofthetask)mayrequiremorethanonescaffoldstrategyinorderforthestudent
tomasternewcontent.[41]Thefollowingtable[42]outlinesafewcommonscaffoldingstrategies:

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Instructional
Scaffolds

DescriptionofTool
Toolsthatpresentnewinformationorconceptstolearners.
Thesetoolsorganizeinformationinawaythathelpslearnersunderstandnewandcomplex
content.Examplesofadvancedorganizersare:

Advanced
Organizers[43]

VennDiagrams[44]
Flowcharts[45]
Outlines
Rubrics[46]
Instructorsdemonstratedesiredbehaviour,knowledgeortasktostudents.
Instructorsusemodellingto:

Modelling[47]

Demonstratethetaskstudentsareexpectedtocompleteontheirown[48](i.e.science
experiment)
Providestepbystepinstructions(i.e.illustratestepstosolvingamathematicalproblem)
Encouragestudentstointeractwithanewproblemortask(i.e.handsontaskthatallows
studentstointeractwithmaterialsanddevelopa"needtoknow"[18])
Aworkedexampleisastepbystepdemonstrationofacomplexproblemortask..[49]

Thesetypesofinstructionalmaterialsarecommonlyimplementedinmathematicsandscience
Worked
classesandincludethreekeyfeatures:[49]1.ProblemFormation:Aprincipleortheoryis
[26]
Examples
introduced.2.StepbyStepExample:Aworkedexample,thatdemonstrateshowthestudentcan
solvetheproblem,isprovided.3.SolutiontotheProblem:Oneormorereadtobesolved
problemsaregivenforthestudenttopracticetheskill.
Graphicaltoolsfororganizing,representinganddisplayingtherelationshipsbetweenknowledge
andconcepts.[51]
Concept
Maps[50]

Typesofconceptmapsare:[52]
Spidermap
Hierarchal/chronologicalmap
Systemsmap
Variation:mindmap[53]
Waysinwhichinstructorspresentandexplainnewcontenttolearners.

Hownewinformationispresentedtothelearnerisacriticalcomponentforeffectiveinstruction.
Explanations Theuseofmaterialssuchasvisualimages,graphicorganizers,animatedvideos,audiofilesand
othertechnologicalfeaturescanmakeexplanationsmoreengaging,motivatingandmeaningfulfor
studentlearning.
Asupplementaryresourceusedtosupportteachingandlearning.

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Handouts[54] Thesetoolscanprovidestudentswiththenecessaryinformation(i.e.conceptortheory,task
instructions,learninggoals,learningobjectives)andpractice(i.e.readytobesolvedproblems)
theyneedtomasternewcontentandskills.Handoutsarehelpfultoolsforexplanationsand
workedexamples.
Aphysicalorverbalcuetoaidrecallofpriororassumedknowledge.
Therearedifferenttypesofprompts,suchas:[56]
Prompts[55]

Physical:bodymovementssuchaspointing,nodding,fingerorfoottapping.
Verbal:words,statementsandquestionsthathelpthelearnerrespondcorrectly.
Positional:placingmaterialsinaspecificlocationthatpromptspositivestudentreaction.

Scaffoldingmediatedbytechnology
Whenweteachstudentswhoarenotphysicallypresentintheclassroom,instructorsneedtoadapttothe
environmentandtheirscaffoldingneedstobeadjustedtofitthisnewlearningmedium.Itcanbechallengingto
findawaytoadjusttheverbalandvisualelementsofscaffoldingtoconstructasuccessfulinteractiveand
collaborativelearningenvironmentfordistancelearning.
Therecentspreadoftechnologyusedineducationhasopenedupthelearningenvironmenttoincludehypermedia,
hypertext,collaborativelearningenvironments,andwebbasedlearningenvironments.Thischallengestraditional
learningdesignconceptionsofscaffoldingforeducators(see[57][58][59][60][61][62][63]).
Arecentreview[64]ofthetypesofscaffoldingusedinonlinelearningidentifiedfourmaintypesofscaffolding:
conceptualscaffolding:helpsstudentsdecidewhattoconsiderinlearningandguidethemtokeyconcepts
proceduralscaffolding:helpsstudentsuseappropriatetoolsandresourceseffectively
strategicscaffolding:helpsstudentsfindalternativestrategiesandmethodstosolvecomplexproblems
metacognitivescaffolding:promptsstudentstothinkaboutwhattheyarelearningthroughouttheprocess
andassistsstudentsreflectingonwhattheyhavelearnt(selfassessment).Thisisthemostcommonresearch
areaandisthoughttonotonlypromotehigherorderthinkingbutalsostudentsabilitytoplanahead.
Reingold,RimorandKalay[65]havelistedsevenmechanismsofmetacognitivescaffoldingthatencourage
students'metacognitioninlearning.
Thesefourtypesarestructuresthatappropriatelysupportstudents'learninginonlineenvironments(accordingto
Hannafin,LandandOliver[66]).Otherscaffoldingapproachesthatwereaddressedbytheresearchersincluded:
technicalsupport,contentsupport,argumentationtemplate,questioningandmodelling.Thesetermswererarely
used,anditwasaguedthattheseareashadunclearstructuretoguidestudents,especiallyinonlinelearning,and
wereinadequatelyjustified.
Astechnologychanges,sodoestheformofsupportprovidedtoonlinelearners.Instructorshavethechallengeof
adaptingscaffoldingtechniquestothisnewmedium,butalsotheadvantageofusingnewwebbasedtoolssuchas
wikisandblogsasplatformstosupportanddiscusswithstudents.
Benefitsinonlinelearningenvironments
Astheresearchinthisareaprogresses,studiesareshowingthatwhenstudentslearnaboutcomplextopicswith
computerbasedlearningenvironments(CBLEs)withoutscaffoldingtheydemonstratedpoorabilitytoregulate
theirlearning,andfailuretogainaconceptualunderstandingofthetopic(e.g.[67][68][69][70][71]).Asaresult,
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researchershaverecentlybeguntoemphasizetheimportanceofembeddedconceptual,procedural,strategic,and
metacognitivescaffoldinginCBLEs(e.g.[59][72][73][74][75][76][77][78][79][80][81]).
Inadditiontothefourscaffoldingguidelinesoutlined,recentresearchhasshown:
scaffoldingcanhelpingroupdiscussions.Inarecentstudy,[82]asignificantincreaseinactiveparticipation
andmeaningfulnegotiationswasfoundwithinthescaffoldedgroupsasopposedtothenonscaffoldedgroup.
metacognitivescaffoldingcanbeusedtoencouragestudentsinreflectingandhelpbuildasenseofa
communityamonglearners.[83]Specifically,Reingold,RimorandKalay[83]recommendusingmetacognitive
scaffoldingtosupportstudentsworkingonacommontask.Theybelievethiscansupportlearnersto
experiencetheirworkaspartofacommunityoflearners.

Seealso
Educationalpsychology
JeromeBruner
JimCummins
LevVygotsky
StephenKrashen
Collaborativelearning

Notes
1.Beed,P.,Hawkins,M.,&Roller,C.(1991).Movinglearnerstowardsindependence:thepowerofscaVoldedinstruction.
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2.Wood,D.,&Wood,H.(1996).Vygotsky,tutoringandlearning.OxfordReviewofEducation,22(1),516.
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4.Wood,D.,Bruner,J.,&Ross,G.(1978).Theroleoftutoringinproblemsolving.JournalofChildPsychologyand
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5.Graves,M.,Graves,M.,&Braaten,S.(1996).Scaffoldingreadingexperiencesforinclusiveclasses.Educational
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scaffolding

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