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ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
BACKGROUND
Nature of domestic electricity demand
Domestic electricity demand is made up of a
number of steady loads like lighting and
consumer electronics and a number of high
short duration loads that result from the use of
domestic appliances. For distribution systems
the extent of these peaks can be estimated
using the Velander Formula [3]
P =k1W+k2W
(1)
Where
P is the peak load in kW
W the annual consumption in MWh,
k1 and k2 are empirical constants
For domestic consumers k1 is 0.29 and k2 is 2.5.
For a typical domestic consumer who uses 4
-1
MWh a this would give a peak load of 6.2 kW
compared to a 24 h average load of 0.46 kW.
The Velander Formula was developed for sizing
transformers and cables that feed groups of
similar consumers rather than for individual
households. Newborough [4] carried out a detail
monitoring program of 30 households and found
that the peak recorded power varied between
0.6 and 15 kW although most were between 4
and 7 kW (which is consistent with the Velander
formula) with daily load factors of 8 - 15%.
Distribution transformers are required to supply
the peak power demand for the properties
connected to them, but as the individual peaks
are only for a few minutes it is unlikely that they
will occur at the same time in a group of houses.
In practice the maximum coincidental load that
is seen on a system is known as the maximum
diversified demand.
This is frequently
normalized by the number of households to
produce the "After Diversity Maximum Demand"
(ADMD).
Reported
Central
Network
11
9.8
4.2
2.8
11
2.16
22
1.78
)(
(
)
(
(
)
)
)
(2)
where
heatout is the thermal output of the
heating system,
T is the primary energy efficiency of the
heating system around 85% for a
condensing boiler.
CIE is the carbon intensity of the grid
ClT is the carbon intensity of the heating
system
The grid uses a mixture of coal, gas, nuclear
and renewable energy power stations. If the
grid is considered as a whole it had an average
carbon intensity (CIE) of around 0.6 kgCO2e/kWh
for the years 2000 - 2009 [6]. The carbon
intensity of natural gas is 0.20 kgCO2e/kWh [7].
This means that a heat pump with a COP>2.6
)
(
(3)
where
(4)
(5)
(6)
(
)(
(7)
METHOD
Technologies compared
To investigate the potential synergies in the
operation of Air Source Heat Pumps (ASHP)
COP
ASHP
4.20
UNIT
ELECTRICAL
EFFICIENCY
THERMAL
EFFICIENCY
SE-CHP
8.4%
87%
Small
ICE-CHP
22.3%
61%
Large
ICE-CHP
24.3%
63%
Peak
demand
kW
Average
daily
winter
demand
kWh
COP
indirect constant
room T
33.8
18.9
3.16
direct
30.9
16.0
3.84
direct night-time
set-back
32.9
14.1
3.95
It is reasonable to expect that the night time setback (reduction in set point temperature
overnight) should cause a reduction in energy
demand as the night time loss will be lower.
However the increased flow temperature
required when the heating system is raising the
temperature of the dwelling up to the daytime
temperature causes an increase in the peak
demand.
It is possible to overload the transformer by
importing or exporting electricity through it.
Table 4 shows the combinations of equipment
which were close to the limit of overloading the
transformer along with the percentage CO 2
saved over the 128 houses when compared to a
similar development using gas condensing
boilers and 2009 grid electricity [7].
Boiler
ASHP
CO2
saving
ASHP
indirect
112
16
2.6%
ASHP direct
112
16
5.7%
SE CHP
128
SE CHP &
ASHP
48
Small IC
CHP
40
Small IC
CHP &
ASHP
48
Large IC
CHP
28
Large IC
CHP &
ASHP
24
-12%
80
84
6.1%
14.4%
80
72
38.6%
19.9%
80
38.1%
CONCLUSION
The rating of existing distribution transformers
will restrict the number of heat pumps or CHP
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This work was supported by the Engineering
and Physical Sciences Research Council
(EPSRC) [Grant number EP/G031681/1] as part
of the SUPERGEN Highly Distributed Energy
Futures (HiDEF) consortium.
The authors
gratefully acknowledge the interchange made
possible under this programme. In particular,
the help of Dr. N. Kelly and Dr. J. Hong (ESRU,
University of Strathclyde) and Dr. M Thompson
and Dr. I. Richardson (CREST, Loughbourgh
University) in developing and calibrating the
models is gratefully acknowledged. The authors
are grateful to the anonymous reviewer for their
helpful comments.
NOMENCLATURE
CIE
ClT
eccgt
echp
rr
REFERENCES
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usiness-efficiency/reporting
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FIGURES
Heat
Generated
Building
Heating system
Outside air
Heat emitters
or buffer tank
Heater
Block
Heat loss
DHW tank
Heater
Heat
Exchanger
Heat
emitters or
buffer tank
Building
fabric
Inside air
Occupants
Irradiation
Appliances