CRITICAL READING AND WRITING

Contents
1. Critical reading
2. Critical writing
3. Doing a literature review
4. Essay terms explained
5. Inclusive writing
6. Planning and conducting a dissertation research project
7. Planning essays
8. Referencing and bibliographies
9. The art of editing
10. Writing for science
11. Writing reports
yanmujiyanto@gmail.com; pak_yan@staff.unnes.ac.id.

1. CRITICAL READING
Critical reading is an important precursor to critical writing. This Study Guide explains why critical reading is
important, and gives some ideas about how you might become a more critical reader.

What is critical reading?

The most characteristic features of critical reading are that you will:

examine the evidence or arguments presented;

check out any influences on the evidence or arguments;

check out the limitations of study design or focus;

examine the interpretations made; and

decide to what extent you are prepared to accept or to refuse the authors arguments, opinions, or
conclusions.

Why do we need to take a critical approach to reading?

Regardless of how objective, technical, or scientific the subject matter, the author(s) will have made many
decisions during the research and writing process, and each of these decisions is a potential topic for
examination and debate, rather than for blind acceptance.
You need to be prepared to step into the academic debate and to make your own evaluation of how much
you are willing to accept what you read.
A practical starting point therefore, is to consider anything you read not as fact, but as the argument of the
writer. Taking this starting point you will be ready to engage in critical reading.
Critical reading does not have to be all negative
The aim of critical reading is not to find fault, but to assess the strength as well as weaknesses of the
evidence and the argument. It is just as useful to conclude that a study, or an article, presents very strong
evidence and a well-reasoned argument, as it is to identify the studies or articles that are weak.
Evidence
Depending on the kind of writing it is, and the discipline in which it sits, different kinds of evidence will be
presented for you to examine.

At the technical and scientific end of the spectrum, relevant evidence may include information on:
measurements, timing, equipment, control of extraneous factors, and careful following of standard
procedures. Specific guidance will be available within specialties on what to look for.
At the other end of the spectrum is writing where there is clearer scope for personal interpretation, for
example:

analysis of individuals experiences of healthcare;

the translation of a text from a foreign language; or

the identification and analysis of a range of themes in a novel.

In these cases the evidence may include items such as quotes from interviews, extracts of text, and
diagrams showing how themes might connect.
The nature of the evidence presented at these two extremes is different, but in both cases you need to look
for the rationale for the selection and interpretation of the evidence presented, and the rationale for the
construction of the argument.

Broadening the definition of evidence

This Study Guide takes a broad view of evidence: it maintains that all that you read can be considered as
evidence, not purely the actual data collected/presented. This encompasses:

the report of the context within which the data were collected or created;

the choice of the method for data collection or selection;

the audit trail for the analysis of the data i.e.: the decisions made and the steps in the analysis process;

the rationale for the interpretations made and the conclusions drawn;

the relevance of, and the use made of the theoretical perspective, ideology, or philosophy that is
underpinning the argument.

Linking evidence to argument

On its own, evidence cannot contribute to academic debate. The interpretation and presentation of that
evidence within an argument allows the evidence to make a contribution.
The term argument in this context means the carefully constructed rationale for the enquiry, and for the
place of its results within the academic arena. It will explain for example:

why the authors considered that what they did was worth doing;

why it was worth doing in that particular way;

3

why the data collected, or the material selected, were the most appropriate;

how the conclusions drawn link to the wider context of their enquiry.

Even in the most technical and scientific disciplines, the presentation of argument will always involve
elements that can be examined and questioned. For example, you could ask:

Why did the writer select that particular topic of enquiry in the first place?

Why did the writer decide to use that particular methodology, choose that specific method, and conduct
the work in that way?

Why did the writer select that particular process of analysis?

Note taking
As you read, it can be helpful to use a table to record the information that you know you will need later. In
addition to the usual bibliographical details, you can devise your own list of extra information you want to
collect at the initial reading stage. Some suggestions are given below.
Two important points about using such tables are:

it is essential that you devise your own list of information to collect from each source, based on what
you know you will need to comment upon; and

realistically, it is probably best not to try to collect this information from every single source you use,
only from those you decide to refer to in your report or assignment. Otherwise it could really slow down
your background reading, and result in the collection of a mass of material that you never use.

Descriptive details you may want to record about sources

Setting

Type of data

Sample size

Use of theory

Sample profile

Equipment

Follow up

Style of writing

Statistics used

Measurements

Methods

Sources of bias

Questions raised

Limitations

Main arguments

Intended audience

Some interpretative questions you may need to ask about sources

These are questions that need more input from you as the critical reader. You will need to make judgments
about your answers, and will need to record the reasons for your answers. This list is a mix of arts and
science-based questions, as there are several areas of common interest.

How well-developed are the themes or arguments?

Did the theoretical perspective used introduce any potential bias?

Are you convinced by the interpretations presented?

Are the conclusions supported firmly by the preceding argument?

How appropriate are the comparisons that are used?

Did the response options, or measurement categories or techniques used affect the data that were
collected?

Have any ethical considerations been adequately addressed?

If you take a critical approach right from the start of your reading and note taking, it can save a lot of time
later on. When you come to write your assignment or thesis, you will need to comment on the validity of the
writing that you refer to. So, if you have kept a systematic record of the results of your critical reading, you
will be able to refer to it easily. If you have not, you will find yourself wasting a lot of time re-reading
material, and re-reviewing the evidence presented.

Helpful guidance from other sources

There are many sources of guidance on how to engage in critical reading: some are in books on general
study skills; others are on the internet. Chapter 10 of the Study Skills Handbook by Stella Cottrell (2003)
Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, is particularly recommended. The following questions are based on
material from that chapter:

Does the writing assume a causal connection when there may not be one?

Are general conclusions drawn based on only a few examples?

Are inappropriate comparisons being made?

Might there be other explanations apart from the one proposed?

5

Are there any hidden assumptions that need to be questioned?

Is enough evidence presented to allow readers to draw their own conclusions?

Does the line of reasoning make sense?

2. CRITICAL WRITING
It is common for feedback on student writing to focus on the need to engage more critically with the source
material. Typical comments from tutors are: too descriptive, or not enough critical analysis. This Study
Guide gives ideas for how to improve the level of critical analysis you demonstrate in your writing.
The most characteristic features of critical writing are:

a clear and confident refusal to accept the conclusions of other writers without evaluating the
arguments and evidence that they provide;

a balanced presentation of reasons why the conclusions of other writers may be accepted or may need
to be treated with caution;

a clear presentation of your own evidence and argument, leading to your conclusion;

a recognition of the limitations in your own evidence, argument, and conclusion.

What is descriptive writing?

The most characteristic features of descriptive writing are that it will describe something, but will not go
beyond an account of what appears to be there. A certain amount of descriptive writing is needed to
establish for example:

the setting of the research;

a general description of a piece of literature, or art;

the list of measurements taken;

the timing of the research;

an account of the biographical details of a key figure in the discipline; or

a brief summary of the history leading up to an event or decision.

The difference between descriptive writing and critical writing

With descriptive writing you are not developing argument; you are merely setting the background within
which an argument can be developed. You are representing the situation as it stands, without presenting
any analysis or discussion.
Descriptive writing is relatively simple. There is also the trap that it can be easy to use many, many words
from your word limit, simply providing description.
7

In providing only description, you are presenting but not transforming information; you are reporting ideas
but not taking them forward in any way. An assignment using only descriptive writing would therefore
gain few marks.
With critical writing you are participating in the academic debate. This is more challenging and risky. You
need to weigh up the evidence and arguments of others, and to contribute your own. You will need to:

consider the quality of the evidence and argument you have read;

identify key positive and negative aspects you can comment upon;

assess their relevance and usefulness to the debate that you are engaging in for your assignment;
and

identify how best they can be woven into the argument that you are developing.

A much higher level of skill is clearly needed for critical writing than for descriptive writing, and this is
reflected in the higher marks it is given.

Finding your academic voice

When you engage in critical writing you are developing your own academic voice within your subject.
Wellington et al. (2005 p.84) offer some suggestions for distinguishing between the academic and the nonacademic voice. They suggest that the academic voice will involve:

healthy scepticism but not cynicism;

confidence but not cockiness or arrogance;

judgement which is critical but not dismissive;

opinions without being opinionated;

careful evaluation of published work not serial shooting at random targets;

being fair: assessing fairly the strengths and weaknesses of other peoples ideas and writing
without prejudice; and

making judgements on the basis of considerable thought and all the available evidence as
opposed to assertions without reason.

Stringing together of quotes

It can be tempting to string together quotes to support an argument, feeling that the more quotes you
include, the stronger your argument. It is important, however, to remember that you also need to interpret

the quotes to the reader, and to explain their relevance, discuss their validity, and show how they relate to
other evidence.
Strategic use of paragraphs
There are several ways in which you can use the paragraph to enhance your critical writing.
You can use paragraphs to make a clear and visual separation between descriptive writing and critical
analysis, by switching to a new paragraph when you move from description to critical writing, and vice
versa. This can help in:

emphasizing to the reader that you are including both description and critical analysis, by providing a
visual representation of their separation; and

pushing you to produce the necessary critical writing, especially if you find that your description
paragraphs are always longer, or more frequent, than your critical analysis paragraphs.

A paragraph break can provide a brief pause for your readers within a longer argument; giving them the
opportunity to make sure they are keeping up with your reasoning. Paragraphs that are overly long can
require readers to hold too much in their mind at once, resulting in their having to re-read the material until
they can identify the point you are making.
You can also use paragraphs to push yourself to include critical writing alongside descriptive writing or
referencing, by considering each paragraph almost as an essay in miniature. Within each paragraph you
would:

introduce the point you want to make;

make the point, with supporting evidence;

reflect critically on the point.

If its worth including, its worth telling us why

A certain amount of descriptive writing is essential, particularly in the earlier parts of the essay or
assignment or dissertation. Beyond that, however, there is a danger that too much descriptive writing will
use up valuable words from your word limit, and reduce the space you have for the critical writing that will
get you higher marks.
A useful habit to get into is to make sure that, if you describe some evidence relevant to your argument,
you need then to explain to the reader why it is relevant. The logic of your explanation contributes to the
critical component of your writing.

So, a sentence or two might describe and reference the evidence, but this is not enough in itself. The next
few sentences need to explain what this evidence contributes to the argument you are making. This may
feel like duplication at first, or that you are explaining something that is obvious, but it is your responsibility
to ensure that the relevance of the evidence is explained to the reader; you should not simply assume that
the reader will be following the same logic as you, or will just work out the relevance of the quote or data
you have described.

Line of argument
So far this Study Guide has considered the detail of what you write. The other key element in critical writing
is the overall structure of your piece of writing. For maximum effectiveness, your writing needs to have a
line, or lines of argument running through it from the Introduction to the Conclusion.
Just as you have used paragraphs on a micro scale to present your critical writing, so you need to consider
the ordering of those paragraphs within the overall structure. The aim is to lead your readers carefully
through the thread of your argument, to a well-supported conclusion.

Example of effective critical writing

The text below is an example of good critical writing, and is based on essay material supplied by University
of Leicesters School of Psychology.
The author refers to the available evidence, but also evaluates the validity of that evidence, and assesses
what contribution it can realistically make to the debate.
There are a number of inherent methodological difficulties in evaluating treatment efficacy in this area,
and this has contributed to controversy within the research literature surrounding treatment outcomes
for this group of offenders (Marshall, 1997). Firstly, while there is no doubt that the primary criterion of
treatment success is a reduction in the rate of re-offending (Marshall et al., 1999), reconviction data
does not, in isolation, provide a realistic representation of actual levels of re-offending by this group. It
is well established that there is a discrepancy between re-offending and reconviction rates: the latter
underestimating the number of offences committed (Grubin, 1999). Indeed, a significant proportion of
offences committed by offenders are either unreported, or do not result in the offender being convicted
(Abel et al., 1987).

10

You can see how the author is considering the available evidence, but also the limitations on that evidence,
and will be taking all of this into account in drawing conclusions.

Checklist for an overall review of your writing

It is always worth taking a critical look at your own writing before submitting it for assessment. The kinds of
questions that might be useful to ask at that stage are:

What is the balance between descriptive and critical writing?

While a certain amount of description is necessary to set the context for your analysis, the main
characteristic of academic writing is its critical element. A useful way to check this balance in your own
writing is to use two colored pens and to mark in the margin whether the lines are descriptive or critical. The
balance will change at different points, but you need to make sure there is enough of the color that
represents critical writing.

Why should the reader be convinced by what Ive just written?

Remember that, just as you are asking Why should I believe what Ive just read?, the readers of your work
will be asking the same question of your writing. A critical read through your own writing may reveal gaps in
your logic, which you can rectify before you submit it for the critique of others.

Is my conclusion trailed and supported sufficiently well by my preceding analysis and argument?
Check out the conclusions that you have drawn, then locate and check the supporting evidence you
provide earlier on. This is a good way of making sure you havent forgotten to include a crucial piece of
evidence. It is also a way of checking that, when your reader comes to the end of your writing, the
conclusions make sense, rather than being a surprise, or an unconvincing leap of logic.

Have I included any unsubstantiated statements?

Sometimes a generalized, sweeping statement can slip through: the kind of statement that might be
acceptable on conversation, but not in academic writing. There are three main ways of dealing with such
statements:

present the evidence to support the statement

11

re-phrase the statement to sound more cautious e.g.: it could be argued or this suggests that

remove the statement

12

3. DOING A LITERATURE REVIEW

What is a literature review?
The ability to review, and to report on relevant literature is a key academic skill. A literature review:

situates your research focus within the context of the wider academic community in your field;

reports your critical review of the relevant literature; and

identifies a gap within that literature that your research will attempt to address.

To some extent, particularly with postgraduate research, the literature review can become a project in itself.
It is an important showcase of your talents of: understanding, interpretation, analysis, clarity of thought,
synthesis, and development of argument. The process of conducting and reporting your literature review
can help you clarify your own thoughts about your study. It can also establish a framework within which to
present and analyze the findings.
After reading your literature review, it should be clear to the reader that you have up-to-date awareness of
the relevant work of others, and that the research question you are asking is relevant. However, dont
promise too much! Be wary of saying that your research will solve a problem, or that it will change practice.
It would be safer and probably more realistic to say that your research will address a gap, rather than that
it will fill a gap.

Why do I need a literature review?

When readers come to your assignment, dissertation, or thesis, they will not just assume that your research
or analysis is a good idea; they will want to be persuaded that it is relevant and that it was worth doing.
They will ask questions such as:

What research question(s) are you asking?

Why are you asking it/them?

Has anyone else done anything similar?

Is your research relevant to research/practice/theory in your field?

What is already known or understood about this topic?

How might your research add to this understanding, or challenge existing theories and beliefs?

These are questions that you will already probably be asking yourself. You will also need to be ready to
answer them in a viva if you will be having one.
13

A critical review
It is important that your literature review is more than just a list of references with a short description of
each one. The Study Guides: What is critical reading? and What is critical writing? are particularly relevant
to the process of critical review. Merriam (1988:6) describes the literature review as:
an interpretation and synthesis of published work.
This very short statement contains some key concepts, which are examined in the table below.
Explanation

Associated critique

Published

Merriams statement was

Increased ease of access to a wider

work

made in 1988, since which

range of published material has also

time there has been further

increased the need for careful and

extension of the concept of

clear critique of sources. Just because

being published within the

something is published does not

academic context. The term

mean its quality is assured. You need

now encompasses a wide

to demonstrate to your reader that you

range of web-based sources,

are examining your sources with a

in addition to the more

critical approach, and not just believing

traditional books and print

them automatically.

journals.
Interpretation

You need to be actively

Your interpretation of each piece of

involved in interpreting the

evidence is just that:

literature that you are

an interpretation. Your interpretation

reviewing, and in explaining

may be self-evident to you, but it may

that interpretation to the

not be to everyone else. You need to

reader, rather than just listing

critique your own interpretation of

what others have written.

material, and to present your rationale,

so that your reader can follow your
thinking.

Synthesis

The term synthesis refers to

Creating a synthesis is, in effect, like

14

the bringing together of

building interpretation upon

material from different

interpretation. It is essential to check

sources, and the creation of an

that you have constructed your

integrated whole. In this case

synthesis well, and with sufficient

the whole will be your

supporting evidence.

structured review of relevant

work, and your coherent
argument for the study that
you are doing.

When to review the literature

With small-scale writing projects, the literature review is likely to be done just once; probably before the
writing begins. With longer projects such as a dissertation for a Masters degree, and certainly with a PhD,
the literature review process will be more extended.
There are three stages at which a review of the literature is needed:

an early review is needed to establish the context and rationale for your study and to confirm your
choice of research focus/question;

as the study period gets longer, you need to make sure that you keep in touch with current, relevant
research in your field, which is published during the period of your research;

as you prepare your final report or thesis, you need to relate your findings to the findings of others, and
to identify their implications for theory, practice, and research. This can involve further review with
perhaps a slightly different focus from that of your initial review.

This applies especially to people doing PhDs on a part-time basis, where their research might extend over
six or more years. You need to be able to demonstrate that you are aware of current issues and research,
and to show how your research is relevant within a changing context.

Who can help?

Staff and students in your area can be good sources of ideas about where to look for relevant literature.
They may already have copies of articles that you can work with.

15

If you attend a conference or workshop with a wider group of people, perhaps from other universities, you
can take the opportunity to ask other attendees for recommendations of articles or books relevant to your
area of research.
Each department or school has assigned to it a specialist Information Librarian. You can find the contact
details for the Information Librarian for your own area via the Library web pages. This person can help you
identify relevant sources, and create effective electronic searches:
they help you to find information, provide training in information skills and the use of databases and can
help you to develop your research skills.

Getting started
Reading anything on your research area is a good start. You can then begin your process of evaluating the
quality and relevance of what you read, and this can guide you to more focused further reading.
Taylor and Procter of The University of Toronto have some useful suggested questions to ask yourself at
the beginning of your reading:

What is the specific thesis, problem, or research question that my literature review helps to define?

What type of literature review am I conducting? Am I looking at issues of theory? methodology? policy?
quantitative research? qualitative research?

What is the scope of my literature review? What types of publications am I using (e.g., journals, books,
government documents, popular media)?

What discipline(s) am I working in (e.g., nursing, psychology, sociology, medicine)?

You can add other questions of your own to focus the search, for example: What time period am I
interested in? What geographical area? What social setting? What materials?
You may also want to make a clear decision about whether to start with a very narrow focus and work
outwards, or to start wide before focusing in. You may even want to do both at once. It is a good idea to
decide your strategy on this, rather than drifting into one or the other. It can give you a degree of control, in
what can feel like an overwhelming and uncontrollable stage of the research process.

16

Ways of finding relevant material

Electronic sources
Searching electronic databases is probably the quickest way to access a lot of material. Guidance will be
available via your own department or school and via the relevant Information Librarian.
There may also be key sources of publications for your subject that are accessible electronically, such as
collections of policy documents, standards, archive material, videos, and audio-recordings.
References of references
If you can find a few really useful sources, it can be a good idea to check through their reference lists to see
the range of sources that they referred to. This can be particularly useful if you find a review article that
evaluates other literature in the field. This will then provide you with a long reference list, and some
evaluation of the references it contains.
Hand searching of journals
No electronic literature search can be 100% comprehensive, as the match between search terms and the
content of articles will never be perfect. An electronic search may throw up a huge number of hits, but there
are still likely to be other relevant articles that it has not detected. So, despite having access to electronic
databases and to electronic searching techniques, it can be surprisingly useful to have a pile of journals
actually on your desk, and to look through the contents pages, and the individual articles.
Often hand searching of journals will reveal ideas about focus, research questions, methods, techniques, or
interpretations that had not occurred to you. Sometimes even a key idea can be discovered in this way. It is
therefore probably worth allocating some time to sitting in the library, with issues from the last year or two of
the most relevant journals for your research topic, and reviewing them for anything of relevance.
Blaxter et al. (2001:103) recommend this method, in addition to other more systematic methods, saying:
Take some time to browse serendipity is a wonderful thing.

Collecting material
To avoid printing out or photocopying a lot of material that you will not ultimately read, you can use the
abstracts of articles to check their relevance before you obtain full copies.
EndNote and RefWorks are software packages that you can use to collect and store details of your
references, and your comments on them. As you review the references, remember to be a critical reader.
17

Keeping a record
Keeping a record of your search strategy is useful, to prevent you duplicating effort by doing the same
search twice, or missing out a significant and relevant sector of literature because you think you have
already done that search. Increasingly, examiners at post-graduate level are looking for the detail of how
you chose which evidence you decided to refer to. They will want to know how you went about looking for
relevant material, and your process of selection and omission.
You need to check what is required within your own discipline. If you are required to record and present
your search strategy, you may be able to include the technical details of the search strategy as an appendix
to your thesis.

Plagiarism
Plagiarism is regarded as a serious offence by all Universities, and you need to make sure that you do not,
even accidentally, commit plagiarism.
Plagiarism is the using of someone elses words or ideas, and passing them off as your own. It can happen
accidentally, for example, if you are careless in your note-taking. This can mean that you get mixed up over
what is an exact quote, and what you have written in your own words; or over what was an idea of your
own that you jotted down, or an idea from some text.
A practical way to help you avoid accidentally forgetting to reference someone elses work, is routinely to
record short extracts of text verbatim i.e.: using the exact words of the author, rather than putting the idea
into your own words at the point where you are still reading. You will need to put inverted commas (xxx)
around the exact quote, and record the page number on which it appears.
This has the advantage that, when you come to use that example in your writing up, you can choose:

to use the exact quote in inverted commas, with the reference and page number; or

to describe it in your own words, and use the standard reference format, without the page number, to
acknowledge that it was someone elses idea.

Help is available regarding how to avoid plagiarism and it is worth checking it out. Your department will
have its own guidance.

18

When to stop
It is important to keep control of the reading process, and to keep your research focus in mind. Rudestam
and Newton (1992:49) remind us that the aim is to Build an argument, not a library.
It is also important to see the writing stage as part of the research process, not something that happens
after you have finished reading the literature. Wellington et al (2005:80) suggest Writing while you collect
and collecting while you write.
Once you are part way through your reading you can have a go at writing the literature review, in
anticipation of revising it later on. It is often not until you start explaining something in writing that you find
where your argument is weak, and you need to collect more evidence.
A skill that helps in curtailing the reading is: knowing where to set boundaries. For example, a study of the
performance of a clinical team working in gerontology might involve reading literature within medicine;
nursing; other allied healthcare specialties; psychology; and sociology; as well as perhaps healthcare
policy; and patients experiences of healthcare. Decisions need to be made about where to focus your
reading, and where you can refer briefly to an area but explain why you will not be going into it in more
detail.

Writing it up
The task of shaping a logical and effective report of a literature review is undeniably challenging. Some
useful guidance on how to approach the writing up is given by Wellington et al (2005:87):

It should be framed by your research questions.

It must relate to your study.

It must be clear to the reader where it is going: keep signposting along the way.

Wherever possible, use original source material rather than summaries or reviews by others.

Be in control, not totally deferent to or tossed about by previous literature.

Be selective. Ask why am I including this?

It is probably best to treat it as a research project in its own right.

Engage in a dialogue with the literature, you are not just providing a summary.

In most disciplines, the aim is for the reader to reach the end of the literature review with a clear
appreciation of what you are doing; why you are doing it; and how it fits in with other research in your field.
Often, the literature review will end with a statement of the research question(s).
19

Having a lot of literature to report on can feel overwhelming. It is important to keep the focus on your study,
rather than on the literature (Wellington 2005). To help you do this, you will need to establish a structure to
work to. A good, well-explained structure is also a huge help to the reader.

Structure
As with any piece of extended writing, structure is crucial. There may be specific guidance on structure
within your department, or you may need to devise your own.
Examples of ways you might structure your literature review are:

chronologically; although be careful not just to list items; you need to write critically, not just
descriptively;

by theme; this is useful if there are several strands within your topic that can logically be considered
separately before being brought together;

by sector e.g.: political background, practice background, methodological background, geographical

background, literary background;

by development of ideas; this could be useful if there are identifiable stages of idea development that
can be looked at in turn;

by some combination of the above, or by another structure you create.

There are many possible structures, and you need to establish one that will best fit the story you are telling
of the reason for your study. Once you have established your structure you need to outline it for your
reader.

A narrative thread
Although you clearly need to write in an academic style, it can be helpful to imagine that you are telling a
story. The thread running through the story is the explanation of why you decided to do the study that you
are doing. The story needs to be logical, informative, persuasive, comprehensive and, ideally, interesting. It
needs to reach the logical conclusion that your research is a good idea.
If there is a key article or book that is of major importance to the development of your own research ideas, it
is important to give extra space to describing and critiquing that piece of literature in more depth. Similarly,
if there are some studies that you will be referring to more than to others, it would be useful to give them a
full report and critique at this stage.

20

Using tables
As well as using tables to display numerical data, tables can be useful within a literature review when you
are comparing other kinds of material. For example, you could use a table to display the key differences
between two or more:

possible theoretical perspectives;

possible methods;

sets of assumptions;

sample profiles;

possible explanations.

The table format can make the comparisons easier to understand than if they were listed within the text. It
can also be a check for yourself that you have identified enough relevant differences. An omission will be
more obvious within a table, where it would appear as a blank cell, than it would be within text.

Reference list
Almost all academic writing will need a reference list. This is a comprehensive list of the full references of
sources that you have referred to in your writing. The reader needs to be able to follow up any source you
have referred to.
The term bibliography can cause confusion, as some people use it interchangeably with the term
reference list; but they are two different things. The term bibliography refers to any source list that you
want to place at the end of your writing, including sources you have not referenced, and sources you think
readers may want to follow up. A bibliography is not usually necessary or relevant, unless you have been
asked to produce one.

Common concerns
Help! Ive spent ages reading up on Method A, and now Ive decided to use Method N. I feel Ive
wasted all that time!
This experience is common in PhD study, but it can happen at any level, and can feel as if you have
wasted a lot of effort. Looking at this positively, however, you have probably read more widely than you
might otherwise have done. Also, it may still be possible to include some of this learning in your write-up,
21

when you explain why you decided not to use Method A. It is also possible that, in a viva, you will be
asked why you didnt use that method, and you will be well-prepared to answer in detail.
Help! I thought I had a really good idea for my research, and now Ive found that someone else has
already asked the same research question!
That probably confirms that it was a good question to ask! Although this can feel very disappointing at first,
it can often be transformed into a benefit. It is important that your research fits logically within the existing
research in your area, and you may have found an ideal study to link with and to extend in some way.
Remember that:

if it (or something very like it) has been done before, and has been published, it is likely that this
signifies it was a relevant and important topic to investigate;

you can learn from how the previous researchers did it: what worked and what didnt;

did the previous researchers suggest any further research? If so, you may be able to link your own
plans to fit with their suggestions;

can you take the investigation further by doing your own similar research: in a different setting; with a
different sample; over a different timescale; with a different intervention etc.;

their literature review and reference list should be useful.

Help! I think Ive got a great idea for a study, but I cant find anything published about the topic.
Firstly, this is unlikely. Perhaps if you modify your search strategy you will find something. However, if there
really isnt anything, then you need to ask why this is the case. Check out whether there is an important
reason why the research has not been done, which would make it sensible for you to choose a different
focus. If you do decide to go ahead, then take extra care designing your research, in the absence of
guidance from previous studies.
Blaxter et al. (2001:125) suggest that, if there appears to be no research in your field:
you should probably consider changing your topic. Ploughing a little-known furrow as a novice
researcher is going to be very difficult, and you may find it difficult to get much support or help.
An important aspect of your thesis and your viva, is that you can show how your research fits with other
research. This will be just as important when there is limited existing research in your area, as when there
is an abundance.
Reviewing your review
Once you have a first draft of your literature review it is possible for you to assess how well you have
achieved your aims. One way of doing this is to examine each paragraph in turn, and to write in the margin
22

a very brief summary of the content, and the type of content e.g.: argument for; argument against;
description; example; theory; link. These summaries then provide the outline of the story you are telling,
and the way that you are telling it. Both of these are important and need to be critically reviewed.
Useful questions at this stage include:

What is the balance between description and comment?

Have I missed out any important dimension of the argument, or literature?

Have I supported the development of each step in my argument effectively?

Is the material presented in the most effective order?

Are there places where the reader is left with unanswered questions?

Is every element of my research question supported by the preceding material?

Have I explained to the reader the relevance of each piece of evidence?

Is there any material that is interesting but which does not contribute to the development of the
argument?

Have I explained adequately the justification for this research approach / topic / question?

Are my references up to date?

How effective is my linking of all the elements?

Beware of becoming too attached to your writing. You need to be ready to cross out whole paragraphs or
even whole sections if they do not pass the above tests. If you find that what youve written is not in the
best order, then re-shaping it is not a huge problem. It may be mainly a case of cutting and pasting material
into a different order, with some additional explanation and linking. If this produces a more relevant and
streamlined argument it is well worth the effort.

23

4. ESSAY TERMS EXPLAINED

To write a good essay, you firstly need to have a clear understanding of what the essay question is asking
you to do. Looking at the essay question in close detail will help you to identify the topic and directive
words (Dhann, 2001), which instruct you how to answer the question. Understanding the meaning of these
directive words is a vital first step in producing your essay.
This glossary provides definitions of some of the more typical words that you may come across in an essay
question. Please note that these definitions are meant to provide general, rather than exact guidance, and
are not a substitute for reading the question carefully. Get this wrong, and you risk the chance of writing an
essay that lacks focus, or is irrelevant.
Essay term

Definition

Analyze

Break an issue into its constituent parts. Look in depth at each part using supporting
arguments and evidence for and against as well as how these interrelate to one
another.

Assess

Weigh up to what extent something is true. Persuade the reader of your argument by
citing relevant research but also remember to point out any flaws and counterarguments as well. Conclude by stating clearly how far you are in agreement with the
original proposition.

Clarify

Literally make something clearer and, where appropriate, simplify it. This could involve,
for example, explaining in simpler terms a complex process or theory, or the
relationship between two variables.

Comment

Pick out the main points on a subject and give your opinion, reinforcing your point of

upon

view using logic and reference to relevant evidence, including any wider reading you
have done.

Compare

Identify the similarities and differences between two or more phenomena. Say if any of
the shared similarities or differences are more important than others. Compare and
contrast will often feature together in an essay question.
24

Consider

Say what you think and have observed about something. Back up your comments
using appropriate evidence from external sources, or your own experience. Include
any views which are contrary to your own and how they relate to what you originally
thought.

Contrast

Similar to compare but concentrate on the dissimilarities between two or more

phenomena, or what sets them apart. Point out any differences which are particularly
significant.

Critically

Give your verdict as to what extent a statement or findings within a piece of research

evaluate

are true, or to what extent you agree with them. Provide evidence taken from a wide
range of sources which both agree with and contradict an argument. Come to a final
conclusion, basing your decision on what you judge to be the most important factors
and justify how you have made your choice.

Define

To give in precise terms the meaning of something. Bring to attention any problems
posed with the definition and different interpretations that may exist.

Demonstrate

Show how, with examples to illustrate.

Describe

Provide a detailed explanation as to how and why something happens.

Discuss

Essentially this is a written debate where you are using your skill at reasoning, backed
up by carefully selected evidence to make a case for and against an argument, or
point out the advantages and disadvantages of a given context. Remember to arrive at
a conclusion.

Elaborate

To give in more detail, provide more information on.

Evaluate

See the explanation for critically evaluate.

Examine

Look in close detail and establish the key facts and important issues surrounding a
topic. This should be a critical evaluation and you should try and offer reasons as to
why the facts and issues you have identified are the most important, as well as explain
the different ways they could be construed.
25

Explain

Clarify a topic by giving a detailed account as to how and why it occurs, or what is
meant by the use of this term in a particular context. Your writing should have clarity so
that complex procedures or sequences of events can be understood, defining key
terms where appropriate, and be substantiated with relevant research.

Explore

Adopt a questioning approach and consider a variety of different viewpoints. Where

possible reconcile opposing views by presenting a final line of argument.

Give an

Means give a detailed description of something. Not to be confused with account for

account of

which asks you not only what, but why something happened.

Identify

Determine what are the key points to be addressed and implications thereof.

Illustrate

A similar instruction to explain whereby you are asked to show the workings of
something, making use of definite examples and statistics if appropriate to add weight
to your explanation.

Interpret

Demonstrate your understanding of an issue or topic. This can be the use of particular
terminology by an author, or what the findings from a piece of research suggest to you.
In the latter instance, comment on any significant patterns and causal relationships.

Justify

Make a case by providing a body of evidence to support your ideas and points of view.
In order to present a balanced argument, consider opinions which may run contrary to
your own before stating your conclusion.

Outline

Convey the main points placing emphasis on global structures and interrelationships
rather than minute detail.

Review

Look thoroughly into a subject. This should be a critical assessment and not merely
descriptive.

Show how

Present, in a logical order, and with reference to relevant evidence the stages and
combination of factors that give rise to something.

State

To specify in clear terms the key aspects pertaining to a topic without being overly

26

descriptive. Refer to evidence and examples where appropriate.

Summarize

Give a condensed version drawing out the main facts and omit superfluous
information. Brief or general examples will normally suffice for this kind of answer.

To what

Evokes a similar response to questions containing 'How far...'. This type of question

extent

calls for a thorough assessment of the evidence in presenting your argument. Explore
alternative explanations where they exist.

27

5. INCLUSIVE WRITING
People do not want to feel excluded, or to be labeled inferior, either as individuals, or as members of a
group. However, it is possible to exclude or imply inferiority without realizing it, if insufficient care is taken
with your writing. This Study Guide reviews the main ways in which inappropriate assumptions can be
made within academic writing, and gives ideas about how to avoid this within your own writing.
There are many words that have been widely used traditionally, but which are based on outdated
assumptions. A familiar example is words containing the word man e.g.: chairman, manpower, and manmade, the use of which can be taken to imply that women do not participate in these activities.
We also have a tradition of referring to people with disabilities, by their disability e.g.: calling a person with
epilepsy an epileptic; and of using stereotypes with unhelpful presumptions of normality and by
implication

abnormality.

These

problems

are

most

commonly

found

within

the

fields

of: gender; disability; race; and sexual orientation. Language with regard to these characteristics will be
examined in turn within this Study Guide.

The challenge
The appropriateness of language is a contested area that changes in the light of social debates and
political agendas. It is not possible to prescribe appropriate language in all cases. The challenge is:
to communicate in a manner that does not exclude particular individuals or groups. At the same time
to avoid getting trapped in euphemisms and the ever-changing preferences of various politically correct
factionsboth liberal and conservative. Its a balancing act, the basic premise of which is to treat people as
individuals who are equal.
http://ucommunications.colorado.edu/services/style-guide/inclusive-writing
Examples and references

American Psychological Association at http://www.apastyle.org/manual/related/guidelinesreporting-and-writing.pdf

British Sociological Association at www.britsoc.co.uk/equality/

The Writing Center at the University of North Carolina

at www.unc.edu/depts/wcweb/handouts/gender.html

Brookes, I. & Marshall, D. (2004) Good writing guide. Edinburgh: Chambers.

28

Examples of writing that is not inclusive

If we get an engineering student on the committee well need to make sure that he can fit the meetings in
around his project work
This assumes that all engineering students are male.
We need to cater for the wives as well as the managers
This implies firstly that all managers must be male; and secondly that they will have female partners.
The professors may need a little extra time in case they forget where theyve parked
This implies all professors are absent-minded and forgetful.
Such writing can make people feel:

less important than others

defective

irritated that they have fewer rights

inappropriately stereotyped

excluded

offended

unvalued

abnormal

biased against

Particular challenges within academic writing

If you are writing about, or conducting, research involving human participants, it may be essential that you
report certain demographic details such as gender, race, ethnicity, and age. These details may be needed
to inform the interpretation of the findings, and to support judgments about their generaliability. Such details
may need to appear in any section of a piece of writing, from the literature review, through the method and
findings sections, to the conclusions. The key questions to address are:

when should we report these details?

how should we refer to special interest groups?

Guiding principles are that:

you need to record and describe the demographic details that are relevant to the conduct, findings,
and generalisability of the research, but not the demographic details that are not;
29

you need to take care that the descriptions you use would not offend people in the groups you are
describing. Ideally you would use terms that people in those groups might use to describe themselves.
It is important to appreciate that what may sometimes seem to be a very minor difference in the label
chosen can make a huge difference to the impact that label has on members of that group.

General principles you can use to guide your writing

In addition to the guidance and examples given later, about specific areas where care needs to be taken,
the following are some general principles that are useful to work to in all writing.
1. Avoid implying that people in a certain group are abnormal compared with the normal population e.g.:
when comparing people with a disability with people who do not have that particular disability, use the
term non-disabled or people without a disability rather than the word normal.
2. Take care not to appear to use your own group as the reference group, thus implying both normality
and superiority e.g.: describing a culture as culturally deprived implies that it fails in comparison with,
usually, western culture.
3. Keep in mind that differences arising from race or ethnic comparisons do not imply deficits.
4. Try to become routinely aware of any assumptions you are making regarding gender, race, disability,
sexual orientation, or any other pattern or grouping.
5. Become familiar with websites, books, or articles, that give good guidance on this issue, such as those
listed on the first page.

Gender
An ever-present problem is how to avoid the potentially distracting over-use of he or she or s/he
scattered throughout a piece of writing, yet retain an essence of neutrality. Table 1 shows some ideas to
help with this.
Priniciple

Example

Suggested alternative

Use they instead of he

Each respondent was

Respondents were asked

or she (only when the

asked whether he wished to

whether they wished to

use of plurals would be

participate.

participate.

acceptable)

30

Use you to speak direct

The student should make

You should make sure

to the reader

sure she checks her

you check your references

references carefully.

carefully.

Changing the sentence to

The child should be given

Ample time should be

avoid the need to state a

ample time to familiarise

allowed for the child to

gender

himself with the

become familiar with the

test material.

test material.

Table 1: Gendered language

Another possibility is to alternate genders throughout a list, or by chapter. As well as being explicit in
pronouns such as he, she, him, and her, gender is implicit in many nouns themselves. Table 2 lists
examples of the kind of word to look out for, and offers some corresponding gender-neutral options.
Gendered noun

Gender-neutral noun

man in the street

people in general, people

manpower

workforce, labour force, employees

cameraman

camera operator

policeman

police officer

forefathers

ancestors

founding fathers

founders

old masters

classic art/artists

master copy

top copy/original

steward, stewardess

flight attendant

man-made

artificial, synthetic
Table 2: Gendered nouns

31

Disability
People with a disability usually prefer to be thought of first as individual people. They prefer not to be
labelled primarily as victims; passively disabled; or labelled constantly with the name of their disability. The
aim is to maintain the integrity of individuals e.g.:

The term disabled person implies that a person as a whole is disabled. It could be replaced with
person with (who has) a disability.

The term epileptic equates the person with their condition. Instead you could write person with
epilepsy.

The term stroke victim has superfluous, negative overtones of passivity and victim-hood. It would be
preferable to write individual who had had a stroke.

Similarly, the term confined to a wheelchair could more respectfully be replaced by person who uses
a wheelchair, changing from passive to active voice.
All of these suggestions put the individual person first, and refer to their disability second.

Race
It is important to report details of race and ethnicity where they are necessary to describe or explain an
aspect of method, analysis, or interpretation. Where this is essential, it is important to use acceptable
labels. You need to be guided in acceptability by members of the groups you are describing, rather than by
any standard practice you might be used to. Names and preferences change over time so it is important to
check what is currently acceptable.
General guidance can be given, but this is, along with the rest of the guidance in this Study Guide, best
practice only at the time of writing (2007), and will need to be checked for current validity at the time of use.
Current advice is to:

use positive descriptions/definitions such as Asian, which give people a name in their own right, rather
than negative ones like Non-White, that define people relative to a supposed norm of whiteness;

avoid saying English if you mean British: this could alienate some people you are including who are
Scottish or Welsh rather than English;

avoid hyphens in multiword labels e.g.: Mexican Americans is preferable to Mexican-Americans. The
first is a description of some Americans, with the additional information in the adjective Mexican, while
the second is a label or name;

32

be aware of assumptions implicit in commonly used words and phrases such as: illegal asylum
seekers, when to seek asylum is not in itself illegal; and the term assimilation, if you are really talking
about integration;

be aware that ethnic minorities is not necessarily the same as Non-White e.g.: the ethnic minority might
be Irish or Welsh;

When possible, authors should use the more specific rather than the less specific term
(e.g., Choctaws is more specific than American Indian; Cubans is more specific thanHispanic).

Sexual orientation
You need to acknowledge the existence of a range of sexual orientations. Careless wording can easily
make people feel excluded, or abnormal. The table below gives some examples of careless writing,
explains what the problem is, and suggests more acceptable wording.
Problematic

Preferred

Comment

Sexual preference

Sexual orientation

Using orientation avoids the

connotation of voluntary choice, and
thereby potential blame, implicit in
the word preference.

Women's sexual

Women's male sexual

Avoids assumption of

partners should use

partners should use

heterosexuality.

condoms.

condoms.

AIDS education must

AIDS education must

Does not imply that gay men are set

extend beyond the

not focus only on

apart from the general population.

gay male population

selected groups.

to the general
population.
Table 3: Language associated with sexual orientation
Conclusion
Because of the ingrained nature of cultural bias, it is possible to offend without having any intention to do
so, and without noticing. It is therefore worth incorporating a specific scan for sensitive language within your
33

usual revision or editing process. You can use the guidance in this Study Guide to devise your own check
list. The references listed on the front page provide more examples and guidance on these and other areas
of sensitivity.

34

6.
PLANNING AND CONDUCTING A DISSERTATION RESEARCH PROJECT
This guide addresses the task of planning and conducting a small research project, such as for an
undergraduate or masters level dissertation. It aims to help you develop a clear sense of direction early on
in the project, and to support you in organising, planning, and monitoring your project.

What is a dissertation?
A dissertation is a particular kind of academic task. You will usually be asked to generate a topic for
yourself; to plan and execute a project investigating that topic; and to write-up what you did and what your
findings were. Important stages in the dissertation process include:

choosing a topic;

developing a research question;

effective planning of the research;

being organized and methodical while conducting your research; and

reporting the research.

Choosing a topic
While some students come to their research project with a clear research question to address, many others
arrive at this point with several ideas, but with no specific research question. In view of the pressure to get
started fairly quickly, this can cause anxiety and even panic. It is, however, a common situation to be in.
There are several ways forward:

Talk to others: what topics are other students considering? Does this spark an interest? Dont wait until
you have a fully formed research question before discussing your ideas with others, as their comments
and questions may help you to refine your focus.

Look at other writing: set aside some time to spend in the library, skimming through the titles of
research papers in your field over the past five years, and reading the abstracts of those you find most
interesting.

Look through the dissertations of previous students in your department: the topics may give you
inspiration, and they may have useful suggestions for further research.
35

Think about your own interests: which topic have you found most interesting, and is there an element
that could be developed into a research project?

Is there a related topic of interest to you that has not been covered in the syllabus, but would fit with the
theory or methodology you have been working with?

Be extra critical: is there something in your course so far that you have been sceptical about, or which
you think needs further study?

Read about an interesting topic and keep asking the question Why? :this may identify a research
question you could address.
Remember that a research study can:

replicate an existing study in a different setting;

explore an under-researched area;

extend a previous study;

review the knowledge thus far in a specific field;

develop or test out a methodology or method;

address a research question in isolation, or within a wider program of work; or

apply a theoretical idea to a real world problem.

This list is not exhaustive, and you need to check whether your department has a preference for particular
kinds of research study.
Discuss your proposed topic with a member of academic staff who you think might be appropriate to
supervise the project. Provided they feel that they know enough about the subject to supervise it, and
provided that it can be interpreted as falling within the broad fields of your degree subject, academic staff
are generally open to suggestions.
You should think realistically about the practical implications of your choice, in terms of:

the time requirement;

necessary travelling;

access to equipment or room space;

access to the population of interest; and

possible costs.

For example, a project on coal mining in the North East of England may require you to visit Newcastles
Record Office, or to interview coal miners from the region. Is this something that you are prepared and able
36

to do? If the practical considerations associated with your research ideas are unrealistic, you need to
consider whether you are willing to modify or reconsider your project.

Developing a research question

Once your topic has been accepted by your department, you need to begin the process of refining the topic
and turning it into something that is focused enough to guide your project. Try describing it as a research
problem that sets out:

the issue that you are going to be investigating;

your argument or thesis (what you want to prove, disprove, or explore); and

the limits of your research (i.e. what you are not going to be investigating).

It is important that you establish a research problem at, or close to the start of, your project. It is one of the
key tools you have, to ensure that your project keeps going in the right direction. Every task you undertake
should begin with you checking your research problem and asking will this help me address this
problem?.
You should be willing to revise your research problem as you find out more about your topic. You may, for
example, discover that the data you were hoping to analyze is not available, or you may encounter a new
piece of information or a new concept while undertaking a literature search, that makes you rethink the
basis of your research problem. You should always talk to your supervisor before you make any substantial
revision to your plans, and explain why you think you need to make the change.
Research problem

Commentary

'Public transport in Scotland

This sets out your research field but does not frame a
research problem because it is too general. You do not have
time to study everything about a topic, so you should focus
on an aspect that you are interested in.

Examination of the influence of

This is a much better research problem as it establishes an

public transport links on new

argument (existence of public transport may have some

housing development in Western

influence on new housing development). However, it is still

Scotland

quite general and could be improved by further focus.

37

Investigation of the relationship

This is better still. It shows the limits of the project. You will

between public transport links and

be investigating a complex subject (public transport in

the development of new areas of

Scotland), but will be focusing on only one aspect of it

housing in Western Scotland: a

(possible influence on new housing development). You will

comparison of local plans and

make this large subject manageable by focusing on a limited

building development since 1990

period of time (1990 onwards), and limited sources.

Effective planning of the research

Writing a research proposal
A research proposal is a more detailed description of the project you are going to undertake. Some
departments require you to submit a research proposal as part of the assessment of your dissertation, but it
is worth preparing one even if it is not a formal requirement of your course. It should build on the thinking
that you have done in defining your research problem; on the discussions that you have had with your
supervisor; and on early reading that you have done on the topic. A comprehensive research proposal will
make you think through exactly what it is that you are going to do, and will help you when you start to write
up the project.
You could try outlining your project under the following headings (Booth, Williams, & Colomb, 2003. The
craft of research. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.):
Topic:

this project will study...

Question/problem:

to find out...

Significance:

so that more will be known about...

Primary resources:

the main data will be...

Secondary sources:

additional data comes from...

Methods:

the research will be conducted as follows...

Justification:

the method is most appropriate because...

Limitations:

there are some matters that this methodology may not help
me to explain. These might include...
38

You may find that some of these headings are difficult to fill in right at the start of your project. However,
you can use the gaps to help identify where you need to begin work. If, for example, you are unsure about
the limitations of your methodology you should talk to your supervisor and read a bit more about that
methodology before you start.

Creating a research plan

A dissertation is an extended project that asks you to manage your time and undertake a variety of tasks.
Some courses schedule the dissertation at the end, while others have it running along concurrently with
other modules. Whichever way your course is organized, it is essential that you create a plan that helps you
allocate enough time to each task you have to complete.
It is useful to work out how many weeks you have until you need to submit your completed dissertation, and
draw a chart showing these weeks. Block out the weeks when you know you will be unable to work, and
mark in other main commitments you have that will take time during this period. Then allocate research
tasks to the remaining time.
January
Christmas

Write

Literature

Complete literature

Main data

research

review

review and conduct pilot

collection

proposal

study

February
Complete data

Analyse data

Analyse data

collection

Write dissertation plan,

then begin first draft

March
Complete

Discuss draft with

Second

first draft

supervisor

draft

Second draft

Proofing/checking

It is very important to be realistic about how long each task is likely to take. Some focused thought at the
beginning, then at the planning stage of each phase, could save hours later on. Write down the resources
39

needed for each stage. It could be time in the library; the resource of your working hours; or the use of
equipment or room space that needs to be booked in advance.
Procrastination
Some people find that they procrastinate more than they would like. This is a common problem, so it is
probably best to be well-prepared to identify it and deal with it if it does start to happen. People
procrastinate for various reasons for example:

poor time management

daunted by the scale of the task

negative beliefs

loss of motivation

perfectionism

difficulty concentrating

need to feel under pressure

personal problems

Early identification of the signs of procrastination will give you the best chance of minimizing any negative
effects. Once you suspect that you are procrastinating, it can be helpful to review what you are expecting of
yourself, and check that those expectations are realistic. This is where planning is vital.

Realistic planning
To improve the prospect of completing on time, and avoiding procrastination, you need to:

be realistic about when you can/will start;

devote time to planning and revising your plan;

try to work out if any of your research will take a set amount of time to complete;

allocate appropriate time for any travelling you need to do for your research;

include other (non-dissertation related) things that you have to do between now and then;

have clear and achievable objectives for each week;

focus on one thing at a time;

leave time for editing and correcting;

reward yourself when you complete objectives that you have timetabled; and

if you fall behind make sure you spend time reworking your plan.

40

Your research plan should also include information about what equipment you will need to complete your
project, and any travel costs or other expenses that you are likely to incur through the pursuit of your
research. You should also think about whether you are dependent on any one else to complete your
project, and think about what you are going to do if they are unable to help you.
Once you have created your plan it is a good idea to show it to someone else. Ideally you will be able to
show it to a member of academic staff or bring it to the Learning Development, but talking it over with a
friend may also help you to spot anything that you have forgotten or anywhere that you have been
unrealistic in your planning.

Being organized and methodical while conducting your research

The role of the supervisor
Although a dissertation is an opportunity for you to work independently, you will usually be allocated a
member of academic staff as a supervisor. Supervisors are there to help you shape your ideas and give
you advice on how to conduct the research for your dissertation. They are not there to teach you the topic
you have chosen to investigate: this is your project. They are, however, one of the resources that you can
call on during your research.
Academics are busy people, so to get the most out of your supervisor you will need to be organised and to
take responsibility for the relationship. It is not your supervisors job to chase you into completing your
dissertation, or to tell you how to manage the different stages of the project. To ensure that you get the
most out of your supervisor you need to:

agree a timetable of meetings at the start of your project and stick to it;

make sure that each meeting has a focus e.g. setting a research problem, analysing the data;

send something that can form the basis of a discussion about your progress to your supervisor before
each meeting. This could include your research plan, early results of your data collection or draft
chapters;

turn up on time to each meeting you have arranged. Do not assume that your supervisor is available at
all times to see you;

at the end of each supervision agree some action points for you to focus on before the next time you
meet; and

keep a record of what you decide in supervision sessions.

41

If you are not happy with the way you are being supervised, explain why to your supervisor or discuss
the issue with your personal tutor.

Undertaking a literature survey

Regardless of whether you have been given a dissertation topic or you have developed your own ideas,
you will need to be able to demonstrate the rationale for your research, and to describe how it fits within the
wider research context in your area. To support you in doing this you will need to undertake a literature
review, which is a review of material that has already been published, either in hard copy or electronically,
that may be relevant for your research project. Key tools that are available to help you, include:

internet

search

engines,

especially

ones

that

offer

advanced

search

features

(seehttp://www.google.com/ and http://scholar.google.com/);

the University of Leicester Library Catalogue;

electronic journals available via the library; and

bibliographies in any key texts about your topic.

It is a good idea to make an appointment to see the librarian specialising in your subject. An information
librarian should be able to give you advice on your literature search, and on how to manage the information
that you generate.
You will probably generate more references than you can read. Use the titles and abstracts to decide
whether the reference is worth reading in detail. Be selective by concentrating on references that:

are recommended by your supervisor;

contain a high number of specifically relevant keywords;

are cited in a number of other works; and

are published in the last five years, unless they are key texts in your field.

Once you start reading, ensure that you think about what you are trying to get out of each article or book
that you read. Your notes should enable you to write up your literature search without returning to the
books you have read.

Collecting data
For most research projects the data collection phase feels like the most important part. However, you
should avoid jumping straight into this phase until you have adequately defined your research problem, and

42

the extent and limitations of your research. If you are too hasty you risk collecting data that you will not be
able to use.
Consider how you are going to store and retrieve your data. You should set up a system that allows you to:

record data accurately as you collect it;

retrieve data quickly and efficiently;

analyse and compare the data you collect; and

create appropriate outputs for your dissertation e.g. tables and graphs, if appropriate.

There are many systems that support effective data collection and retrieval. These range from card indexes
and cross-referenced exercise books, through electronic tools like spreadsheets, databases and
bibliographic software, to discipline-specific tools. You should talk about how you plan to store your data
with your supervisor, an information librarian, or a study adviser in the Learning Development. As you
undertake your research you are likely to come up with lots of ideas. It can be valuable to keep a record of
these ideas on index cards, in a dedicated notebook, or in an electronic file. You can refer back to this
ideas store when you start to write. They may be useful as ideas in themselves, and may be useful as a
record of how your thinking developed through the research process.

Pilot studies
A pilot study involves preliminary data collection, using your planned methods, but with a very small
sample. It aims to test out your approach, and identify any details that need to be addressed before the
main data collection goes ahead. For example, you could get a small group to fill in your questionnaire,
perform a single experiment, or analyse a single novel or document.
When you complete your pilot study you should be cautious about reading too much into the results that
you have generated (although these can sometimes be interesting). The real value of your pilot study is
what it tells you about your method.

Was it easier or harder than you thought it was going to be?

Did it take longer than you thought it was going to?

Did participants, chemicals, processes behave in the way you expected?

What impact did it have on you as a researcher?

Spend time reflecting on the implications that your pilot study might have for your research project, and
make the necessary adjustment to your plan. Even if you do not have the time or opportunity to run a
formal pilot study, you should try and reflect on your methods after you have started to generate some data.
43

Dealing with problems

Once you start to generate data you may find that the research project is not developing as you had hoped.
Do not be upset that you have encountered a problem. Research is, by its nature, unpredictable. Analyse
the situation. Think about what the problem is and how it arose. Is it possible that going back a few steps
may resolve it? Or is it something more fundamental? If so, estimate how significant the problem is to
answering your research question, and try to calculate what it will take to resolve the situation. Changing
the title is not normally the answer, although modification of some kind may be useful.
If a problem is intractable you should arrange to meet your supervisor as soon as possible. Give him or her
a detailed analysis of the problem, and always value their recommendations. The chances are they have
been through a similar experience and can give you valuable advice. Never try to ignore a problem, or hope
that it will go away. Also dont think that by seeking help you are failing as a researcher.
Finally, it is worth remembering that every problem you encounter, and successfully solve, is potentially
useful information in writing up your research. So dont be tempted to skirt around any problems you
encountered when you come to write-up. Rather, flag up these problems and show your examiners how
you overcame them.

Reporting the research

As you conduct research, you are likely to realise that the topic that you have focused on is more complex
than you realised when you first defined your research question. The research is still valid even though you
are now aware of the greater size and complexity of the problem. A crucial skill of the researcher is to
define clearly the boundaries of their research and to stick to them. You may need to refer to wider
concerns; to a related field of literature; or to alternative methodology; but you must not be diverted into
spending too much time investigating relevant, related, but distinctly separate fields.
Starting to write up your research can be intimidating, but it is essential that you ensure that you have
enough time not only to write up your research, but also to review it critically, then spend time editing and
improving it. The following tips should help you to make the transition from research to writing:

In your research plan you need to specify a time when you are going to stop researching and start
writing. You should aim to stick to this plan unless you have a very clear reason why you need to
continue your research longer.

44

Take a break from your project. When you return, look dispassionately at what you have already
achieved and ask yourself the question: Do I need to do more research?

Speak to your supervisor about your progress. Ask them whether you still need to collect more data.

Remember that you can not achieve everything in your dissertation. A section where you discuss Further
Work at the end of your dissertation will show that you are thinking about the implications your work has for
the academic community.

Summary

Think carefully about your topic and ensure that it is sufficiently focused.

Write a detailed research proposal to help you anticipate the issues/problems that you are going to deal
with.

Devote time to planning and stick to your plan.

Work closely with your supervisor and respect the time and advice that they give you.

Be organised and take detailed notes when you are undertaking your literature survey and data
collection.

Make a clear decision about stopping data collection.

Move positively into writing-up your research.

Allocate enough time to reviewing and editing your writing.

Remember that you cannot achieve everything in your dissertation, but you can critically appraise what
you have done, and outline ideas for further, relevant research.

45

7. WRITING ESSAYS
This Study Guide addresses the topic of essay writing. The essay is used as a form of assessment in many
academic disciplines, and is used in both coursework and exams. It is the most common focus for study
consultations among students using Learning Development.

Why essays?
To produce a high quality essay you need to demonstrate your ability:

to understand the precise task set by the title;

to identify, appropriate material to read;

to understand and evaluate that material;

to select the most relevant material to refer to in your essay;

to construct an effective argument; and

to arrive at a well-supported conclusion.

The need to use such a wide range of academic skills is probably the main reason why the essay format is
so popular with tutors as an assignment.
The word limit adds to the challenge by requiring that all of these skills be demonstrated within a relatively
small number of words. Producing incisive and clear written work within a word limit is an important skill in
itself, which will be useful in many aspects of life beyond university.
Feedback
Good, constructively critical feedback can give you excellent guidance on how to improve your essay
writing. It is worth attending to all of the suggestions and comments you receive, and trying to act on them.
Common criticism given to students is that their essay:

does not keep to the title that was set;

has a poor structure;

is too descriptive;

does not have enough critical writing.

These criticisms highlight the three basic elements of good essay writing:

attending closely to the title;

establishing a relevant structure that will help you show the development of your argument; and
46

using critical writing as much as possible; with descriptive writing being used where necessary, but kept
to a minimum.

These elements will be used to give a broad overall structure to this Study Guide.
Attending closely to the title
The most important starting point is to listen carefully to what the essay title is telling you.
You need to read every single word of it, and to squeeze out as much guidance you can from the title. Then
you need to plan how you will respond to every single element of the title. The guidance given to you by the
title is freely available, and is your best clue to what is required in your essay.
As a tutor has said (Creme and Lea, 1997 p41):
When my students ask me about essay writing, there are three main pieces of advice that I give them.
One, answer the question. Two, answer the question. Three, answer the question.
This is important at the start, but also throughout your writing, as it can be easy to drift away and waste
valuable words from your word limit by writing material that may be interesting, but which is not relevant to
the title set.

Brainstorming
To start you off, and to minimise the likelihood of writers block, a useful exercise is to do a brainstorm of
all your ideas in connection with the essay title. It can be a way of making a lot of progress quite quickly.
It can be stressful and very difficult trying to work out solely in your mind how to tackle an essay title; asking
yourself questions such as: What structure should I use? What are my main points? What reading do I
need to do? Have I got enough evidence? It can be much less stressful to throw all your thoughts down on
paper, before you start trying to find answers to these questions.
In these early stages of your thinking you may not be sure which of your ideas you want to follow up and
which you will be discarding. So, dont feel you have to make that decision in your head before you write
anything. Instead, you can catch all of your ideas, in no particular order, on a sheet or two of A4. Once they
are down there it will be easier for you to start to review them critically and to see where you need to focus
your reading and note taking.

47

Breaking it down then building it up

Essentially, this is what you are doing within the essay process: breaking ideas down, then building them
up again. You need to:

break down the essay title into its component parts, and consider possible ways of addressing them;

work with these component parts, as you select your reading and make relevant notes;

build up the essay using the material you have collected; ordering it;

presenting and discussing it;

and forming it into a coherent argument.

Throughout this process, the essay title is the single immovable feature. You begin there; you end there;
and everything in between needs to be placed in relation to that title.

Efficient reading
All three of the processes described above will inform your decisions about what you need to read for a
particular essay. If left unplanned, the reading stage can swallow up huge amounts of time. Fortunately,
there is scope for developing efficiency in several ways:

making intelligent decisions, based on your initial planning, about which sources to target, so you dont
spend time reading less relevant, or even completely irrelevant material;

reading with a purpose, so that you are looking out for particularly relevant material, rather than paying
equal attention to material that is less relevant;

systematic note taking, so that you record the most relevant material, and that you have full reference
details (including page numbers of direct quotes) of all material you may end up using.

While a certain level of efficiency is desirable, it is also important to remain flexible enough to identify
relevant and interesting ideas that you had not anticipated.

Writing as thinking
You can use the writing process to help you think through, clarify and develop your early ideas about how
you might respond to the title that has been set:
you may not know what you think until you have written it down (Creme & Lea, 1997 p115).

48

As with teaching, it is often not until you try to communicate an argument and its evidence that you find
where the gaps are in your knowledge or argument. So dont be afraid of writing down your ideas before
they are fully formed, or in the right order.
Writing is an active and constructive process; it is not merely a neutral recording of your thoughts. It is
therefore useful to go into the writing process expecting to make revisions. The first words you write do not
have to be part of the final version. Editing your writing as you develop your ideas is a positive not a
negative process: the more you cross out, re-write, and re-order, the better your essay should become.

Establishing a relevant structure to support your argument

All essays need structure. The structure may be strong and clear, or it may be unobtrusive and minimal but,
in a good essay, it will be there.
Underpinning the structure will the argument your essay is making. Again this may be strong and obvious,
or it may be almost invisible, but it needs to be there. In different subject areas, and with different styles of
writing, the term argument may seem more or less relevant. However, even in those essays that appear to
be highly creative, unscientific, or personal, an argument of some kind is being made.
It is the argument, and how you decide to present and back up your argument, that will influence your
decision on how to structure your essay.
The essay structure is not an end in itself, but a means to an end: the end is the quality of the argument.
By creating a relevant structure, you make it much easier for yourself to present an effective argument.
There are several generic structures that can help you start to think about your essay structure e.g.:

chronological;

thematic;

by context;

comparative.

These can be useful starting points, but you will probably decide to work with a more complicated structure
e.g.:

overall chronological structure; broken down by comparisons according to the elements of the title;

overall thematic structure; broken down by sub-themes;

overall comparative structure; broken down by context.

49

In addition to these macro-structures you will probably need to establish a micro-structure relating to the
particular elements you need to focus on e.g.: evidence / policy / theory / practice / case studies / examples
/ debates.

Fluid structures
You may feel that, for your particular essay, structures like these feel too rigid. You may wish to create a
more flexible or fluid structure. Perhaps a more suitable word than structure in those cases may be
pattern, or impression, or atmosphere; although these merge into the field of creative writing rather than
essay writing.
An analogy could be that of symphony writing. The composers Haydon and Mozart, working in the 18th
century, tended to write symphonies to fit reliably and closely within what was called symphonic form. This
set out a pattern for the numbers of movements within the symphony, and for the general structure of
writing within each movement. The continued popularity of their work today shows that they clearly
managed to achieve plenty of interest and variety within that basic structure.
Later composers moved away from strict symphonic form. Some retained a loose link to it while others
abandoned it completely, in favour of more fluid patterns. It would be rare, however, to find a symphony
that was without structure or pattern of any kind; it would probably not be satisfactory either to play or to
listen to. Similarly, a structure of some kind is probably essential for every essay, however revolutionary.
Your decisions on structure will be based on a combination of:

the requirements of your department;

the potential of the essay title; and

your own preferences and skill.

An iterative, not necessarily a linear process

The process of essay planning and writing does not need to be a linear process, where each stage is done
only once. It is often an iterative process i.e.: a process where earlier stages are repeated when they can
be revised in the light of subsequent work. A possible iterative process is:

analyse the title

brainstorm relevant ideas

read around the title, making relevant notes

prepare a first draft

50

analyse the title again

critically review your first draft in the light of this further analysis

read further to fill in gaps

prepare final draft

critically edit the final draft

submit the finished essay.

Helping your readers

This section heading is in quotes as it is also the heading of chapter 8, pages 80-92, in Barass (1982).
Barass (1982 p80) makes the simple but valid statement, that:
By making things easy for your readers, you help yourself to convey information and ideas.
The tutors reading and marking your essays deserves your consideration. They will be reading and marking
many, many student essays. If you make your argument hard to follow, so that they need to re-read a
paragraph (or more) to try to make sense of what you have written, you will cause irritation, and make their
job slower. Realistically, it is possible that they may even decide not to make that effort. It is your task to
present your argument in a way that your audience can follow; it is not your audiences job to launch an
investigation to detect the points you are trying to make.
Your tutors will not necessarily be looking for the perfect, revolutionary, unique, special essay; they would
be very happy to read a reasonably well-planned, well-argued and well-written essay. They will not want to
pull your essay to pieces. They would much rather enjoy reading it, and be satisfied by the thread of your
argument. In the words of a tutor:
Im looking for focus, for a voice that I feel confident with and not bored by someone who knows the area
and is going to take me round the issues in an objective, informed and interesting way. Stott (2001 p 37)

The introduction
A powerful introduction is invaluable. It can engage your readers, and can give them confidence that you
have thought carefully about the title, and about how you are going to address it. A useful generic structure
is to:

begin with a general point about the central issue;

show your understanding of the task that has been set;

show how you plan to address the title in your essay structure;
51

make a link to the first point.

It may be possible to use only one paragraph for your introduction, but it may fall more easily into two or
more. You will need to adapt and extend this basic structure to fit with your own discipline and the precise
task set. Here is an example of an introduction for an essay entitled:
Examine and compare the nature and development of the tragic figures of Macbeth and Dr Faustus in their
respective plays.

Begin with a general point

Dr Faustus and Macbeth are both plays that show their respective playwrights at the pinnacle of their
careers.

Show your understanding of the task set

When comparing the nature of the two plays respective heroes, both parallels and contrasts can be
found.

Show how you plan to address the title

In the first section of this essay, the role of the tragic hero will be considered The second section of
the essay will examine the nature Finally, a comparison will be made of the development of the two

Make a link to the first point

In examining the characters tragic qualities, a useful starting point is Aristotles definition of tragedy
Although the introduction appears at the beginning of your essay, you may prefer to write it towards the
end of the drafting process:
It is only when you have completed a piece of writing that you can introduce it to the reader. (Crme &
Lea, 1997 p115)

The heart of the essay

The middle part of the essay must fulfil the promises made in your introduction, and must support
your final conclusions. Failure to meet either or both of these requirements will irritate your reader, and
will demonstrate a lack of self-critique and of editing.
The central part of your essay is where the structure needs to do its work, however explicit or implicit your
chosen structure may be. The structure you choose needs to be one that will be most helpful to you in
addressing the essay title.

52

The content of this central part will probably contain: ideas; explanations; evidence; relevant referencing;
and relevant examples. It will be characterised by:

appropriate academic style;

interesting and engaging writing;

clarity of thought and expression,

sensible ordering of material, to support and the development of ideas and the development of
argument.

Conclusion
A powerful conclusion is a valuable tool. The aim is to leave your reader feeling that you have done a good
job. A generic structure that you may find useful is:

brief recap of what you have covered in relation to the essay title;

reference to the larger issue;

evaluation of the main arguments;

highlighting the most important aspects.

The example below relates to the essay title used on the previous page.

Brief recap
The characters of Macbeth and Faustus are very similar in many respects; for example they both
willingly follow a path that leads to their damnation.

Reference to the larger issue

The differences lie in the development of the characters in what are essentially two different types of
plays.

Evaluation of the main arguments

As has been shown, the character of Macbeth has a nadir from which he ascends at the conclusion of
the play. This is in keeping with Aristotles definition of tragedy. For Faustus however, there is no such
ascension. This fits with the style of the morality play: the erring Faustus must be seen to be humbled
at his end for the morality to be effective

Highlighting the most important aspects

It is this strong element of morality in Dr Faustus that ultimately divides the two leading characters.

53

Being a critical writer

After attending closely to the title; and establishing a useful structure; a third main element in the essaywriting process is the confident use of critical writing. The most characteristic features of critical writing
are:

a clear and confident refusal to accept the conclusions of other writers without evaluating the
arguments and evidence that they provide;

a balanced presentation of reasons why the conclusions of other writers may be accepted or may need
to be treated with caution;

a clear presentation of your own evidence and argument, leading to your conclusion; and

a recognition of the limitations in your own evidence, argument, and conclusion.

With critical writing, you are doing work with the evidence you are using, by adding a level of examination
and evaluation. Stott (2001 p37) proposes that, Knowledge-telling is the regurgitation of knowledge in an
essay. But knowledge-transfer is whats crucial: the ability to manipulate that basic, raw material in order to
make a convincing argument.
One way to practise critical writing is to make sure that you dont leave any description to speak for itself, if
it is part of your evidence and argument. If a quote or piece of data is worth including, then its also worth
explaining why youve included it: Do not leave your reader to work out the implications of any statement.
(Barass 1982 p80).
Another useful tool to support critical writing is the paragraph! Aim to present one idea per paragraph.
Within the paragraph you could:

introduce the idea/piece of evidence/quote/stage of argument;

present the idea/piece of evidence/quote/stage of argument;

comment on it this is where you demonstrate your critical thinking and writing.

A different pattern would be to use a paragraph to present and describe an idea/piece of

evidence/quote/stage of argument, then to use the subsequent paragraph to explain its relevance.

Editing
Finally, you need to take a break from your essay so that you can return to it with fresh eyes for the final
editing.

54

'Editing and proof reading are not the icing on the cake, as some people think. They are absolutely crucial
because it is only at this stage that the student can see that the argument hangs together, has a sequence
and is well-expressed. Editing is both difficult and important. (Stott, 2001 p39)
Yes, editing is important, but no it does not need to be difficult. Youve done most of the hard work already
in the reading, evaluating, and writing. Also, criticising your writing tends to be easier than creating it in the
first place.
.
Presentation
A tutor can learn a worrying amount about the quality of your essay simply from how it looks on the page.
The lengths of paragraphs; the lengths of sentences; the neatness of the reference list; the balance of
length between different sections; all offer insight into the kind of essay they are about to read.
In general, think short and straightforward. Shorter words are often preferable to longer words, unless
there is some specific vocabulary that you need to include to demonstrate your skill. Short to middle length
sentences are almost always preferable to longer ones. And over-long paragraphs tend to demonstrate that
you are not clear about the specific points you are making. Of course, these are general points, and there
may be some occasions, or some subject areas, where long paragraphs are appropriate.
Accurate grammar and spelling are important. Consistently poor grammar or spelling can give the
impression of lack of care, and lack of clarity of thought. Careless use of commas can actually change the
meaning of a sentence. And inaccurate spelling and poor grammar can make for very irritating reading for
the person marking it. The previous sentence began with And. This practice is now widely accepted where
it makes good sense. It is however possible that some tutors may still prefer not to see it.

Summary of key points

The title is the most important guidance you have. The task ahead is nothing more and nothing less than is
stated in the title. When in doubt about any aspect of your reading for the essay, or about your writing, the
first step is to go back and consult the essay title. This can be surprisingly helpful. It informs directly: the
choice of reading; the structure you choose for the essay; which material to include and exclude; what to do
with the material you use; and how to introduce and conclude.
A relevant and useful structure to support the presentation of your response to the title is vital.
Expect to undertake an iterative process of planning, reading, drafting, reviewing, planning, reading, redrafting, and editing.
55

Editing is a crucial part of the process not an optional extra.

References
Barass R, (1982) Students must write: a guide to better writing in coursework and examinations. London:
Methuen.
Creme P & Lea MR (1997) Writing at university: a guide for students. Buckingham: Open University Press.
Stott R, (2001) The essay writing process. Chapter 3 pp36-58. In Making your case: a practical guide to
essay writing. Eds. Stott R, Snaith A, & Rylance R. Harlow: Pearson Education Limited.
Questions to ask of your reference list may be useful when reviewing your own reference list.

56

8. REFERENCING AND BIBLIOGRAPHIES

This brief study guide aims to help you to understand why you should include references to the information
sources that you use to underpin your writing. It explains the main principles of accurately referencing such
sources in your work.

Why reference?
When you are writing an essay, report, dissertation or any other form of academic writing, your own
thoughts and ideas inevitably build on those of other writers, researchers or teachers. It is essential that
you acknowledge your debt to the sources of data, research and ideas on which you have drawn by
including references to, and full details of, these sources in your work. Referencing your work allows the
reader:

to distinguish your own ideas and findings from those you have drawn from the work of others;

to follow up in more detail the ideas or facts that you have referred to.

Before you write

Whenever you read or research material for your writing, make sure that you include in your notes, or on
any photocopied material, the full publication details of each relevant text that you read. These details
should include:

surname(s) and initial(s) of the author(s);

the date of publication;

the title of the text;

if it is a paper, the title of the journal and volume number;

if it is a chapter of an edited book, the book's title and editor(s)

the publisher and place of publication*;

the first and last page numbers if it is a journal article or a chapter in an edited book.

For particularly important points, or for parts of texts that you might wish to quote word for word, also
include in your notes the specific page reference.
* Please note that the publisher of a book should not be confused with the printer. The publisher's name is
normally on a book's main title page, and often on the book's spine too.
57

When to use references

Your source should be acknowledged every time the point that you make, or the data or other information
that you use, is substantially that of another writer and not your own. As a very rough guide, while the
introduction and the conclusions to your writing might be largely based on your own ideas, within the main
body of your report, essay or dissertation, you would expect to be drawing on, and thus referencing your
debt to, the work of others in each main section or paragraph.
Referencing styles
There are many different referencing conventions in common use. Each department will have its own
preferred format, and every journal or book editor has a set of 'house rules'. This guide aims to explain the
general principles by giving details of the two most commonly used formats, the 'author, date' system
and footnotes or endnotes. Once you have understood the principles common to all referencing systems
you should be able to apply the specific rules set by your own department.

How to reference using the 'author, date' system

In the 'author, date' system (often referred to as the 'Harvard' system) very brief details of the source from
which a discussion point or piece of factual information is drawn are included in the text. Full details of the
source are then given in a reference list or bibliography at the end of the text. This allows the writer to fully
acknowledge her/his sources, without significantly interrupting the flow of the writing.

1. Citing your source within the text

As the name suggests, the citation in the text normally includes the name(s) (surname only) of the author(s)
and the date of the publication. This information is usually included in brackets at the most appropriate
point in the text.
The seminars that are often a part of humanities courses can provide opportunities for students to develop
the communication and interpersonal skills that are valued by employers (Lyon, 1992).
The text reference above indicates to the reader that the point being made draws on a work by Lyon,
published in 1992. An alternative format is shown in the example below.
Knapper and Cropley (1991: p. 44) believe that the willingness of adults to learn is affected by their
attitudes, values and self-image and that their capacity to learn depends greatly on their study skills.
58

Note that in this example reference has been made to a specific point within a very long text (in this
instance a book) and so a page number has been added. This gives the reader the opportunity to find the
particular place in the text where the point referred to is made. You should always include the page
number when you include a passage of direct quotation from another writer's work.
When a publication has several authors, it is usual to give the surname of the first author followed by et
al. (an abbreviation of the Latin for 'and the others') although for works with just two authors both names
may be given, as in the example above.
Do not forget that you should also include reference to the source of any tables of data,
diagrams or maps that you include in your work. If you have included a straight copy of a table or figure,
then it is usual to add a reference to the table or figure caption thus:
Figure 1: The continuum of influences on learning (from Knapper and Cropley, 1991: p. 43).
Even if you have reorganised a table of data, or redrawn a figure, you should still acknowledge its source:
Table 1: Type of work entered by humanities graduates (data from Lyon, 1992: Table 8.5).
You may need to cite an unpublished idea or discussion point from an oral presentation, such as
a lecture. The format for the text citation is normally exactly the same as for a published work and should
give the speaker's name and the date of the presentation.
Recent research on the origins of early man has challenged the views expressed in many of the standard
textbooks (Barker, 1996).
If the idea or information that you wish to cite has been told to you personally, perhaps in a discussion with
a lecturer or a tutor, it is normal to reference the point as shown in the example below.
The experience of the Student Learning Centre at Leicester is that many students are anxious to improve
their writing skills, and are keen to seek help and guidance (Maria Lorenzini, pers. comm.).
'Pers. comm.' stands for personal communication; no further information is usually required.
2. Reference lists/ bibliographies
When using the 'author, date' system, the brief references included in the text must be followed up with full
publication details, usually as an alphabetical reference list or bibliography at the end of your piece of
work. The examples given below are used to indicate the main principles.
Book references
The simplest format, for a book reference, is given first; it is the full reference for one of the works quoted in
the examples above.
Knapper, C.K. and Cropley, A. 1991: Lifelong Learning and Higher Education. London: Croom Helm.
59

The reference above includes:

the surnames and forenames or initials of both the authors;

the date of publication;

the book title;

the place of publication;

the name of the publisher.

The title of the book should be formatted to distinguish it from the other details; in the example above it is
italicised, but it could be in bold, underlined or in inverted commas. When multi-authored works have been
quoted, it is important to include the names of all the authors, even when the text reference used was et al.

Papers or articles within an edited book

A reference to a paper or article within an edited book should in addition include:

the editor and the title of the book;

the first and last page numbers of the article or paper.

Lyon, E.S. 1992: Humanities graduates in the labour market. In H. Eggins (ed.), Arts Graduates, their Skills
and their Employment. London: The Falmer Press, pp. 123-143.
Journal articles
Journal articles must also include:

the name and volume number of the journal;

the first and last page numbers of the article.

The publisher and place of publication are not normally required for journals.
Pask, G. 1979: Styles and strategies of learning. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 46, pp. 128148.
Note that in the last two references above, it is the book title and the journal name that are
italicised, not the title of the paper or article. The name highlighted should always be the name under which
the work will have been filed on the library shelves or referenced in any indexing system. It is often the
name which is written on the spine of the volume, and if you remember this it may be easier for you to
remember which is the appropriate title to highlight.

60

Other types of publications

The three examples above cover the most common publication types. You may also wish to refer to other
types of publications, including PhD dissertations, translated works, newspaper articles, dictionary or
encyclopaedia entries or legal or historical texts. The same general principles apply to the referencing of all
published sources, but for specific conventions consult your departmental handbook or your tutor, or look at
the more detailed reference books listed in the Further reading section of this guide.

Referencing web pages

The internet is increasingly used as a source of information and it is just as important to reference internet
sources as it is to reference printed sources. Information on the internet changes rapidly and web pages
move or are sometimes inaccessible meaning it can often be difficult to validate or even find information
cited from the internet. When referencing web pages it is helpful to include details that will help other
people check or follow up the information. A suggested format is to include the author of the information
(this may be an individual, group or organisation), the date the page was put on the internet (most web
pages have a date at the bottom of the page), the title, the http:// address, and the date you accessed the
web page (in case the information has been subsequently modified). A format for referencing web pages is
given below.
University of Leicester Standing Committee of Deans (6/8/2002) Internet code of practice and guide to
legislation. Accessed 8/8/02 http://www.le.ac.uk/committees/deans/codecode.html

Referencing lectures
Full references to unpublished oral presentations, such as lectures, usually include the speaker's name, the
date of the lecture, the name of the lecture or of the lecture series, and the location:
Barker, G. 1996 (7 October): The Archaeology of Europe, Lecture 1. University of Leicester.
Please note that in contrast to the format used for the published sources given in the first three examples
above, the formatting of references for unpublished sources does not include italics, as there is no
publication title to highlight.

61

Formatting references
If you look carefully at all the examples of full references given above, you will see that there is a
consistency in the ways in which punctuation and capitalisation have been used. There are many other
ways in which references can be formatted - look at the books and articles you read for other examples and
at any guidelines in your course handbooks. The only rule governing formatting is the rule of consistency.

How to reference using footnotes or endnotes

Some academic disciplines prefer to use footnotes (notes at the foot of the page) or endnotes (notes at the
end of the work) to reference their writing. Although this method differs in style from the 'author, date'
system, its purpose - to acknowledge the source of ideas, data or quotations without undue interruption to
the flow of the writing - is the same.
Footnote or endnote markers, usually a sequential series of numbers either in brackets or slightly above
the line of writing or printing (superscript), are placed at the appropriate point in the text. This is normally
where you would insert the author and date if you were using the 'author, date' system described above.
Employers are not just looking for high academic achievement and have identified competencies that
distinguish the high performers from the average graduate. This view has been supported by an early
study that demonstrated that graduates employed in the industrial and commercial sectors were as likely to
have lower second and third class degrees as firsts and upper seconds.
Full details of the reference are then given at the bottom of the relevant page or, if endnotes are preferred,
in numerical order at the end of the writing. Rules for the formatting of the detailed references follow the
same principles as for the reference lists for the 'author, date' system.
1.

Moore, K. 1992: National Westminster Bank plc. In H. Eggins (ed.), Arts Graduates, their Skills and
their Employment. London: The Falmer Press, pp. 24-26.

2.

Kelsall, R.K., Poole, A. and Kuhn, A. 1970: Six Years After. Sheffield: Higher Education Research Unit,
Sheffield University,
p. 40.

NB. The reference to 'p.40' at the end of note 2 above implies that the specific point referred to is to be
found on page 40 of the book referenced.
If the same source needs to be referred to several times, on second or subsequent occasions, a shortened
reference may be used.
62

Studies of women's employment patterns have demonstrated the relationship between marital status and
employment sector.
------------------------3. Kelsall et al. 1970 (as n.2 above).
In this example, the footnote refers the reader to the full reference to be found in footnote 2.
In some academic disciplines, footnotes and endnotes are not only used for references, but also to contain
elaborations or explanations of points made in the main text. If you are unsure about how to use footnotes
or endnotes in your work, consult your departmental guidelines or personal tutor.

Finally
Whichever referencing system you use, you should check carefully to make sure that:

you have included in your reference list/bibliography, footnotes or endnotes full details of all the
sources referred to in your text;

you have used punctuation and text formatting, such as italics, capitals, and bold text, in a consistent
manner in your reference lists or footnotes.

Further reading
More detailed discussion of referencing conventions is to be found in the following publications:

Berry, R. 2004: The Research Project: How to Write It. London and New York: Routledge.

Gash, S. 1999: Effective Literature Searching for Students (second edition). Aldershot: Gower.

Gibaldi, J. 2004: MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers (sixth edition). New York: The Modern
Language Association of America.

Watson, G. 1987: Writing a Thesis: a Guide to Long Essays and Dissertations. London: Longman.

63

9. THE ART OF EDITING

1. Front Matters: cover, motto, acknowledgement, abstract, table of contents, list of
tables/figures/abbreviation, appendixes 12-13
2. Body: 1. Intro (8-10), 2. Reviews of the related literature (18-20), 3. Research methodology (1012), 4. Results and Discussion (25-30), 5. Conclusion and suggestion (4-6) 70%
3. Back matters: Bibliography (2-3), Appendixes (20-30) 30%
4. Format: Letter (TNR), font (12), margin 4, 4, 3,3 (cm) or 1.2, 1.2, 1, 1 inch; double space (without
spacing option because paragraphs are indented).
5. spelling, referencing, and grammar
6. logical order of thought: topic, problem, purpose, significance, method, result, conclusion,

bibliography
7. home style

Introduction
When you start to produce a piece of written work, you are likely to be aware of various targets and
standards that you need to work to, such as:

the stipulated word limit;

the required level of academic writing;

the need to present material in a clear and logical order; and

the necessary high standards in spelling, referencing, and grammar.

However, if you become too concerned at this stage about the required standard of the end product, you
may feel reluctant to begin writing at all.
This is why making a clear separation between the processes of writing and editing can be helpful.
Brookes and Marshall (2004 p213) suggest it is usually more helpful to produce something imperfect, then
revise it, than to waste time trying to produce something that is perfect first time round. The following table
describes how writing can be a relatively free and expansive process; while editing can take care of the
critical attention and refinement that will ensure your writing reaches the required standard.

64

Writing may involve

Editing may involve

creating

critiquing

including

adding and removing

presenting

improving

recording

reviewing

feeling closely involved

feeling fairly objective

an immediate, but naive product

a subsequent, refined product

making a mess

tidying it up late

What is editing?
This Study Guide uses the term editing to refer to the broad intellectual task of raising the overall
academic standard of a piece of writing, via an iterative process of critique and revision. It uses the term
proof reading to refer to the narrower job of checking such elements as spelling, grammar, and page
numbering. Detailed proof reading is usually best done as the last stage in the editing process.
Typical aspects of writing that you can critique within the editing process include:

the overall logical structure and balance of the thesis;

adherence to your stated title / research question / plans;

signposting and linking of content;

appropriate content under appropriate headings;

the coherence of the line of argument;

use of active / passive voice, and of past / present tense;

clarity of explanation;

length of sentences, and economy of word use.

The examiner will be able to tell how much attention you have paid to the editing process. He or she will not
appreciate reading material that has clearly not been thoroughly edited. If the readers main response is
irritation at a poorly edited thesis, this will make it less likely that he or she will develop a positive
impression of the content of your writing.
It is better that you spot and make the improvements necessary, than that the examiner is the first to spot
them.

65

Positive and negative feelings about editing

Students can experience a range of feelings as they approach the task of editing their thesis. For some,
editing can feel like a negative experience, after the relatively creative and positive process of writing:

Perhaps you have already spent such a lot of effort writing, that it feels impossible to improve on what
youve done, even though you know it probably does need improving.

Perhaps you face the task of reducing the total number of words by 30%, and cant see how you can
do this without losing crucial material.

Perhaps you are tired of looking at your writing, and the thought of studying it again closely for the
editing process makes you want to run away.

For others, editing can feel more positive than writing, because they know that this is a stage where they
can really raise the standard of their work. Some positive points about editing are:

If you are thinking about editing your work, it means that you must already have written something
reasonably substantial.

Editing tends to be a highly constructive process. Every single useful change you make is a guaranteed
step towards improving the quality of your thesis.

It tends to be much easier to criticize and improve on your writing, than it was to produce the writing in
the first place.

It can therefore be relatively quick to produce significant improvements within the editing stage.

Where to work?
One way of separating the processes of writing and editing is to do them in different places. Print out your
writing, so that you can do the editing work on hard copy, away from the computer e.g.: on the train or bus;
in a caf; on a park seat; somewhere else well away from the work environment; or at your desk if you
prefer.
Printing the work out and working on hard copy can help you feel as if you are reviewing someone elses
writing. This is useful, as it is important not to get too attached to any particular parts of your writing: Until a
manuscript is in print, not a word you have written is sacrosanct. (Wolcott 2001 p112).
Some people do choose to edit while sitting at a computer, but it is still important to print the work out at
some point in the editing process, as only then will you see the reality of the density of the ink, the
sharpness of the printing Fonts, size of type, headings, spaces and blocks of text all may look different

66

when you are holding a piece of paper in your hands rather than staring at a screen (Brookes and Marshall
2004 p219).

Recording your critique

When you are editing away from the computer, it is important to make full notes of any improvements that
occur to you. They may seem obvious at the time, but it is disappointing when you come to make the
alterations later on, to find you have forgotten the seemingly perfect re-phrasing you had thought of earlier;
or that you cant read the scrawl you made in the margin. So, make sure you record your suggested
modifications very clearly, so you can follow them easily when you type in the alterations at a later time.

Overall editing plan

Effective editing will invariably require a number of sweeps through the work, and a series of drafts. An
example of an editing plan is provided below.
It may be tempting to work paragraph by paragraph, trying to perfect each one before attending to the next.
This is, however, neither an efficient nor an effective method for editing a large document. Several of the
processes, e.g.: maintaining a logical thread throughout; and identifying duplication; require more of an
overview to be taken, involving review at a chapter or thesis level, rather than at a sentence or paragraph
level.
Draft
1

Aims
Editing for

Techniques

academic rigor

check that you have explicitly written down what you

intended to do, and what you did do in your research, rather
than just having it in your head

ensure you have a clear, logical thread running throughout

back up all claims and interpretations

Reducing

Identify and remove unnecessary duplication, explanation,

redundancy

and interesting but irrelevant material. Un-clutter the

language used.

Editing for

Check consistent use of tenses, voice, style.

67

consistency
4

Signposting and

Let the reader know what to expect, and summarize what

linking

has just been read. It is then easier for the reader to

establish a structure into which your research can be
understood.

Proof reading

Check details of spelling, grammar, numbering.

Draft 1: Editing for academic rigor

This relates to the essence of academic writing. It needs to be your main editing focus. And will take the
most time. Academic journals publish the criteria they use to evaluate articles, and these can be useful in
guiding the process. There may also be detailed guidance available within your own department. This
section describes three aspects to editing for academic rigor, which should help you to work through this
process using a structured approach.
Firstly, on a broad level, it can be very helpful to ask these two deceptively simple questions:

What did I try to do and did I do it?

What am I trying to say, and do I say it?

Each of these questions is in two parts. The first part asks what you are trying to do, and the second asks
whether you consider you did it. Both parts of each question are essential.
What did I try to do and did I do it?
You may not need to prove that you did everything that you intended to, but you do need to show that you
are clear about what you intended to do, and that you are fully aware of how your eventual research related
to your initial plans, and why there may be some discrepancies. Addressing this question closely and
thoroughly will take you through a review of the rationale for your research; the methods chosen; how they
were employed; and a critique of how things went.
What am I trying to say, and do I say it?

68

When you are deeply involved in your research, and know about it in great detail, it can be very easy to
think that you have explained something, only to find that important, and basic, elements of the explanation
are missing. So, while it is important to ask What am I trying to say? It is essential to add Do I say it? and to
be highly critical when reading through your writing to check that you do actually state clearly what you are
trying to say, rather than leaving the reader to fill in gaps.
Secondly, you need to ensure that you have provided a well-supported and clear thread of logical
reasoning throughout your thesis. You need to check that your sections are arranged in an order that
will present your reasoning most effectively. Take a step back from your detailed writing, and create an
outline of a straightforward, logical structure you could use for your thesis. An effective way to do this is to
explain aloud, to a friend, or alone but using a tape recorder, in as logical and clear a way as possible:

the overall reason for your research;

what you did; and

what you found.

If your friend takes notes, or if you tape-record the explanation, you can use the record to produce a
coherent outline for your structure. Then read through your writing thus far, and produce an outline of the
structure that you have actually used. By comparing the two structures you can identify: where the ordering
is confusing; where you have written too much or too little; where new sections are needed; and where
others can be swapped around.
Thirdly, you need to attend to the readers ever-present question: Why should I believe this?. Ideally,
you will be able to adopt the role of an awkward reader of your own writing. The aim is to make sure that all
the claims you make are either supported or removed. If you can read your own work with a provocative
and questioning attitude, it will help you to identify the places where you need to provide more evidence for
your statements and interpretations.

Draft 2: Reducing redundancy; simplifying and shortening

Some parts of your writing may be true, interesting, and well-written but, if they do not strictly form part of
the main thread or story of the writing, it is better to remove them. You may have spent time describing an
aspect of context, theory, practice, or experience that you now decide is not directly relevant to your main

69

argument or research study. However attached you feel to that bit of writing, you do need to be ruthless in
removing it.
This is good practice in all academic writing, but is particularly useful when you need to reduce your
number of words. Initially it is best not to think too much about word limits. Later however, as you edit, you
will see many examples of redundancy where you can remove words, phrases, paragraphs, and even
whole sections, to improve the coherence and logical flow of your writing. If you worry about losing material
that you might want to bring back, you can keep it temporarily in a reserve file, rather than delete it
completely.
You can also reduce the number of words by simplifying the language used, as in this table from Barrass
(1978 pp 61 & 70-72).
Long version

Col 11

Shorter version

on a regular basis

regularly

if at all possible

if possible

during the month of April

in April

an increased appetite was manifested by all

all the rats ate more

the rats
during the time that

while

conduct an investigation into

investigate

has an ability to

can

on two separate occasions

twice

which goes under the name of

is called

it may well be that

perhaps

take into consideration

consider

it was observed in the course of the

we observed that

demonstration that
Another way to reduce redundancy, and to increase clarity, is to write in the active rather than the passive
tense e.g.:
the box was opened by the experimenter becomes
the experimenter opened the box
a reduction from 7 to 5 words; and an increase in clarity.
70

Similarly:
It was decided that the order in which the questions were asked should be changed
could become
I decided to change the order of the questions
a reduction from 15 to 9; and an increase in clarity.
This second example introduces the question of whether it is acceptable to use the voice of the researcher
in the first person i.e.: how acceptable is it to say I did ?. It is essential to seek advice within your
academic field about this. It may even be possible to ascertain the views of your particular thesis examiner.
It is becoming more acceptable to write in the first person, particularly in the social sciences. A general
guide is to use the third person routinely but, where there is a decision to explain, it is acceptable to take
clear responsibility for that decision by using the first person at that point.
This can be demonstrated with the example of giving details of a methodology. It would read awkwardly if
every element were to be described in the first person e.g.:
I set up the apparatus, then I prepared the recording sheet. I added the first element then I waited for it
etc etc.
However, it is more acceptable to write about specific decisions in the first person e.g.:
the weather was colder than anticipated, so I decided to focus the data collection on the hours around midday.
Styles are changing in this area, and they currently vary across disciplines, so it is important to check
preferences in your own field regarding the balance between use of the first and third person.

Draft 3: Editing for consistency

A thesis is a large document, written over time, so it is almost inevitable that problems may occur with
consistency. The kinds of elements to review for consistency are:

consistent use of the third person rather than the first person, except in places where you have
specifically decided to use a different voice;

consistent use of one tense throughout a section, unless there is a specific reason to change;

consistent use and formatting of headings and sub-headings;

a reasonable (not necessarily equal) balance in the lengths of sections;

consistent use of either bullet points or numbering for lists;

consistency in referencing style;

71

consistency in labeling and numbering appendices, tables, diagrams, figures, photos, and other items.

Draft 4: Signposting and linking

Signposting and linking are particularly important in a long document such as a thesis. The reader has a lot
of information to take in, and is unlikely to read the whole document in one go. It is in your own interest to
help the reader construct and maintain a coherent picture of the research you are describing.
Typical wording for signposting:
The previous chapter talks about In this chapter, the method will be described in detail. The chapter
begins with a description of the physical setting in which the data were collected. It then describes the
process of recruitment to the study. Each element of the experiment is described in turn, and illustrated
using a typical participant journey. Copies of the letters, information sheets, and consent forms used
are included in Appendix F. The chapter ends with a description of
Signposting is helpful in the Introduction and at the beginning of chapters. It allows the reader to prepare a
structure in his or her own mind, into which can be placed the material that is then read. It reduces the
chance that the reader will wonder why you seem to have missed something out, only to find it is included
in an unexpected place. It also helps the reader to appreciate the logical flow of your writing.
Linking is used to guide the reader through different sections or paragraphs, so that the logical structure of
your writing is highlighted. Creating and inserting appropriate links is a useful test of the logical structure of
your writing. If you find it straightforward to insert links, it suggests that your writing is logically and
coherently ordered. If you find it more difficult, it could be a sign that you need to re-think some of the
ordering.
Typical wording for links:

In the previous chapter I described . In this chapter I will

The argument just presented is the main one used by theorists in this field. The next sections describe
three other related arguments that could be used to extend it.

This is the background as far as the providers were concerned. The next section explores the
background from the users perspective.

Each of these links looks both backwards and forwards, thereby both reviewing what has just been said,
and introducing what is about to be said. It is easy to feel that, by using links like these, you are wasting

72

words. Ironically, by using these extra words, you are actually employing a very efficient method of
streamlining and structuring your content.
Editing to increase the number of words
In the editing process you may identify certain sections of your writing that are relatively brief and
superficial, and which you consider need to be extended. Techniques you can use are:

taking the idea contained within one sentence, and developing it into a whole paragraph;

increasing the amount of comment as opposed to pure description;

being more generous with the signposting, linking, and summaries;

asking the questions So what? and Why should I believe this?, then providing the extra rationale that
is needed;

thinking further through the implications of your research for e.g.: theory; practice; research;

thinking further about how the research could have been done better.

It is vital that the words you add enhance the academic quality of the thesis, rather than simply fill the
space. Having space to increase the number of words is an excellent and relatively rare opportunity to read
your work from the examiners viewpoint, then to be able to add in further explanation where this seems
necessary.

Editing fatigue
There may come a point at which you feel that you have lost the critical eye you need to review your
writing. It is important to recognize when this happens. There is little point in continuing to edit that piece of
work if you are losing your sense of judgment. When this happens you can put it aside to look at it yourself
a few days later. Editing is best done is a series of short, focused efforts, rather than attempting a long,
sustained effort.

Draft 5: Proof reading

Proof reading is the last stage in the editing process. It needs to be done thoroughly and systematically,
otherwise it is very easy to miss details that need to be changed. Here are five suggestions to feed into a
proof reading strategy.
1. Take a structured approach: focus in turn on specific potential problems, rather than trying to identify
everything at one go.
73

2. Make your proof reading relevant to your own writing. Look through some previous writing that has
been marked, and make a list of your own typical errors, then use this to form the basis of your proof
reading strategy.
3. Examples of common problems are:

faulty abbreviations

duplication of words

spelling errors

too much space between two words

missing or misplaced apostrophes

inappropriate changes of tense

singular and plural mixed up

inaccurate cross-referencing of pages

leaving a reference in the list, when it has been removed from the text

4. Check referencing format in detail: it must be appropriate, accurate, and consistent.

5. Final check of tables; figures; diagrams; page numbering; contents list; appendices; and all the
references to any of these within the text.
References

Barrass R. (1978) Scientists must write. Chapman & Hall: London.

Brookes I. and Marshall D. (2004) Good writing guide. Chambers: Edinburgh.

Wolcott H. (2001) Writing up qualitative research. 2nd Edition. Sage: Thousand Oaks.

74

10. WRITING FOR SCIENCE

This study guide offers you some strategies for making your scientific writing more effective, helping you to
write with accuracy and clarity. PLEASE NOTE: if you have specific queries about the style and format of
reports for your subject, you should ask your department.

Introduction
Writing is a very important part of science; it is used to document and communicate ideas, activities and
findings to others. Scientific writing can take many forms from a lab notebook to a project report, or from a
paper in an academic journal to an article in a scientific magazine. This guide focuses on scientific writing
for academic course work, much of which is devoted to describing and explaining.
Characteristics of good scientific writing
Good scientific writing is:

clear - it avoids unnecessary detail;

simple - it uses direct language, avoiding vague or complicated sentences. Technical terms and jargon
are used only when they are necessary for accuracy;

impartial - it avoids making assumptions (Everyone knows that ...) and unproven statements (It can
never be proved that ...). It presents how and where data were collected and supports its conclusions
with evidence;

structured logically - ideas and processes are expressed in a logical order. The text is divided into
sections with clear headings;

accurate - it avoids vague and ambiguous language such as about, approximately, almost;

objective - statements and ideas are supported by appropriate evidence that demonstrates how
conclusions have been drawn as well as acknowledging the work of others.

Developing good scientific writing

To reflect the characteristics of good scientific writing in your own work, you need to think about the way
that you write and the language that you use. A good scientific author will have given consideration to the
following choices in writing, making decisions that improve the effectiveness of the writing.

75

Choosing the words

To make your writing clear, accurate and concise you should consider carefully the words that you use, and
the ways in which you use them.
Technical terms
In most scientific writing you will need to use some scientific or technical terms in order to be clear and
unambiguous. However, use such terms only when you need to do so and do not try to impress the reader
by using unnecessary technical jargon or lengthy words.
Abbreviations
Abbreviations can be a very useful way of saving time and avoiding repetition, but they can be confusing
and might not be understood by everyone. Use standard abbreviations where these exist, and reduce your
use of abbreviations to an absolute minimum; they are rarely essential.
Use objective rather than subjective language
Objective language is language that is impartial and states a fact or process; subjective language is open to
question or interpretation as it implies personal thought or belief. For example:
objective The car travelled at 38 kilometres per hour
is a clear, objective statement of fact. However:
subjective The contents of the test tube turned a beautiful blue colour
uses beautiful in a way that is subjective because it cannot be measured or accurately explained to the
reader. Always use language that is concrete and specific rather than vague and personal.
Choosing a 'voice'
Scientific writers have a tendency to use passive rather than active expressions; stating that awas affected
by b uses the passive voice while stating that b did something to a uses the active voice. The following
example shows a sentence written in both the passive and active voices.
passive

The experiment was designed by the research officer

active

The research officer designed the experiment

The passive voice is particularly useful when:

you wish your writing to be formal and depersonalised:

passive

It was agreed that the experiment should be...

active

We agreed that the experiment should be...

information about the agent is obvious or unimportant:

passive Extra solvent was added to the flask

76

active

The technician added extra solvent to the flask;

you do not know the identity of the agent:

passive The water pipe was broken in three places

active

Something/someone had broken the water pipe in three places

However, the use of the passive voice can lead to clumsy and overcomplicated sentences.
passive Difficulty was experienced in obtaining the product in a high state of purity
is rather convoluted way of saying
active The product was difficult to purify
which is a much clearer and more straightforward statement.
In general, the active voice is clearer, more direct and easier to read, but the passive voice can be more
appropriate in particular circumstances. What is most important is for you to be aware of how you are
writing, and how the voice that you choose affects the tone and the meaning of your words.

Personal or impersonal?
Scientific writers often try to avoid the use of personal expressions or statements in order to make their
writing seem more impartial and formal. The following sentence has been written with both personal and
impersonal expressions to highlight the contrast between the two writing styles.

impersonal The explanation for this phenomenon may be found in

personal

We/I believe that the explanation for this phenomenon may be found in...

However, used indiscriminately, writing impersonally can result in clumsy statements through an excessive
use of the passive voice. This can lead to ambiguity or inaccuracy in your written work, for example:
impersonal & passive
It was decided that the temperature should be raised gives no information about the identity of the people
who made the decision.
personal & active
We decided that the temperature should be raised avoids ambiguity and makes the sentence sound more
direct, but uses the personal and rather informal we.
impersonal & active
77

The research team decided that the temperature should be raised is clear and direct.
Think carefully about your use of impersonal and personal expressions, taking care to ensure that your
writing is always clear and unambiguous.

Using tenses
Scientific writing frequently uses the past tense, particularly when the main focus of the writing is to
describe experiments or observations that took place prior to the time of writing, for example:
The data were analysed.
The solution was decanted.
The temperature was recorded.
However, the past tense may not be appropriate for everything that you write and sometimes you will need
to combine different tenses in the same piece of writing. For example, the use of different tenses can help
to clarify what happened or what you did in the past (past tense), what you conclude (present tense) and
what will be an issue for the future (future tense). The following sentences show how different tenses can
be used to achieve clarity in your written work.
The experiment was carried out in a sterile environment (past tense for a statement of what
happened). It is particularly important to avoid contamination (present tense for a statement that is a
general 'truth'). It will be necessary to ensure that the same conditions are replicated in future experiments
(future tense for a recommendation for the future).
An appropriate use of past, present and future tenses can contribute to a clear and unambiguous writing
style.

Sentence length
Sentences that are too short and poorly connected can be irritating to read. Conversely, sentences that are
too long and rambling are difficult to follow and are likely to be confusing. Use a sentence length that allows
your thoughts to flow clearly. As a general rule there should be no more than 20-25 words in any one
sentence. You may be able to reduce your sentence length by:

cutting out unnecessary words

like might replace along the lines of
now may be just as appropriate as at the present time
78

we can now turn our attention to could perhaps be cut out entirely;

dividing complex sentences into separate phrases or sentences.

If a breakdown occurs it is important that alternative supplies are available and the way that this is done
is for the power stations to be linked through the high voltage transmission lines so that all of them
contribute to the total supply of energy and an unexpectedly large demand can be handled.

can be re-written thus:

If a breakdown occurs it is important that alternative supplies are available; this is done by linking power
stations through the high voltage transmission lines. All of them thus contribute to the total supply of energy
and an unexpectedly large demand can be handled.

Summary
Writing well requires as much care and thought as the experiments or research that are written about. This
study guide has defined a number of characteristics of good writing, and has highlighted some of the key
choices that scientific authors must make if they are to write with accuracy and clarity. If you require further
help in the development of your writing, please contact Learning Development in the David Wilson Library.

79

11. WRITING REPORTS

This guide has been written to provide a general introduction to writing reports. It outlines the typical
structure of a report and provides a step by step guide to producing reports that are clear and well
structured.

What is a report?
A report is written for a clear purpose and to a particular audience. Specific information and evidence are
presented, analysed and applied to a particular problem or issue. The information is presented in a clearly
structured format making use of sections and headings so that the information is easy to locate and follow.
When you are asked to write a report you will usually be given a report brief which provides you with
instructions and guidelines. The report brief may outline the purpose, audience and problem or issue that
your report must address, together with any specific requirements for format or structure. This guide offers
a general introduction to report writing; be sure also to take account of specific instructions provided by
your department.

What makes a good report?

Two of the reasons why reports are used as forms of written assessment are:

to find out what you have learned from your reading, research or experience;

to give you experience of an important skill that is widely used in the work place.

An effective report presents and analyses facts and evidence that are relevant to the specific problem or
issue of the report brief. All sources used should be acknowledged and referenced throughout, in
accordance with the preferred method of your department. The style of writing in a report is usually less
discursive than in an essay, with a more direct and economic use of language. A well written report will
demonstrate your ability to:

understand the purpose of the report brief and adhere to its specifications;

gather, evaluate and analyse relevant information;

structure material in a logical and coherent order;

present your report in a consistent manner according to the instructions of the report brief;

make appropriate conclusions that are supported by the evidence and analysis of the report;
80

make thoughtful and practical recommendations where required.

The structure of a report

The main features of a report are described below to provide a general guide. These should be used in
conjunction with the instructions or guidelines provided by your department.

Title Page
This should briefly but explicitly describe the purpose of the report (if this is not obvious from the title of the
work). Other details you may include could be your name, the date and for whom the report is written.
Geology of the country around Beacon Hill, Leicestershire
Angus Taylor
2 November 2004
Example of a title page

Terms of Reference
Under this heading you could include a brief explanation of who will read the report (audience) why it was
written (purpose) and how it was written (methods). It may be in the form of a subtitle or a single paragraph.
A report submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for Course GL456, Department of Geology, Univeristy
of Leicester.
Example of terms of reference

Summary (Abstract)
The summary should briefly describe the content of the report. It should cover the aims of the report, what
was found and what, if any, action is called for. Aim for about 1/2 a page in length and avoid detail or
discussion; just outline the main points. Remember that the summary is the first thing that is read. It should
provide the reader with a clear, helpful overview of the content of the report.
Exposure of rocks belonging to the Charnian Supergroup (late Precambrian) were examined in the area
around Beacon Hill, north Leicestershire. This report aims to provide details of the stratigraphy at three

81

sites - Copt Oak, Mount St. Bernard Abbey and Oaks in Charnwood. It was observed that at each of
these sites, the Charnian Supergroup consists mainly of volcaniclastic sediments (air-fall and ash-flow
tuffs) interbedded with mudstones and siltstones. These rocks show features that are characteristic of
deposition in shallow water on the flanks of a volcano (e.g. welding and alteration of ignimbrites). Further
studies are required to understand depositional mechanisms and to evaluate the present-day thickness
of individual rock units.
Example of a summary (abstract)

Contents (Table of Contents)

The contents page should list the different chapters and/or headings together with the page numbers. Your
contents page should be presented in such a way that the reader can quickly scan the list of headings and
locate a particular part of the report. You may want to number chapter headings and subheadings in
addition to providing page references. Whatever numbering system you use, be sure that it is clear and
consistent throughout.
Introduction
The introduction sets the scene for the main body of the report. The aims and objectives of the report
should be explained in detail. Any problems or limitations in the scope of the report should be identified,
and a description of research methods, the parameters of the research and any necessary background
history should be included.
In some reports, particularly in science subjects, separate headings for Methods and Resultsnare used
prior to the main body (Discussion) of the report as described below.
Methods
Information under this heading may include: a list of equipment used; explanations of procedures followed;
relevant information on materials used, including sources of materials and details of any necessary
preparation; reference to any problems encountered and subsequent changes in procedure.
Results
This section should include a summary of the results of the investigation or experiment together with any
necessary diagrams, graphs or tables of gathered data that support your results. Present your results in a
logical order without comment. Discussion of your results should take place in the main body (Discussion)
of the report.
82

Discussion
The main body of the report is where you discuss your material. The facts and evidence you have gathered
should be analysed and discussed with specific reference to the problem or issue. If your discussion
section is lengthy you might divide it into section headings. Your points should be grouped and arranged in
an order that is logical and easy to follow. Use headings and subheadings to create a clear structure for
your material. Use bullet points to present a series of points in an easy-to-follow list. As with the whole
report, all sources used should be acknowledged and correctly referenced.
Conclusion
In the conclusion you should show the overall significance of what has been covered. You may want to
remind the reader of the most important points that have been made in the report or highlight what you
consider to be the most central issues or findings. However, no new material should be introduced in the
conclusion.
Appendices
Under this heading you should include all the supporting information you have used that is not published.
This might include tables, graphs, questionnaires, surveys or transcripts. Refer to the appendices in the
body of your report.
In order to assess the popularity of this change, a questionnaire (Appendix 2) was distributed to 60
employees. The results (Appendix 3) suggest the change is well received by the majority of employees.
Example of use of appendices
Bibliography
Your bibliography should list, in alphabetical order by author, all published sources referred to in your
report. There are different styles of using references and bibliographies. Refer to the study
guide Referencing and Bibliographies and check your departmental handbook for guidelines. Texts
which you consulted but did not refer to directly could be grouped under a separate heading such as
'Background Reading' and listed in alphabetical order using the same format as in your bibliography.
Acknowledgements
Where appropriate you may wish to acknowledge the assistance of particular organisations or individuals
who provided information, advice or help.

83

Glossary of Technical Terms

It is useful to provide an alphabetical list of technical terms with a brief, clear description of each term. You
can also include in this section explanations of the acronyms, abbreviations or standard units used in your
report.
You will not necessarily be required to use all of the headings described above, nor will they necessarily be
in the order given here. Check your departmental guidelines or instructions.

Writing the report: the essential stages

All reports need to be clear, concise and well structured. The key to writing an effective report is to allocate
time for planning and preparation. With careful planning, the writing of a report will be made much easier.
The essential stages of successful report writing are described below. Consider how long each stage is
likely to take and divide the time before the deadline between the different stages. Be sure to leave time for
final proof reading and checking.
Stage One: Understanding the report brief
This first stage is the most important. You need to be confident that you understand the purpose of your
report as described in your report brief or instructions. Consider who the report is for and why it is being
written. Check that you understand all the instructions or requirements, and ask your tutor if anything is
unclear.
Stage Two: Gathering and selecting information
Once you are clear about the purpose of your report, you need to begin to gather relevant information. Your
information may come from a variety of sources, but how much information you will need will depend on
how much detail is required in the report. You may want to begin by reading relevant literature to widen
your understanding of the topic or issue before you go on to look at other forms of information such as
questionnaires, surveys etc. As you read and gather information you need to assess its relevance to your
report and select accordingly. Keep referring to your report brief to help you decide what is relevant
information.
Stage Three: Organising your material
Once you have gathered information you need to decide what will be included and in what sequence it
should be presented. Begin by grouping together points that are related. These may form sections or

84

chapters. Remember to keep referring to the report brief and be prepared to cut any information that is not
directly relevant to the report. Choose an order for your material that is logical and easy to follow.
Stage Four: Analysing your material
Before you begin to write your first draft of the report, take time to consider and make notes on the points
you will make using the facts and evidence you have gathered. What conclusions can be drawn from the
material? What are the limitations or flaws in the evidence? Do certain pieces of evidence conflict with one
another? It is not enough to simply present the information you have gathered; you must relate it to the
problem or issue described in the report brief.
Stage Five: Writing the report
Having organised your material into appropriate sections and headings you can begin to write the first draft
of your report. You may find it easier to write the summary and contents page at the end when you know
exactly what will be included. Aim for a writing style that is direct and precise. Avoid waffle and make your
points clearly and concisely. Chapters, sections and even individual paragraphs should be written with a
clear structure. The structure described below can be adapted and applied to chapters, sections and even
paragraphs.

Introduce the main idea of the chapter/section/paragraph

Explain and expand the idea, defining any key terms.

Present relevant evidence to support your point(s).

Comment on each piece of evidence showing how it relates to your point(s).

Conclude your chapter/section/paragraph by either showing its significance to the report as a whole or
making a link to the next chapter/section/paragraph.

Stage Six: Reviewing and redrafting

Ideally, you should leave time to take a break before you review your first draft. Be prepared to rearrange or
rewrite sections in the light of your review. Try to read the draft from the perspective of the reader. Is it easy
to follow with a clear structure that makes sense? Are the points concisely but clearly explained and
supported by relevant evidence? Writing on a word processor makes it easier to rewrite and rearrange
sections or paragraphs in your first draft. If you write your first draft by hand, try writing each section on a
separate piece of paper to make redrafting easier.
Stage Seven: Presentation
Once you are satisfied with the content and structure of your redrafted report, you can turn your attention to
the presentation. Check that the wording of each chapter/section/subheading is clear and accurate. Check
85

that you have adhered to the instructions in your report brief regarding format and presentation. Check for
consistency in numbering of chapters, sections and appendices. Make sure that all your sources are
acknowledged and correctly referenced. You will need to proof read your report for errors of spelling or
grammar. If time allows, proof read more than once. Errors in presentation or expression create a poor
impression and can make the report difficult to read.
Feedback
Any feedback from tutors on returned work can be used to create a checklist of key points to consider for
your next report. Identify priority areas for attention and seek out further information and advice. Speak to
your tutor or an adviser from the Learning Development. Used in this way, feedback from tutors can provide
a useful tool for developing and improving your writing skills.

86