Language &z Species Derek Bickerton The University of Chicago Press Chica & Lona 7 Dane eseaoy pee inp he Unley Hoa, ' ‘ear faa ngeage 50 Jor YVONNE. Te Uinta Pa, hig 0637 En Te Uhr of Chage Rvs ta Lan, a eee (© 1090 by The Unsversiy of Chingy in whose heart ti aways summer “Aig med Pele 195 Pn ne Sf ince 2790 9796 959658 7198 32 ey Cg Cage abt De ‘py 8 cD hen, 1 deer, 2 Hm in ne wise 185 051859 (© Phe gel in hi plato me he nina pies fe hrc Natio Sanko fifa Se” Poa Fg ‘itl ry ea AN! 28108Novel the difeosein mind Rewre an te Nghe asin, reat thsi cell one of dpe and woof Kn. tb nnd tar ersinpower. sucha ef-cinscoaonn aot esac peanomen ‘may wel be tat thee are th inet ae te yaad lla auc: a hese gin ar ily the eu the ein eo highly eloped age Chats Daewin, The Doce of Man 1. Th Cnty Pater 7 2 Language a Repesatais The Ale “5, 3. Lannea Repeseain The Keres $2 4. The Org af Representational Stee 7S 5. The aul Langage 105, (6. The Wald ie Praclangunge 190 1. From Plague Langer 168 8. Min, Cnuconess, ad Kaos 18 ‘9. The Nature the Spin 22 Epgne 255 Nae 259Preface Ie gives me grat pleasure tbe ble reverse the nomal order of a= Iwledgments, in which the author expense bundles grate 0 veryne ee, fom his ur tthe people no ike enelopesy and at the very end bey thanks his spouse flor geting is mea tine eh pasting up with his rnd On any criteria the pero this bok ome ‘st is ny wie Yrome. ts conepton occured while she mas aking ‘lanes mn Hay Drayton a the Unive of Cayena Hay, a ine teacher, gore aco called Social Balog’ at time when ecaiony tvs hardy even a tvikle in Edvard Wilson's eye, and ee regulary eg me normed of content, at of which mesquite eam 0 tne Twa fcnsted yet bald, Suey ngoge should tot all ometere, but excl her? Falke to Hary about, ada bi in ‘ition gave a couple of punt lectures the falling Yar, the et result wich ma owl bilder th por sents and show me how tyne (and how mich es Kew abot the sje. iy lls repair ty ignorance were sporadic and fteninlergted by ther projet: The writing, when Teal mo lnger hin f anything 1 pasigone i, was equally torunus, Th back went though several ‘rte and Ywone carly read each ge. Sbe wa, I suppose the trader T wer siming a someone with 4 goo! general knowledge of the bhava aience,fcnnted by hana and thee relations ith "he werd they inbabi et ite uninterested in ingustics, if wot ac sly tile t sone of te mor nitpicking aspect If amething wan Clear to her, twas can i waa lal presented and neded tobe rethught and rewrite, che had, aif eye for delusion of fmriscence. The bok, whatever ite mers, inital Bate han it ‘ould have ben witht er have alo been forte in having 2 supportive work eviroaent, vein general the Univesity of Hawai and in patil to ByronPose Bender, my departnent chairman, and Don Topping director ofthe So ‘ial Sconces Resear Intute, hth of whom have Benign tolerated my iiosyncracies and encouraged re to develop my Teaching and te- search in whatever dvoton I pleased. This chil «generoaeleare ‘hat enabled me wo spend wo consecutive years away from my tear dies and to find ously tert and unintereing haven, thank to iter Mayeken of the University of Amstslam and Robert Chaudenson sf the University of Provence ‘Althgh thi en » book shout creole languages, my research on pcg nd rele served an ctl! inthe formation of he Hens ox Dressed in i IT ade approached the hues fom that somewhat ‘sul perspective thie would have Been avery diferent ck, indeed IWcould have been writen a al. [am terete deeply galt te [National Science Foundation, alin pari to Pal Chapin, head of it Tings section, for supporting my research on these Languages ovr the yar. ‘A umber of people have read al or par of one a antes version of thisook. Ta grata in prion Willis O'ady, Heeb Roi snd an anonymous eviawer or the University of Chirag Poo or com oes ot an easier venom. ner one was rad in entity by Peter Maicar and group eranised by him nbich inclined Cafe Eisen, Bruce Morten, Ted Redger, Doo Topping, Sim Unger, Michel Wein- sn, and John Westphal thi sly and often ested season was Invaluable and yielded, to, vey of references that I should bave ‘med but hod. Ann Petes, Bob Hu, and the stents of Line Entice 615, who wee exposed to the penlimate version, also made ‘nary help comment ‘Over the yeas 1, thor have buen athe, oe nnerous ot er, hose words rwetings have cnt tothe making of this bonk. The influence of Noa Chomsky, lng resisted, wl be aon. More die Dt at est qual potent that of Kenneth Crs lla of Slabs College, Cambridge, while I war an underrdute thee, bat at tha lime tly unkown to me on 0 frien to what woe then my ine ‘ts that even hod T me in Tub if Tmo ave pated these) Protracted though never rancraus arguments with Talay Given have helped to sharpen and clarify my devs (how can yo know who yo think ul you've dingreed with someone?) With alo theee many and ‘aid farms of asta, for which agai I wal like to thal c= cemed Ian have na excuse there at til shortcomings thie bok the blame can aly be mine. . iat thi pment you lok round you, wherever you ay happen o be sy read thse words, thease that mos if ot all f wha you can se han been ui, made, ar grown by members of our cn spec, ven if you lok out on wilderes, tat wieresecuvves any be= nm it seren our pleasies, or Beets the tark of eobdung i ot igh the profit to Be reaped om two could aud tie dis ‘Weten take such things or rant, and do ot normaly cnt ot romances wi thre of the gurl the orangutan, oF the chit fone, Those cers scm a mot oe a atthe jungles they in it Net oil we bei ohn bout doi abe us a i ay way remarkable hat va wld soul be, nt oly ute dileen fom and {armore comple tan thin but la, in age pot eur on cretion, (Other apoio lap therilves oto natural wald—we aap the nate aleodiew ‘Yet ify ens our eapective nature, you would never expect he ‘ap Between us an the pesto bea vat at. We share withthe ‘himpanse perhaps a mach 2s 99 percent fou gent mei and ‘ourcommnn ancestor may be a itl atv milion yours hind us: Yat if ops lok arod them, what can they so tha the ow species be rade? At moa, the bade of broken boughs that they built ast ight al reuly abstdnod, soon inditngishable fm the surrounding forest ‘The cata sno las stking if we lok ot how mich of the wer each spores conto, The chimpansce ha for patches of une, mile we Ive the wie lab, fom poles to equa, and are ale deaningof ew words ost spcis ste feed into thei own niches, ringed by ‘inbecachable Bares of climate, vegetation, tein. We alone seem ‘magically exempt from such bounds Nor doe the gl between us eo wth what can be sen, Each of ue te ie ad pernitat s tate ae able na oly actin theamd word, but ab a stand hack, 0 t pik, and wee aurelis acting view our own ations a thone of aber, and dliertly weigh nd Judge the sek in aurelves or the tne tha inspite tne ations Catalog oar hopes, ue fears our dreams, and yrfrm coves ther ‘peations that ne sebeume une the he nent stivites orc ‘iousnese’. We do not Koow whether any eer specie ha hore par Weal capacities. We may wll du tf we god easne Fit, many of shave veda lose quatro timate terms wth tube yes of advanced mammal yet no on has shown convincing ‘dence tht anyother species hae conaciovnees that resembles eas is true hat le wo find someting i 0 prot ofits nonexistence, Bu the seco 2easn esi the ikl that hese to tings nance aver nature ad developed consiuanns ar closely ad in eed ceualy ike ris only because we can imagine things Being fore fom the may they are hat we ae able change thm: But this inainative expan fous merely a part of or kindof consciousness Uthat capacity eee share by any oer ect, fie shold surely be evident, Such ‘entre might expected to shar, even ony ina yeduced measure ‘our own work-tering pome. Since none des, We may sk iy tlt 1 working hypathsis tha cnacaunness and power one nate are ‘nique wo ou pecs, and tha oly throug the fet can the second cme aboot ‘These vast dferences, qualitative ar wel 2x merely quantitative, be ‘ween our species and thse tha are chest to pou no role or ‘hose wh believe, a many sil do, that we rel from a amique ae ‘eatin, asupematurlespion nt the mata scheme of things For ‘hove wh dont ebeve this and wh nd onervcmig the evince that we developed, at all eter species did, though the natural pro ‘ete of evolution, these difereacer must remain pling eed. ‘That elton, overall butte tine, coud change one physical ‘xg into athe, eg ata wing, «svi blader into aang, even herve net into a bein with bilo af eons, sem emi decd, but natural enough: That evelation, over a pve a= ew milion eats, sould have toned physic walter inte what ha seemed to mn, in the mos literal sense f the term, tobe ome Kind of metaphyseal ‘tye aogsther anther mater So, onthe fae oft ath siden sem to be et lding ele rather than theories: the oe ede, belie inn ‘cial creation the aber, bali na o-lesemirciustaramtatin sf mtr mid . ‘Ofcourse things can rest ke that The fit ide accept ices, ee | the second dc at. Explanations mst be sought ad have own aught ‘pesince Darvin wie is Deset of Man. Bat ume one of those ‘iplunaton turns tt be wally convincing, Each of them seem “ite say fn te cota problem ta what are baal ide oes fw the enotons develped, whether we are agressive by nar, hw much four rom comes fr cate ad ow much from bigs why ‘ut bhavor shuld inslade alien and incest asidance. The reall tucton ae, how di we get so much more pone han ayn le, Inde at the ame ie did we pt or pettinr kind feonacousness? But, cononting hese qustos, accounts four spies develop nent econ erbarsingy vague twas cave a or big Bais, ome ny. at hig brains were so adepive, wy bal no previous spe ‘Se elected free? Why only the han ine? Thre have Been 3 ‘umber of otewer: Beaute we ised tls, caine we made w Conse we walked oprgt, because we were senallycompesitv, be: ‘as ning on the stan made oar brain to bt. Nan the Sid of ie seem parla compeling, Other species we tons “ter species wage wate, other pens han onthe savanna, alt al Sesiessompse eral bin walk upright om tn loge ad By to. “An allcative pst that hough none of hese hing alone wen enough, thei unique combination eased the brain exceed came cal ite andit onthe eosing ofthis Raion tha eal altered tur behavior This proposal, ike moat ‘biwaleverything’ proposals, ‘ound pernaive tet bt proves las om cloner examination "Tere ate at atte thing wrong wth it, it Icke explanatory tawer Was the patticlar st of factors that combined in ely hominid the ony ott oul ve crested a species ie our, o mere tere tue thte—perape thers? I ths question canon be annwered, i ‘ply becste no ne an yet explain how that set of actors worked to ‘thew ison. Seca ios at acount forall ie dat. Am expanded bin might gine Ie owaer grster powers to manipulate the environ too, but why shal i tthe same tne produce that characterise ‘Sutlenee vin Here's me ding Xy and eon wating ny ‘elf do Xa consciousness gives? nth bork Primtican Fie, Cures Lanoden and Edward Wilson ty to explain euch a eal with papi ae: that of « mountain hich, though oly lig higher than its grany neighbors, becomes ‘lire fo ther by acing «cap of sw and ie. But his age, "hgh vii, des a relly lp. We knew why the bigger mountain fete tow an ice oni we do know hy the bigger brain ge con-“The third thing wong, oe tht fot al big rn anument ie that ‘heres evidence that bain size per se dos anything for any species [Neanderthal bad rains bigest our, atl where are they now? Of cours itis trv hat the aera species brain i the more we woul yy ot the convenient but utmotly vague sed unhelpful label “multigene. But that Titeligence’ (which i simply the capacity to perform varied and complex behaviors and te respond feb and fe ‘ently enviromental np) is ata dire unton of a ie, But Tater of the numberof ss of tskspeciie modes crestre fas ‘olales each of which ix devoted to seme particular behavior oro ‘sjonse—anl the pater of connections einer the et In other words, iis the way in which the bai is rganized, rater than ite mee bol, that lad to increaned intelligence’ Of euros the more task ‘specitc mdals brain has the bigaeWwl be, ut sie elf a ‘dependent aia, “Tie mean tha if the hominid ran got hig it did ot do 2 by simpy ang more ‘pare’ neurons, Indeed, iis questionable wheter theres reer can be such a thing a "spate’ neuron tt i euro ‘hat st, nal east, commited tory spel unetion, Rather, the brain got bigger by adding neurons that erfoel speie asks, Bot wha tasks? Having come fll cil, we are back where we sated the ditional neon mast senchow perform jst hoe tack af hanging ature and generating canscousness dat formed the orginal data to be ‘explain. century and» quater aster Darwin exper the mht nisms ofpyseal evolution, the mechanisms of mena vation ere il Withot «hier and without «convincing explanation ‘And yet tue souee of our ference has hoe ying lhe while, lke Poe prone leer, hidden in plain view. Thee arent merely tw things comcousnes aed power aver nature, that ditingunh ub {fom eh species, there ie the thing language. While it wuld be shoud to suppowe tha langage in an ofl provided everthing thet Aiferennes us from the apes language was not only the force that launched us beyond the limite ofthe species Int the necesary (end ‘ethaps even sficint)pretegieie of bth wat concenens and out IC this, wy have people lnk elsewhere fr explanations? Al long there have heen thse who rsogined that langue mut have Plage an iporaat role. Consider fr nstance the sutton fr Det in tha serves as the epiraph fr this bok. But the prcie nate of That ale remained obveure beaues gumber of Factors conpited to rma language elf an elsive an slippery abject. Language io, of all ur mente capcton the deepest below the threshold of ur avareneas, the Kast aconeble to the rstinaliing rind. We can hry recall aie when we were ita til nt | ‘we came by it When we could st ame athe it waster. I Tike shot of eansparent ase taugh which every ooneivble objet in th wl seems cleat visible ou, We Gnd it hard lieve tha the sheet were removed, those objet a that world woul ne lnger ‘exis in the way that we have come to Laow the ‘That, in tm, ie esau for eto ws lngusge sms pia, Primarily means of communication Mater iis sytem of erent Han, a means fr song and manipulating the plethora of infomation ‘that deg us thoughout our waking fe: How suc asst ame to be ow it fnctions, and wht it accomplishes wil fre the themes of hi de “Athe trdat has mae the oe of language had o eve ‘hat ut velately Tec igus, the tay of sng, ae voy Tile developed. Most of wha we know abot language hes en earned inthe lat tre decades. Very lite ofthat knowledge realy tle the general public. Physee, chemist, biog are retinaly laughin high ceo, but trough ose aiden festa tery, ngsisie dy taught tll use grate cho "Yet merely to know lings i a from enh With few excep tions linus have retained rr any consideration ofthe origins of Teguage othe role that that pla in the development fat speci "Noam Chomsky, guabl the Newon af oa el, has sine the oi ‘nol language aa ine of tr mo scent nero than the righ ‘tthe at States he mae oul pliy, We wal never have eared a much a we hive about the prey fra sractral proper tie of ngage if sme scalar had no cacettd on tha the clusion of ll ele, Bu ime donot wanacend this strategy we cat ever hope a lear what we ae al why me ae what we are The lereaive eure, pursued ere, iby ates on. I coils coving disciplinary bowie and uespassiag om Bld 0 ‘ius tht no single shear could hope to encompass hem all Tis {hese inevitable that anyone nko attempt such a sour tay, here and thee, quite unintentionally oversimplify a disor the fdings of ‘ther: The st ene ea doe toy to Keep sch emer iin Te any cae think soon wall woth taking. Ake ot and shoal ret even pew censute srt marble atuleun cng te al ‘word on the topes hat it broache. A book ise machine o think with‘This bok i «machine fo thinking about language and what language hav done foro specie and bow i as made us diferent fm aber species, It lpn unto think shout theve things in new wae, itl Rave ahiovd it an "Te aranzation of the ook bs flows. The St thee chapters ‘com themacves with he natueoflangusge. Chapter Von lan fg with animal eomminication systems an alines it eps Tina neti, wile capers 2 and 3 ty to sow how tha fancion wor, loking frat at words, bow her convey meaning, at wt inde ‘allen inappoprist cicumetance). In one understand furor difeences between hans and ver vets, certain aspect f meaning mat fist he eared. We might sp ow tha any relation botween events inthe world and mesningl tierances coud be characterised wx a mapping elation, tht 9), 'n operation tht matches fete ofthe ervrnment wth features o {ior or lr sbitrary) presentational eaten We might begin by 0) ingthat pyon i the vel wl is matched wih pile the vert sytem and a patil noun ina given bums langage This woul eo ery far rom errand Russel thy of sing i ee rece for Rasa lived at git ito eile icles hgh Tying tha noun refered drt nities nthe el wel Tings, ot least since Rusels contemporary de Sass have non that this sma for hua Language. As noted bore, ran: sti ters do not wfer all and lescal items ree to eleven “nites ony indict. This bebe tone, but leat ve ping ‘operations lie between the seal wold and lnguge Fis or senee pereptions ofthe world ee mapped eta s conceptual repiesertaton, tnd thn this conceptual reprovestation in tne ete» ing dec, even inthe arma ease thee between eternal bjt and cll Every now and then, even atv vets il we a, em eage cal for sotthing tha stan eget help to say thatthe verve merely made a mista Why did make tha sake? Because thought that vba ita ely was eae In thet words, ithe verve i wang i is wrong bonis tis esponding ot ‘ovat of enfin, roe than the abject tall. But are we then tosay thatthe verve eepands tte own entiation when it happen tobe wang ad the eal objet when it happens tobe ight? Obra rts Verve rb diet relationship ‘bjt, The cl label an act of demiicaion the pssing ol ome pheher One tenn in particular category. In sone sense vert 2 ms have "Tt te things wed vel t are ot eter ent i even cee in gum case. One pec fender ithe very exisence of expres lon ike unio o the golden mount that gave Rossel vo ch Toul, Since ouch expressions cana let ewe ents, they steer evel of tepsentaton thats sone extent independent (the el weed acd its sometimes inseapable ht ings expression ar {ening ott real-world enites but o our conceptions ofthese. Iie Surprising that Raval never dncosed sentences like The Bil Bly 1 lace and rpc iver diferent fom he drankan manster you dept him tr bing. Hoe, obvouly, to coe of the same peson are in cone {he Novean we exeape the station y pointing othe idapuable tet that one dies mot normally preface proper mamee with the definite ar- tele, and hi therfore Set while the Ba Baye end reget ay Fefrto concept of Bil Raley, Hill Bailey alone can only refer to Bill aie he veaonel individual ‘Suppor sy Bll ae i ones an you say Bll Balle irs. Since bes qualities canna be simaltanesuay predate ofthe sme son, theselecent rte fist we can only be my concept of Bil Bailey While a forthe second ean only be your. Bat what about Bil Bailey Teel? we say that the name bere ztrs oa real-world entity, we tein the uncofrtale pst of clsiing that ames ometines refer {oa nites nd sometimes to concepts that they efor to concept al the ti. "Yt even tha bath calle ad word reer inde, there is ee ec that they do wot dos the sameway. Frinstance, i ae bt ‘hat eo anima sytem elf oa golden mniains 0 y- thing leo which thre eno ansary even “Arter ay in wht alls and words dlrs that words canbe, ad sly ary used inthe pial abeence ofthe objets they rele berets cls hull ever ore ous Thre one exceptions merous Ulocrers have epted, for vers and ether primate species, what Toate defierate ues of lam ellen he absence of any predator Aligned t dts other okey em aggresive intentions = ‘ove pleat compton fr some em offend bese canbe rove to be genuine cases of ception, would they serve adenine the diction betwen words and ello The answer {Sof wr ronan, Flt, he sratgy wal ot work ules al the eral a ie ‘ te yt rs eae pcr ‘heey Sein kyle tats pn hepa non Be ‘dnt nS ake we te say newman en wa pan ewe tenes Stil i a

‘austell i each generation ight fil to survive tat exerene, hay, the gees that canveyed such a vantage woud podase more dpting than hose hat didnot. Ths radaly, ever tne, the tan that lacked an atoatc nake reaction wold de out, evita eae ton ara truly poner epcie onteverpoes ‘On this anal, see whet here oud be objec on ‘he ntion that thee are innate concep Indeed, the sue woul hry ‘wed be teted at sub length wer it aot at that resistance to what ‘Sellen rather oly termed innate ies tends o gow stranger one ‘pposches the central ital of language. That aspect the inmateness ‘we il be addres nde crue For the present, it may be ote thao the concept! eel! leat, nteral representations cost ‘acai fiona and leaned forms, I language inden, pinay, ‘adnate of representation ound in a particular rural trecks there team ne pred reson why it tv shuld ot cons (fs sinilar mone Bari Langage really «este of representation? If i, then we should be abl ovesalve the Centinty Paradox. We could seach for the ances of language not in prior esters of enna communication, atin pie reprosentationl oyetems But belore thi can be done, te things are necessary. The i so show that langage may indoed be properly termed a eepesetaton ‘yet, and to doerib th popertos poate. The second ito survey the developmen of repesetational systems in eeltionay terms, in ode o show tat atleast a good proportion of the arate Inecstry for lrguage antedated te emergence ofthe hominid Tine these things can be donee can then ten a the developer of minds and determine, St what eer propeties were rege ‘sete language a we know it and second, whether ti pale thet jst hese properties cold ve een dereoped by the Few speciation ‘hat sepante us om speechless primis, efor we begin this qos one pit fvur of the chosen corse maybe nate, No attempt to deve langage fom arma comminicsChae One Yi could hope to tel us anything sigan bout the origins af cone ‘iouness, I Tange mere no more han commanication, would be & [rover conesiounese a state, Bt if language isa representational ‘ate it tone state, Moreover, ifcansiousseas oo ie may of repre= ‘eoting to ourselves orelves and the wold arourd ws, then Hay be ‘ha he eis the wo ate lesely Finke, and tha by uncovering the fone we my ls uncover the ater Ito Language as Representation: The Atlas one isto show tht the sttovedens of language ar presentational, theft ake soll Bo to sow tat ange = indeed a representa imal eter, and to demenstate the crcl properties ofthat system. I toy be well bin by laying jut wha it mean oa) hat language a represen sytem {To pus meanings ca be dined fom the sta. Tak, for example anlar and harboak of nears. Both ofthese could be ‘eared a representations of partelargeraphic area. The ala ‘Stans «sre of ape ha corespond in amt «representation of that ate (ltouph, a wae nue inthe peeious chapter, any things that ar inthe ae wl ote in the map, and san things tha re Thema mo’ bein the ae. We sg wt tony hat the al com ‘its fle representation af the area Un the handbook doe. But thsi nt noes the cae. We couldn principle increas the m= eof tines nour bandonk ut hey eracrmsed the ete area td efletvely covered the same tori se maps Bet even i they contained dete infomition, the two old ill epeset tat information in he ferent wys, The atlas wood n> tam the lormman in tt ashi, walang the propartonl re Inne betwewn tw ves, mania, and 3 08 that obtained in ature. Buti we wasted ogo fom X to Ya fram ¥ to Zy we would Fave contact th tite ote fr ourcves Marover,wilethe alas ‘might provide some ofthe neceate inertatin, it would mt provide us ‘rth ny mente to compute au near” We would veto Beth ‘tf calves. On the other hand he hank woul net aitae Te proportional rations. Merely by loking at we col frm no eetinate ‘4 relaionshis between X, Y, and Z sacha the dance beta thet te wheher one lay ear or west af anther. Norco we determin the tera suvoudings of X,Y, aed 2—vhathr they ay on plane on taller, whether there were nkes or montane nest. Is the kindof presentation tht Language provide ore ike that of the atlas of more like that of the handbook of Hineeres? The com ison af language to map i, of cous, by no means an orginal one fndeed it may seem rather obvious Bu the mayen which language really esembles «map are aot necessary the way in wich Language has Been sid to resemble « map. Pesbape te bse krown exponent of ‘he map = langage Hea was Aled Kosi the inventor of general ‘anes, wh popularied the expression the map isnt the tet: ‘Ofcaure tian, tthe waysin which the ap dlrs rom the etary fret the ways in which Kerme thoagh tire. Therese st least three major problems with Koes sppach Fint, Kormbsi seems have belived tha language mapped the werk experience det He sertanly did ot vegan language as ‘emote of mse maping, «mapping eancept that in tar desived from the procasing of tenor ips Soin, he seo to have be= Tiered in eomnon with many people who tal about representations ‘har representations ean presen witha boli versinitdey and that i they do motif there are properties af the representation nat shared by the thing represented vee versa~then theta decency ff the mode of rprsenation hat canal sboul he pat ight. Korey filed to appreciate that simpy by ita of being represen tations epreetains canna rpesen with bute wera taher words, you canot havea representation without it own proper ties end thee pogrtos most be mgd om what i represented It flows rm tha tha if wate of tine ty Yo iy up language to make i more logical nd more reslitic, Koaybkt an is lowers id Language i watt i Since ean adaptation specifi oo ope ties, we aze mat ging tbe ale wo rplac by anything deren, and we would be bette of simply eying wo understand it, rather hen tying te change it ‘The third problem with Kerayhais apron that language en map ony. The answer tthe esi aked above whether language ‘ost rosmbles anal ora ook ofiinrria ith it esemble bth, Although either isorposibly auld bean exact alg every nyse representation has properties uniue io iel, there are septs of Legnge Renan: Peas tingusic epeentaion that are weakly analogous to thse af maps and tuber aspect that are weakly anlogoust those of hanoks of ines [Sern the chapter we wll consider the maplite representation, Marrine Reausry Inn previous cpterit a ggated tht ar knowledge fhe word, fo tht ater, ny creature's anarenese ef ts enironment, was Se fred by aseros of mapping operations The st of theze, the eve hat raha with ther erature, erm jet inthe ral wo via the yams of zone, tspecilzal networks fells ad heir eonnetions The bai. ut can we uy that hee networks crcl cna a evel ‘of concetsthat ten mappel mt lengngs? Pat ater way, the question is: Dp creatures other tan ourselves farm concepts? This ent a xaightrward question les we suppose that's concep iv concept ea concep fr all species that have eo ent, Consider gn the tere mnkey and tala ells pecially ‘he one fr Top’. Toe thi eal fective, verve mst be ale to singin (i lage jority of cane) leopards fom onleopards, reaver, given that they might perceive Iopuds from a vay of nde, wth wait of degen felon (drt intervening rae, Tres, to branche, and on) iteannt be the eave Ua on ome ‘ge stereotyped peesentaton of lop tigger the leopard ell Bat we cart cole ror thi that veces have concep Tp and inthe same wy tha we ave, We noted hat the cle given nly Trevose to leopards actual appestine, whereas we cas think and ‘peak abt leopard in their obnence. Can vere think aout loops (Grad ther, wonder ho best cope wth thea soo Or task ‘ peape lig more answerable quetion are all he possible mani {tation a leper iniely inked tthe alarming area fhe ‘rai, a in gre 2 Le, without cing in anyway ned one oot? (Or are they Inked to ve aoter in igre 2.1, 0 that any ni festaton of leopard wget the nae conjunction, which nan eg enihe arn? {Ewe wer talking stow fogs o¢ humans, there would be no dliicaly in answering hi last queston—negatiney for fog, ponte fr be mao, Fg ect quchly abd elective) to bugs that Ay pst the, at "his by mo means mpi that they have concept "bu Indcod, we ‘san be prety se tht they do mo st os that her oonsept of ba a ur and overgenerlines to «rather grins extent. For instance,of 2} | eau —— [ent [a ‘arm | + [oa ets Poneto [2h Sica” ———- [rea "21. Foie tiny be apni eae pn by vee ad nan 9s Sed orien: on ps ‘hey wl overgneralize by anapping at bugsied pelt that ae flipped past them, ut wil undergonerliz by taal igraving mations bags ‘ven wher no oher food sree avilable. The moe parionions ex planation of their bear i tht networbs fell that exe ori ‘movement and mull rounded objects are dell linked the snapping teflon, and that there i ating moe sophisticated than this ine the frogs brain Tour own ease there is very diferent story. Suppose that we are lone in a hove ate aright and heat a sound that we db et ine ‘itly enti Unless we ae ina storm anxious eats e wll aa Immediately spond wo i Rather we wl isten ite and yon ‘iy the sound it is repzte le buna terms, thie meane that we wl 11 10 pride linguistic deseripon fr the eu. Only when we have ine this (called ite ereakng shat, cat tring to et oul pose bar lar, or whatve) wll we tke the appropriate scion, ‘here canbe litle Scat tht the case af the vere i inermedite between those of the fox and our own species At some stage in the rola of species, same Hind of Linkage bopan to form aso thse ‘etceptons that hed evotationary consequences (ife-trentening rile nuncing fore ceataetha rosive hem, given thatthe perceptions ed the retere te behave in sie ways Forinsance, leopard ‘fut kepas oar nd oar smell might rginally base eaused ‘enon in uit dleren part ofthe ran, butte fac hata provoked ‘Similar rel (Hight may have hep wo create eel of processing on Stich ll dee were neural inked For reas tht wll bacme a ent ater, saying thio beter than saying that Enkages developed Smang perception ofthe same abject or clas of abet. The result was Cho frmaion of exten rap nd accurate dentnton of eter ‘membership became tera factor nthe survival india To theca of mature members of our own speci, ii prety clear ‘hat ye eat oar pereeptins of price ojets ad eer oie inthe ight, on objec am Aunt Lucy's dressing able, an expe ro ‘tion bya neighbor to sone innocent question} by trying to tap ther no ene preessing concep that har «linguistic representation (a Url 2 sensprey, pararia. Ivaber words, our manent tomer faetioning in the word relies, unconsciously but quite impli and omltly on ur having he equivalent of a map of reality which i Shader ll the things thot, ten fru a apc, ate ini. Thema enables ut oe umeles rap tothe Botton ofthe env toon and wo prepare appropri response oem But les stop hee and coir fora moment what kinds of hing re inthe map wat ind of things ar in reality, apd what Kind of rl napa eet betwen ham, “convexmons oF nce Mar Inn rdinny map, we sent find diet symbole rtonhip ber ‘tween abjets i the mapped tain and objets in the map isl A hur, fr intance, maybe repented by ern a raion by = ‘enschahed blackline, and pond ot lake by a ue bib. Note how ‘ver thet muck raviey inte erin i erase in this procee Atel ‘church may he Catolio Episcopalian, r Panes, mayo may rt have eter aspire, my vary wihin wide Knit ih ep tte ‘ne, bling materi, aed syle, but rads fal dhs wl be reposted by acre, ti opresetod tall Bat even ot apy representation maybe uch ore idee than this. Take a map tat shows anal far given area a indicates that the avergy anneal anal tx particular pin is exactly tweny-Sve ince. Now, there my ever have been and there may ner bea yearhate To in which dhe nfl at hat point meanare nat twenty-five inches Silay, the map may indent hat the population of given catty falls baveen thy and forty persons per square mile, alagh ‘ny contain a fe own inthe idle of wilde, every ato Square ule may contin ether mre ower persons than the map S- feta What the map shows in theve casi ot wo much x rpretenta- le reality an abtrstion from Tt ent sow wht there ein sn ate (the ets chureh relation) bat what elatonip ld be: tween one aes andothers-how sme tes ate wet order, oe more les pops hn thee neigh. ‘The relationships i such maps ate conventional: they wer rity sd quite enacotaly and deliberately chosen by cartographers. This {of cate, no lnger te ate when retro percep mapping ‘realy. Here, the picture i also more compen, becuse, a already fused, at least tree dstngsishale mapping peoceses are ping a from reality to sensary perception, rm sensory perception w eerie ion, and rm eateortion to Language. The network of elaenships tha these prcessos ental ean prinpe be mode cere i we consider four etegories, alr mentioned in tha bok, that are represented e- spectively hy the words Jepard,Surglar. paranoia, and uniore. These {tegres, inthe oder sven, presen pointe which have wn ineous ingly tenes linkage wih anything one ight al‘he real wot ‘Siac we shal be obliged to keep switching among at ea tee lovee (ihe level what may be bjt in the ral word the level of concep, ted the level of word) th discuson that lls wl econxing uy les the tre are systematically distinguished in sme wey. For conver sence, then ejects tat are normally regarded ax being (and may ‘etl be) in thera word will appear in an eeigraphiclly metal ‘manner (eopani); concepts (as wel as “categories “potype', and Sie) wl epearin quote leopard) and words wll spear in aioe apa You might want to sy hat leopard caerponde to cnerte reality ven f ths ie sy the ote by which the eoespondence i eetaised 1s ot ecessrly mae dict than it in more abet eases. You ight want say that various perceptions of eoard-—charsteritie mele, sounds, and isl presntatons-—were somehow fared int & Cneepu clog, ad that the category wae then labled leopard Now ret well ny vervet hes pereived leopard, ut how many of us Ive? Some of us mey have fet encountered laperd in 2 stary or 8 school textbook without having any ery clear ies of what was Ie Tague iin The a en i fc that we ca ay things le harap? shows ht ne worl in a meaningfl way we don't eed to have the faintest Hea ‘sate represent Sipps somenae should anemer wich a question by saying, Me an animal hat ets acer onal isin jen it's lata tthe ct bat och Bigger, and it has spate, att oly ator could we be sown {acta pcre fe pticular leopard: Then wht might oak Hk the ‘Fatal one of thingy ie completely reversed, nse of proceeding From abet perception, rm prepa a coeept, and om ence tory we bare prone rom wordt canoe (we my ar ering the dein of lopard, have ely the ragurt ia of what one mught bok like, but we would havea prety pa ee of on, ad perhaps Ibe, ite reading illustrated mageine, for ntance, we might po teed fom ance Yo perception. The Bal tage ofthe progress, om pareeton to abject, need never Bappen. Wo may neve actly a fel forever tule Ieper. ‘Ofcourse this can ony happen nowadays. Phylogenetic pesking, things sorely Gllowed dierent cou In on peotlene anesos, plenorna of cerain Kinds gave rie to perepions ofthe phenom fn. Then either clases of ereptions were joined to et he parame= tere of concept, which wa subsequently Ibe othe emergence f| engige lf manna Linked related perception tee ‘Bet the wa in hich things camo in existence doesnt exhasstvly kternivn sitber thir nature nor thee fare relationships. Al Kinds and levels feepresntton scour, simply though having come nto {sistnce, some dere of aulonony. They ae things in tht own ight, {elles preentationso someting elee—the pcr ofthe Ba of Legumes picture on «wall nota bate. The auton of representa Smal evel a oe a get in the rane of animate emestes, since ‘he ner ineastrctre that supports hoe levels a biological mecha lem ht, unite «pining, cam pow and change ‘The scope of this scenery baton aparet a we pated o our ther tte ence, burglar "paranoiay ad ‘unison No mater ho Indveat the rpresenation, clear linking elatonhip exists among ‘opr, op nd ep. Much te same, you might yt of ugly, ‘rglar, aed Burglar But thew are some very important Aiereaces As we sr, cven hing ike leopards canbe identi on he has of ‘sctnthand infra, But eoprde can so be ented bythe aye | which intaces of them present themselves ely to our eenshate Tse These ot fn, Whe cai ay pect a ida? y nding ox bly yt furtive inva oa ap, Black Stk sped palver ih blging sack ve one shoul, sd ‘hile we may resopize his teretyped represen, nove of ell Felines hat each, or even any, burglar necessary lok hike his rove, wil entiation of leopard impo tht ad alyays wll be Teopard, Heaton of» ans burglar docs wot ‘cesar convey any compatale implication. "A burglar i simpy fomoone whe bas barged, yeti snot at angone whe as burgled. Tigi an individu, respectable nowadays, who a his youth had oom ited oe minor bari or which he had never been coiled, Given uae af ib, you would be seo reer ohm that Burglar X. Movers, burglar ean be quale in ways tat roped cant Yow Sa Innes med burglar ofa would-be arglar, bt nota fred lop trdor wo-b apr. I ter ods, hat es at he heat of ae ‘a’ fe nota bundle af sensory perceptions, bu paiular behave. throat equaly te of leopard? Sofa it hasbeen assumed tht ‘anceps are from the lnking of rlated perceptions, thet areal, ‘ve sil athe vague sense, perceptions othe same thing Now this ‘epee oo simple, on widimersonal Many concepts, pesbape ll, are ficially determined by faoton and by the evltionary relationship that exit between us and their ferent: Ou concep of eopad ie unified one, in part a est Incase we Hen it referent a 4 om festorand»ptetlly dangers proatr- there were an snimal hat Twoked and behaved exactly ike a leopard except dha it at grass instead cfeah, we might call a fle leopard o hires leopard, but we ‘esainly wont ell isla leopard weve, here are tl ome diferences beween Teopad an ‘bu la? he nota shove, thor ae no perceptual coreates of “urge. oan fos someone bre eto house atid remove object thee from, we eal assume tht tit pteon was a burglar—be coal be the omer who bad mili is keys. Thus ‘bursa depends oma nambet ‘gute absrctconepty euch a “rsp a0 “propery that e- "ve uniquely from within barman ete "This rane that wl Here maybe things that are eoperds quite in- Aepenetly of un thre are nothings that are burglars except as we ‘ee tem. There maybe burglar and burglar, but Durga s ‘ened by “arg” andloe burglar, rather than vee verso—in contrast tela and Leopard, which an be deine in ere flop Paranoia takes this process stag further. In the ease of burglar, there area leat ete, objective even if man nade, that ll agent Rin Te ie lee wher the term applies Inthe cate of porno, hs nat So: Thee ae many, even anioag menal eats pafesindls, who deny the reali fmt ills, o who ep itat a ater of eitery de nition, Any two pice ace, any tw jee, any two members ofthe public oven wold lst cvtsnly gre eto whether ugar was pprprinte desertion ofa gven individual na given stanton, osu ing that ll he telva fact woe aval othe, However, xa Tent questionable wheter any to lay pers, oven any wo eae sional, would age wheter apace piece of behavior was inion tive of perma orto. Prat, 0 the lay person atleast, wualy taken at raing ‘an tonal fear of gerncton’ Buin costo the ease of barglr thee em geeelly scepter clearly aniclaed Ineasre of what oot iran” He alot easier to deine "op ny or cclwed premise! than ii odin reason "Tu there may be paranoia, at "paramo, bt no pars And yet leat whe the fer owed ged ath, thor should be some ‘welt phenomena, sme aba bcavor ater tat might sem {ojo te I the cae of uicor, thin ot so. Tete ae ‘orm and nicer, bat absatutly wo unicoens. Unica carespnds sith notary int (eacep om our own artefact) ad has wo fae tonal tiation, Even parents hes afin utication: jst as that ep i nee putes vas ea ‘just a the concept “url” helps us to bahave in patclse septate yee nose fener he oct "Jari helps oo bobave in particular ma wards ndiduels who poss nhat we choose to rear a atonal fears Inthe case of uni fom there smote hie tp jie ‘Whotal hie som may be summaries follows, Tho rpresen- tional levels of words andcoenpt can b even estas nd rma {um sensory input than those of rifall and population ape, even tothe cnet ofeeting, oto heir ovn esas, words and concept tha hve no cman in perp terme or even in ental cultural ‘omventons Bui is fo, we ey ell wane nba ie that sve ‘ond od concept the particular anges of meaning hat hey have "Thins qustion that ha werd plslospers and peycha soe thant igus, fr avery long tine A eienal view i that ‘ich word representa eatery and tha foreach eatery me have st ‘ee thet uct be mt belie membership can be ane. Take ‘ean huh, for eample: for someting tobe a tee H wold have ave popes a, ane where frit be a ah woul hase ve prope ands Thi nena wrk oo well in pce.Chg Te Sins can't eine fr bole ial than any but, nor can Iewchinen, for tet oe ole emined bac and kine ore remy has ben sage et ons repetent prt sue han cle A potty ite meat pa rprsetative ite clan Friatnc, mast ple mond agre tha tk or bin Sane pe fect then ay Fngun oan ech, The brtayp ten Benes tating pn nd ne determine it lace Semating longo and thos nich wut spy Wi) by deck ether iis more sar Wo a raaype tan te het nie ‘approach might seem promising, at least with respect to terms, like duh and re, Hnsount, tn, he got tae ht we center the ade fer. There avo sect or inte, that weight be one whether doesn user en Prunype they defen, howe, nat ato way Tir ies we piped somite hy we have the protpes tha we do, and ot thr, why we hav «Crain mumbo rt tyes ot mre ewe or stars by det weve ah ‘eyelets nee eds) soe (orn suber thin Suan weet? Why do we hve two ray wica we cul ey tht etc hb ne ee? Or hy tetathid ter, tren teen Bh aed ee? Fore fe tes the ine een ad en he fac ha re {eal betwee aes afte nares Thre ing oem nnn of vege or, so arg, seal ster ene Brac, ape hich we superimpose te por own casa ‘Why tht pd the way and rot thn Theron dfconcy of prtpe theory rats oh ned naire ofthe drain it corer may act ll with ga othe? an “tet, en we tne far oer examined above iti ce than ll Why wuld we ea’ pote ep forte? Al Iepais kanes i's inary. We ee ert we Koo toying all alt mur predao, nT to deeine whether ‘ametg oar tie or an "With ura the prey concep saprtaosin a similar way, even teugh menberhip a he clas sged on 2 ue ifr {IE tne ja re ea ras don nyt ar bot or someone burg The concep aa nappies the rr fr bing barge onal rier an poeta and nage: Rion. Te es tn ser how the concept paige’ make ny rac. With paren Spin, tee can hal bes poaype i aire; noe th ana iy Sito, Ineo the rerio hat clas may be t tet pay emt (ie arab yaa respons tb prot tease One mans parana nte m atnal ‘iret prac il pry rove chee scot ap- aed ra, td prt’ os well ol an rer). Tio iSscd nt dete dred concep contain a dynie ene They weet mls sys on palit et They ei enue they dl claws ah wih adn somevkt ie Cratos nth af own see Leap caer tot rene repre # gt pein oot of oi ate, Bar erase he concep sve tigger st of expt an ene petal bbain Toran have conc pa ew be prepared © sete in word plae wer tee wuld elle chance Sfmctng sn, Wevl eves dears ative se a fee ‘Srempare er ype of peda the Hele ge, nde ets Tet bly deterine wheter or epee should icoped open il be ci hol, Beadlong iho roo soled. Tn the sae wy the tient of tems ike Burglar nd pure soi ela eden our epee son heer th el Ara ne dt tht he oi eight neue by bur Arise oom mares tlc el he pice Ihe pale ogee hte ave ng oo ees hy wll art someone if telson jay decide athe plo ar aig corey, at ero il oly oor ea cere perme a com ‘Kang peri we wl edhe perencncermed cles th pee ‘Sate orate, inches we my cnomrage i tet ae popehiat Ith ochnt ogrra wih tha panoi pesee, din bors may cman» case therapy he ne ‘er, canals Tames sl ae hae do nded ges that word nd concepts seceded on factional tity Un er wordy ‘Sein ny wha ve (ooops, en call goa, Common yrs) ee inet ihn saint way nat thi fev out on svlatnny ml of ange wold pet Tn many fac objet see reap of eteing ae atedhat Tw those with which the ceatae ay interac sigaicatly (eal he fog anditeboedeteting vis) We, with or fraser orev of sense ‘Bol this cannot beth whole sry. Consider agin bush and ree. One ‘on indeed elaborate plush explanation: buh presente thing a tana car hide bebiod, or among, whether fr aalking oF predator idance, while ree epesets things humans can climb ta se farther, (o erde predator, oe sel wild hey o bite op). Tie explains hy there sno tem eras covering bath tes and bushes (the eo in ‘lve quite diferent es of human behave) a ne intermediate te tren there i wo coreponding behavior pater that something inter smeliate between «ros and bash wuld evoke), But what about bons tees ad year-old arplings, both quite cline? Why dan we call these sh? “There i futer for in the mapping frst that we might eal the contervaineralype principle. Tings ae distinguished wih an eye ts their iy, tr, but sso witha oe othe onscten dente ‘on. Both needa must bested A map in which cbt denial in ‘ype are denoted sometimes by ene sybel and somtimes by anther clea undesirable. A sapling ul ea oe i grow long eng ad ‘bonsai wee aul eve Jor ocmalte isromth pater had mot been deliberately inerfered with. ‘And yet thing a far propooedexplaine why thre are word lke sir nay wel tht "you et’ get there fom hee’, ned that ko clan why there hoa be anisrs ad ‘onic’ bt no uncon, Teecetery wo eat rm completely diferent direction. CComevereniss ano Avrononty Most efor explain the mysterio of meaning have begun by looking at the meaning of individual words We ted lo regard the Lexicon of a langunge at it of tems, and indeed thief how dictionaries adie tionally peesont itn a thsours, rue, words ae grouped secordingt2 meaning, bat they a sill somie ets, sharply demarcated from thee neighbor Neither thesourus wor diconry conveys any auggeation that, per hap, the range of meaning of «word can he define only through the ranges of moaning a is neighbors. Yet for seme time in the backwaters ‘Flings there has ben floating ound te idea tht there exists Somating elle semant space an area of meaning thatthe lesion Langu a Ramttin: The se ‘simply carves into comenient chunks, acoeding to piteipes yl to be Fly serstond. To some, the principles ae quite abitays tober, the det rec the peep eulpnet of oer specin Ie tan loess’ “allowing oly the loge ofthe ma then perhaps eth ‘ieepoiats te pal ih Weemante apace exis it shold, a inn, spree ll of el syoce, ofa east os mich of ral space at oor organ of rene make [rae But ow can wresture who swung on plane a est wo Tevele of representation away fom reality kaow wha real space co tsi? Pilsopers sometimes wit a if we staan had pve a= ‘compris fw ould peek at he ack ofthe ok inthe way Ue tne las up translations uf entence ns homestay fg language ‘hase Ba there i, ofcourse, no privileged aosess, "Th only way we can know the word ethrugh lovee of epost tin, and ie sek to ale the Bw of ifort that ou sensory representations ae if sek to bac rom that ow the conse {ences hat might vet pate, we depend wholly upon «farther level si repreentatin, cr sytem of coacepts With tebe wil the weld se cn onl represent what we believe to be ot there, and what we be Tiere ta be ot there shader inpreepbly into what we mato be oo ther, o what wild be convenient for sift were oat there. Suapesing from the start that ue senses could tel the we soy of ely swe were tt neces worried fur bs guess what ws ot hee ‘rere mit immediatly confirmed by tine senses we did ot se of ear shows, soul angel, or netrinan, or a prince of est lo ‘ison, 0 principle of etrntion, gry, shuld be aparently Through ts resumed effets, oti thing apparent mae of wood ‘one ose! sould fact const entity of alos, Tn ths Tit (ght, sul, ange, nutrine,phlogison, gray snd atom there soe he for every per at eat ee thing tt pers be lives in ad ove thing he or se tally dabeliove in. (Nt ereryone vill peas o which they ae ofcourse.) The i eo undermine the eal’ faith inthe level of nord o ences at being in anyway 3 ‘miro image of sly. Fo all then things were a aoe ine fel ‘ao: they were lypeteae abot the ature ofthe eed wr Some teen to bie bee dscredied, others soem to have ben conied, some hive not yet been confirm and may never be conic eve ‘nfl, at when hve erm Bot merged they ll represented ‘ty the same thing educated geste at what the wd geo, tess that were hot dry verbal ie toms of enor dats "The wicrn represented jst ch gon. The fc that net orncreates had two bors int lgially entail at there sould 00 fnethomed erature. Thee was, alr all the swordfish, and indeed a ‘e-horned rama he sinocro, was edncovere by Wester Eu rope sme tine ater the appearance of ‘unicom’. But by then even a Perceptual bjt comesponding te “inicors'—a hosel exeture with peat ike a arvhas o forchent—had become extablihed, and fulslown concept compte with bcavorl attributes fextree docity in he pusence of ign, foe example had eysaliod roan it Bor levle af sepresctatin re indeed atonomons ad the unite ha ome pe them have ae of thir ow ‘We are on prety safe ground, thegh, i we assume that leopard pre- ese unio inthe even ofthe loin It aseme nly earonable uppe that the lesion evolved over tne, perhaps ove a eat deal of time, and that it began by abstain tose categories that were most Ime welt our epesioe. Sabenquenly spread to coer the ice range of phenonena scessile wo our senses, and beyond since guage (among ter things ol with which we rake though the sti of seme impressions in wear of general principles o laws that ‘ri eve to gue our bahar, is cartes of language that Calne te desi anything in experience. Even when a metic talks fy emperinces pele to decrb in word the penker| ha in fat jst deseribed such expeencs in werd (beter we regard sch w desertion at adequate is anther mater). But long before the lercon cold denrbe everthing, hal developed in anaher dation that has yet to be discs. ‘Tas Drvate Euewesr Sofarwe have dealt nly with bse unit that late ets. A system | ciel of such unite might be adequate wo represent the wood i the trond ere a scum a eveything nit std, Ina iving wordy he Thar of entities mst lo be represented, We may well wae as why they re represented inthe way that they are and mt terse “ake simple sentences Ike A wow rang oF A edi fying. I We lao the event thee sentences one, what we actully cen each ee conaite sng image, acreatureandst-boavie. Iti por ible to imagine «language which hinge were aranged ite tay. In men sgn lnguag, for naan, would be pasble 10 tuk the hands that cnrepond to Bid and imately extend the same hand in tn uedulans rton indicate ng fo andthe fac esgic) at least the American version of sign language des eng Reena Ph ae oan ise of his opportity The handshape hat nists bid Flood sequentially by the handaape tha nde fing. In ter ord ig lange, lke spokes language, simply follows te pater {the oman fc that, a wll be shown, andre all angge, hathr signed or pan. ‘The subjec-peicate diction in language 2 undated eo ch akon fr granted, that iis perhap worth emphasing ha errs to nating in naive, There eno enue in which we can prs Ceivem erstre without simalanotalypeocving tht i dng some thinssleping, rain, walking, Bying—and no way in which We ean eau rang, ying leping, or walking wiht smal seus secing the eentur at perfarme i Conant behaviors of ae Sov are pat and patel of being creature, and language merely mi fore ely meld mor the la. Why dost? "Yu might watt w answer tht some priniple of economy operates here ene had hav separate wads for cows, hore pasing, seep-pasing. deer gras aod the for crvernning, be running. shep-running, detuning». tleo on, fr every bebe: bref every erature, the lsin wold be very mich larger than But prinsipln of ecoomy area nly a ary af hindsight. Whocver started the leaion cam hardly have envisaged rani cate meory orae, and indeed it remains to be proven tht humans oul ot lea theca te handed of thn of word that itary terme or sbjeeredieate cnjuctons would enti seems ikl hat language evolve the way it dd because eon ‘eps of ener and im patil, of eter apeies—-prceded con ‘eps of Lehi. Same eidence elevate t il be considered Inter hayes. Forte resent we may note that behavior are mace ab strc things than ents. We aw cae tht words prpating to de tote ets covered wide vange extending or hoe tt ly ‘old fundatin in experience tothowe hat ha eacltly no fundaton| in experince at ll. Bat ll bohavor involve sms degre of abtan= ‘in, only because they can be pedicle’ not of js te hind of rea ‘tare, bat any Kindo hich they canbe tite, Ter instance he things hat Birdy hs, tein, kite, silanes, Init, and fing squire do inte i are very erent, tll of them ave desevibel 6 fing. A sing feature, ‘moving togh the a, i abstracted away om couse variables (vith twa /no wing “highllow "in assign agegeing, quickly, ad soon, "You might thik th ths degre station merely mi tive ndeence tthe way Hung Ay(omething we cat do natialype Toe ‘umeves) ae compared with for instance, the way things walk. For a Peron ean le eid to aide, lp, tot, amble,stumbl,soger, made, Sours, sel stall esha, shal, ouch, inp, hobble, emp, trudge ora. Bu ll hi mean i hat the map ie more deal in tome voion than nother, mot that i any las arta. Tor imtance, to maybe predicted of pple and hoses, wale of people and dks, bt people donot relly ve like dicks ori bares, Inch care, only one o tw features of dick those movements that Ippo comespnd is ome setae festures of uman movements have been shetacted rom wha are ite comple, and quite diferet, move- ‘ten pater. Or in acter typeof eat, the difeence betwen tram Std rug ie lenin the physical overeat hat distinguish these ‘of walling tht nthe suggestion that more olor snd es wil Inge ininvolvedin tadping. nother words, the rene a uch ters 6 what ne ean infer frm pir knowledge ot subliminl clues about the ‘elke? stataf inden extremely abstract procure. ‘A foro kind of abatrsctnse attend words lke Dring bn Engh ‘ne can sy they ting Mary presets ut in ome otber languages You Nav ay things ike hy cry reset give Mary Wold You want to ape that Bring was “aly” singe cio that the other Langage ssltup, or would you rater ay that an ato big e Prstes te dint ations? “This ine ha infact boon ard bth way, although t should be tows that neither wey ie me or lee natural ante her, sine the emartic domain of any yer i tlatvely xbitary Take wha igh ap- fart be an ucontovnsil single action ver ike tf example, In fret to hit smeora 1 necessary to clench one's fist, witha ones ‘mand then extend that erm with some degree of pity an force so fat the clenched at mess target. Tn thee ward, the imple c- ton can be ken don it ie of component actions. However, the word vray was quale by vlazely Because once sgsin the eteron af anton tity wil play ie part- One coal, in ‘esribing ght ay that Bull lenchod hit, ahdrew his arm, a ‘hen extended tilly and foc that the leche fist connected Ith Jo, an me were bolding p a miro t nature that might be ‘what we would see and thus perp what we shuld 4. However, no Figicant meaning is at, aed mh ine i saved if we simply ay Bi fat John Ves represent hoa chunks of bchevie (ected out af « mich wider range of posable chunks) at ave functional sigan fr ‘urspacis fon Inter tage for our ule) jnt a mune eres The enti that have an evltienary o altura sigiiennce fo uy selected again from wider ange of posible entities. Langan The Ae But beavis indi states, end ete states of mind) 76 the ‘aly things that an be pei ef ents, Thre ae als stebute— faiclar properties of si, clo, temperature, ae and so onda te may attribute to particular emis, and that serve the purpose, {inong ther, o distinguishing eo sir oj fot a ner he (GREEN took, mt the RED one). Colom conetiate an interting cae, forthe mapping rlton be two ality and language can be speed xt here herr dt than saowbere. Brent Boi and Pal Kay have shown tht hai cole tems (tht coe tems that dont derive from specie obs, ke forage, and are rt compounds, such as dark green ona be) ae ‘tegured by languages in ed order If langage has only wo le ‘a terms, these wll ean roughly ‘ar’ and ph ae ther ‘her will mean ‘ac, Tigh nde has fut, yellow eee? ‘sl bo ded to thee the, abd oon. ‘Thee stages ellt the sytem of colt discrimination comman oll ‘inates. Roughly our paired acta nar espe to ht of ier tent watelongtha, te ai that respon to ight dak dtntions beng ‘lnlgenctcally the cet. The pr that responds to rerun ne et Feng wih masta fequeny tthe wavelength tht gives subjective ed ‘nd minimally to that which give subjective geen the opponent et e= ‘sing these firing sles) is perhaps the vera lest, al 0 a. Ia ‘her mods the dstntions that have ben longest within the power of fur rane ancestors to make ar the mat likly to e reeset language, while more eset ones ar progressively les ike and the skp cer hn bp oc rn, in "The mie of betes and constraints hat this ae bows ix pesape ‘ypc ofthe way in which the lence at whale represents vai Nothing nour neurlagiclsakoup determines sbeltely how we shall vide up the spectrum. Anything rm ot seven hae classy te rpresented, and cortary what sometimes sugpated by en ofthis wrk, 90 one i liming» secenay connection betwee levels ‘ftechologcal development and the umber a colo represented However, languages arena fet imply slet what colors they wll, represent by base tene, They ean of eon, slot any ype of oe pes that, ike ast of icstionary enn, it content are nats tured. Sch lexicon is posible a imagine: Supe ou pk a an ‘loge sch that, when someone ake yo wh the word spn! meant You ould point a ax stl panel, bt thre were no spaniel insight, ou wold be at lowe to dine, Ths what wuld appen ithe Fexcon were merely single devel mapping fom reality onto wor ‘Then th domain of exch word would be deine ony “horently by the Bound of ie neighbors, much at th domains of diferent gvere meats ae represented o palit! map of the worl, and when asked ‘ats spaniel was, me mul have no cure ater tan 7 sone thing ike, wel, rather like eter or most fr fom ach, ‘nly shorter gd higher of the ground Toft, we are ale oy that a spaniel i Kind of dg aed i a ‘ng, ai ou nterlcatar (rom snher lane, pethops) ere tek us wht a dog was, we could veply a smallak ied of mara df we ‘were then aked what «mammal war, we cold eply a enna een. ‘aretha sles young, Wea ele ode hs by vit af hea hat ‘he leicn is herchially strated tht i, marked by levee of as ‘ending genes, Hee spaniel dog mamma, with ash tee ni bing aperorinte to some tem andlor seit to eer, along the Tins iste i gre 22, "Not that his hieerhical Seung extends thrghoat he lexicon “ake any word, say anger, anger inclades «range of eer words ke {firs annoyanc, rage, ration, and on, bt the sates ull ‘member ofa St tht ineles le, any, gratitude, and sep nent al of which io tur all undo emai: What tis ane thet any word in any langunge isnot merely etree that 0 85, ‘apbleaf eng converted into sting fhe wri the sre tage ill in ils place ina sntietly ptterod stra of ‘ord that forms, a it wer, a univer filing system allowing fe api "etietal end comprehension of any corset "Thre canbe tle dob tha this cnc lie! ling yer, ‘xpaizing a it doe oar entire noe ofthe wor foe ae athe ‘mao factor ino socess a a apeien Yet txeemeunicely hat thiag To oy cane Terect << nvondbente——Vaidrate Manifite ‘Brae Fah ‘las ca ope aes. sont system vas automaticaly achieved simply by the emergence of lan fae. AS noted abe, an entre lescon didnot emerge overnight. Moreve, there is coriderale struct, coe linge od hit ‘al evidence that ven in langunges tha eit eda, hat lame to Io dhe eldest nouns amar oe rlering tere fom, dos atthe ‘approximate level ofthe species hati, wards ike dog were sed ar erthaa words ike spar! or mammal ‘This een, i pety much what we would expect, meaning was ‘xignally zed ot futtional iteration with oter reais, Lexi ‘ation a th level ofthe phyla o order would hase been to inde terminate, lain tether eeaies that wiggne diferent havior reeponsn. On the other hand lescalizaion tthe level ofthe sub- “pion or vray would have heen over repattive, aeiging diferent Table oerentures that ll ad to he dealt with By ing similar et of Iho Cconmicun Constnatrs A farther constraint on what ca be levy reprinted xe hatin ‘wes sattemporl contguiy. has fle been noted that 20 Tenguape hat wort ith meanings like ef lg and lef a ote cher Fide. No language has 2 word that enbracs the mesing el tnd ron unless i incades the mening yellow’, fr oly contiguous Seto af the spectrum cane leis. In other words, = minim foo Gaoeeesl ee ind for vod sate that he referent consi ofan uinerped Pra miter o time space, Bu eos ona canbe mich aller than thin Consider figure 23, the four azeas of which can be cline in « ‘rity of ay. Sua langusges use a sng ver to express the con ‘eps of existence’ Lcati"possssin an ownorhi’ Some ve seperate vet foreach concep. Same, ike Engh ine one te foe “existe, oan, and ownership (here 15 abot, your bak IS ver ‘thr tha oa IS ine dates frpscnsion HAVE. bot), And there are ther psible pero So ir, however, no langage has turned vp that ses the same rer fr oct’ and ‘pss ut Airet ‘vee or vets) for ‘exit’ and ‘nee that bat the ‘sme ves for ‘eitenes an ‘omessip but odie’ verb(o verbs) {er Tactin’ and poses In ther words, eaity consis sem exis even within do ‘main hat ae high abt. Tis ends sppor tothe este cman tie space may be rel, may be represented in atu configurations of ‘alle and conection inthe Brant hashes Kowa for ete tie ha ‘he bein conti tral mapping othe mar ap sera ares othe (Gwnersap Leotar | [Owsosap [Leeson ] [Omer [Leeson (Gwoeratp-ocatan | [Deraip Tecan | [Onmarip Laeaior \Poseesion [Ecstnes] [Beeoeron] Exons] [Passason Exaiene] [Owwsrip [Coaton | [OwrsipLecaion | [Ownaraip[tacaton \Posatsion|Exstenen| [Poesusione tons] [Posensen Exsered] a a \szesin)Eustonea) [Poeenion| xen) [Poseoson [ExsnesCerto lands The rope of aouros tht receive ad send meseges toad the vais boty crane te load nthe brain in 2 manner tht larly replicates (though with considerable distartion fs) the spe til dst of thon gan within the haan boy, a bowen in fame af the sensory homuncl’ aed “mcr homunculus” found ia ‘ont inductry nearlgialteatboks. Ii conceivable that same ‘Srenpeable rn of opition may ext inte neural epresetaton of ‘omeepts, but wht sach an orgnieaton might be ike, and wha pin ‘pls might cota it at topics forthe esech pagans ofthe eure. Thu langage at leat a rat component words ae concerned ieee pte of repreentation nthe te sense ofthat erm His ru aysen tha piel ior what represents, utr one th (reste a ne and parallel word cmtiine by the awe af ts own a= {ure just er ich a by the nate af the phenamens tha represent Within shat world, meaning is lng determined by evolutionary (or aaa sgnieance y type consistency, at by comtgiy eee. ‘Carregondenne with any kind of counterpart inthe el eld ie mot bligataey Beomse language dee not ext in order to give a ional, entok ao tbe el world. Langage i an eration fry adaptation af «particular specie, anda such functions forthe tei a tht species. Hi scomscomenient to members of that specie that thee should be witches or hat haan pilogy and poscoogy ‘ould he based at fur humors, the thet wl be whe al humors (ae wll of ure ax witcher’ and humor), Other, the wold wil be lied up in lfren ways langage di ot psn such tasks, me ‘ould gut erally have nothing otk about. "Yet eves now we have loked at oly one aid of Unga rpresnts- io. The ther reins a a topo for te hae that los Language as Representation: The Itineraries At the begining of copter 2 twas pointed ot thi f language ee of repreentatin, tft sac asym in at lest Ow ways, nas comparable hose «map and a hadok of Winer, For epetentton of meaning iat lite a the ini wore a ‘ome the lesion, bu is exreaed inthe may thoes wor te pat tpt. Aap tells you wht thar ena een, but Bok Hines fas tlle you Baw to make oumeys sce tha tera. Iwill note ‘omible ever, ju to make your nay acon the trains yor fay Plass. Indeed, he area covered bythe Kineraries availabe fo ou wil ‘ually be only mite een ofthe ae covered by the map ‘Our map isthe leon, ou itinearie ar the sentence hal me hee nd te Like ncaa, they ae canine bythe tein they to ese Cin seman space, they are impede by boundaries a f= ‘aiable ue the beating ranges and nodal torent thatthe tap Indicates, boundaries ht fw yt rae them ye onl wise sie garbage like procrsination drinks serendipity the leit me ‘iene presided lpr ‘We ena ike think that tnt the nature of the ap but the nature ‘nate that renders have ventnses meninges, ft ht expt be ‘We are peretly able wo sy things Hike fomiiariy bends contre rcrsination is the the of te I uit can ed contempt, Wh ‘ait procrastination dink seenipity? OF cose the answer i tho rly dee nat red cote fara render The ‘nap isnt # ep ofthe wold bat a map of our cneeept of the wold ‘Wht iin iti or what iin the wold bt what we ae oapable of con ving ee being in the wel. We have chosen tht famarity breedsge Tne coniempt should men sweting, Bat we could equally well have ‘hoven that procrastination drake serendipity should mean something. “Sopot there exis scety in wih all nportnt decison are nade seein hats, by rando and spontaneous hie, bat Colyer» pened f intense mation, and only at certain popous tioments. Supp that in hat ace the verb dink i wed mean hora for wonseme completes, desoy’ Just as we ute the vei Tred to meaneete, be the immediate ase ef. Pravstntian drinks ‘ereiiy woul then simply men tha ting thingy of oases 0 Ins crucial mente of deci, jst ax famlarty Bred contempe nen that geting to Koo hig to well eases so eat ther Ty ot we mat he afl here oe hal lint the wap of Wingen- stein’ Tanpge games’ the theory of ening a ne. Thi approach Fe tat things mean what we chow them a mea, wha society de- ‘ides that they shoald meas™—and st @ wef gambit against ive tedliste wobeieve tht langange merely labels what already thee. ever, i taken on fat Teas ane wo suppee tht these ae no ‘ions on meaning, tht cooceps can be teated in any way we ‘hoes, and that words om be allaeted whatever range of weaning we tony decide to give them, Tat thi i ffm bing a0 abou Become Ineteapraent a this chapter prover ‘Undying the setonoes we ter are tre kind of ruta consi veocy. proiaily, gammaticiaton, and aya. We are fee (oi td etent) 1 tper with only one of thee, the fst. These are the Srte that shape er sentence, wiht which there wou be no ee ‘ences And llwoigh what hey produce may acm equivalent alist of diners hugh semantic spe, hey dont atoll exist inthe frm nach alt They do not diety sate what sentences you ean and That, these thie thing together cont complex ma ‘hin that produces lineraiee—sentonor quite autraially at fstomaticaly the various organs othe spider combine probe its Complex web- ‘And perhaps this isthe moet remarkable singe fact aout language “The machinery or producing eaten iss coples and sable tha afer peshape te fundrel ills of uring i and aly tee tow Sand year f wing abou it and several decades of tdying i system- ‘Sally ae only jst now gino underatand ow it works. You ‘ight tink th 10 we toch complex instrament would cot some ‘nt, stat, athe max accomplished mathematician may have {fo employ consis tht in the sltion of prblem, 20 might We in the assembling of sentenes EEE! IE’? eg Reo Te ina But sis seems hardly ever happen. Albough me may ay tt we tena diBcaly commiting’ ‘dow exalt say fometin’ we hay ever mean by hie hat wo find any problem in he ‘mechanical constuction of enences (lee oscasnally happens, fon sentences gots ong and cmplex tht we forget baw they Began brfare we can en them All we ally mean i thal we a ee | the words we eet express ar exact ening, ofthe wer ens tha il make what we have toa as cmprcensle a convining| posable. The ping together of woh nce they have beens lected, i care on 29 uncoasialy 19 automaticly, tat we are ite unaware ofthe mechani insived oe eren thal sich meche isms exit. Yeti we did not have thare mechan oar pon our ‘vaunted ‘sytem of comminicaton’ forall the iebnes of eae ‘map, woul ot be very much more expesive than the grunt and ss teats Paroien ‘Ween sy th ory was iaeresting, ad the sry waste, bt tthe story wes play ot the sry wos sry. We ca ny Fare ils win teresting, Former Giles wae plum, oe Farmer Gls ws sry, el Farmer Giles waste. (Te ate sot the same a ying Parmer Giles seas ret hi fe or Farmer Ges was ra) We can 93 the ra was inarting or the fat as plum, btn th fra waste the ei tts Sry And we ean any the igh as intreting, tet the fight wa truth ght os plan, oe gt was ry (es iin the ght tee sory afi Here me have frente and four qualities tht ae related some bow. The relation bewecn an entity and» quality i neo predication, What doe meen, to peeicate somthing of emthing? We might sy temas toca tht quality somehow belongs oan entity, or tay rate eeu concep of ta entity. Du ight aay i soul be apparent that when we oe lking boat prediatin we ae talking shout tel unitary elation bat rather abt clase. Por instance, try a eteeting inthe sme way tht Farmer isis plump. We ean quntiy Farmer Ces plurpoees ith the ‘fete mensre, at there no ate hat wl el eto deter, ith any measure of intersubjective agreement, jt hw imresting the tory it Indeed, dierenee between predic can be mach great ‘han his we say Farmer Gils war lve, can we stil spose hat occ i ly nd ha ag ee arher Fe ‘We might be tempted wo sy that prediction iso more thas the Lnk- Sng nem wih somethingthat ma be sid abou that entity. But the footer by no meane without consents of some Kin It we whe fut contain then any of the for gualites under dncuon could be Irodictel of any ofthe fur enies—the sry, Farmer Giles, ‘the fui and the fight Rat we sa that they cannot be. "Aziiis tempi to suppose that there are natural hind that there is something i the inherent nature of real-world enites that lows continuities tbe priate ofthe whl ter ate bred Yor might say, for example, that eythng tay be interesting because anything is ape of rsing interest, while ony conerete aes can Te pump only abstract objet can bet, and nly hua objets ean beso But we alone can determine whether intoet hasbeen roused, and there would nat be abetract ject inthe word if hal not erat thar, If thre wee no absact object thee ould be no a> tac/conerte dicwtomy. Nor woud there bs human objets as clas, ite hadnt poesvedourve behaving diferent fom the rst ‘eatin and wtibted wo ureler qualities and behaviors that we de- ‘i other species. we think reasonable to say Farmer Giles was Sonya be ten but at toy the fu was sry tobe eater that i aie lV oly mater of jadgment. We may believe tha iis sound jd ‘mentale ll webu ct thet open a found nething we think i ‘ld be sey tan we may hope tht some superior rete fo the planet father sar wold agree eating, pert) that we were sy tobe een, bat that frat wasn't However i remain te that inthis cave we are the judges the jars ad he detetives on “A detectives investigating the werd, we analyze wha we hk tobe the nmi ofthe wold. A judge an jy we examine the vss of out twa investigtion wd; nt supsingy, posoonce them Yo Bethe cor ‘oct an ideo the ony pore one. This refers ofcourse 10 oF tact ‘nd preoneiosinvestgtian. Ove the findings fur cnscions inves Upson, or siene, we sometimes nqubbl Uke a cage of monks, ted ye never tie of updtng them, Bato unconscious ningr—the Smentalanslss of nate tt undesisallaur conscious findings std that is determined nt by ou oni decisions bt bya peor ‘olgy—are taken completa for grated, are never altered, and ps Ips exe be are. "have unconscious figs tht fandamental analysis, can in pas be ‘expressed in whot rank Ke, who detloped the ie fom work by Foerick Sommers, lemme a ‘predict tee’ (ste fig. 81), The te ‘sinorestng "etought ao Is neaty {earths comer ete x lores Ig annour ng Isheey Honma veer ten’ taisan ween [akiny thoes teeta 5 iS tests SE ha J rme ‘higeane letonest, a 8.1, The pdt. Swe Ban, Rano ngage 19 fi 4.2) ‘shows what can be predicted of wha tite. A quality athe topo the ‘wee canbe peice of any clas beneth i. A quality onthe man ‘tem fhe ree ean be pei af an lass beat, bt of class fore it Aqui on ade branch ca be preted ole cason ‘the branch below it Lseng Seve things ace wth noting bout the predicate iat itis pinay brah, Tepinpl, tore no obvious reason fo this Be eh aul ie fet mode not have tre branches leading 10 ‘earally echsive lose of pedies ad etiis? We wl encounter nur boning agin Inter min hiv eps aon there iat comity const on Ue te tat simi hut conti deus in chapter 2. Tere appears tobe m0 ‘Galt hn would apply te wnadjacent categories witout also applying segues between then. For insance, wo quality ean aply tobi tune plant he Joes second om the lowest class an the ‘Bey cious so applying animale he next 1 the lowes), Similars, ond an tke peicates fom decontinuous sections of the te, i onda ifmecan xy af someting hat sb all ad hong We ft le Be able sy of that ck "Third it soem unlitely thal the mature of th tee sind ety from epeonce othe wold Tht, we dont sem to determine fom toe cberatns that tin entities can while oer canta, per Frm crain Doavirs or poseen ceria attbtes. Keil fund tht vty neato vemone athe ee occured among chiles 88 Young, rive or for, Whether the tos was eared frm experience of la facet omar question. hard wo test fo his. The only way Keil Tad fd out abut the pediebey oes of young chen was by {ing to hem, by sig language But the fat that language aby the natn ofthe pede oe would fallow quite sraghonwarly ftom the fc that language 0 lenctary mechani i comsrined the man, spect apes conceptual anal of the ature word Ta, you my wan task wht sbot Tamil breding contempt, au ings ef thio nate? fami ian atau ais How ‘abe retin a it someting hat sboll ot apply othe ee above “foment wer? The anewer that alhough we cant change he stu~ athe tee, we can change the eatery membership of ether en- Utes or peoicts Keil was poze by children who wa him that “Ban coull etal ut he questioned the utr and found out ha they reed drema ae pyc abject ("Tey made out of ek,” they tot ot rss om them" They tur wit nd gu in the ky") Dorms sila thing rom the opt dection, #0 o apes, We can ipa he mesning of bend hat inches‘eente, be te mmedie ‘Rr to tuning it into an bt predate. Once this hasbeen ‘Tne it canbe pied oan astra nou ike fairy "Aft sight you might think that this eit reduces the ped ably tee to» mere tutlgy Se, only abstract qualities can be ‘dicated of abotat nouns oly oman ones of human suns, and 0 oma’ such big dea about tha? Nothing f ou bee thatthe tec adits clases of ents and qualities exit inthe extra i= ‘ese Bat the aegis ito which we divide nate are ot nate, ‘hey emerge soley th he texan between tread ourselves Gromunaznos Tae ay sentence tou igh hk. Wl wy te ofr ‘het Icing word Onl one them expres sane at tf tovometing or eld ptt ec, Rois pte ‘ist cmp thao ul ant ty todemnst, inh ig Scent ect takings ikki ete ih ‘orl ceh te, iy bt at error here) & ih Ser thik enn conc that mld es ple hare Somos Bt nat awed the ae Se ed inte snore tx coca? A ent hy vey ha dee, a tor hey Seem be aogier det of mang TE fm, a ihe hi ts ey sein rang ere ned npn is bt ad fer aplis ol sentence Bet al neces ld nthe waded in SSCS on nd hal ny tae al pie eto, bt ay price on ‘But we have now inchaded any in its own definition. m TN lta ut he a a hat pon ik hat. Tone sherbet see cel i at the cemece tte You lc nesting ba agar dre try ac, comms nnn modo on night he partum ry loge that Seti pe ro amp gue de ‘ertonme sis comualy“t mane BVA eng and ATT ‘ike er ight cn expr amytng om her pt eget (amit cl he dr) rh er rent uty mig de S17 ead yf the in) urchin te ee Yu ihe son hd yt! Yu emit on hse hd pray of he Steentoft ee presen toe sur ser tea sore nam eye tw ou may heen gt Shes tay seo any oe en a he see tence Yu ar tay Tole nyse at you mig tie eh ‘tn tog bm te, you cnt hin eras wie Tae ay sree of ich ou mh thik ocho vgs hese idly opal clo habe rence a ae waling obhte Pe taken. Infact, inthe orginal sentence, the clas was the cass of all omible sentences, andthe taking and the thinking of were somehow Fr of single process, Movers of oes to an no more than that {nthe sent, even the of tht indates poasation sl far From taneparent in meaning (the handle the di the fundamentals of opnian, th fends of Ede Col, the State of Mawsochuet. itis crping ft htt est al the words we ute, hear ead srclite these pammtcaliteme (np olsen ms hat have See kind of demonstrable tee). Some of thes ims are no een Fall word ut mere infetins, ke the ing in working the cd in ployed (any lanpunges ce ach che han Blick in suc things) Occasionally «gratuito ca be ied without sof mening Hor instance, the that in Take ony sentence that you might hin of) atin general whither they ae infections or words, grammatical ‘tems cant be ont wihow changing te weaning the sentence ot _neking i soe wrong at bth. Nove except a hand ike {htop cen be uo without very idcating whether ts tense is resent a pasty and noun eco a afew ike sheep ofa can be tod without exlicily edleating wheter ti singueto laa Even ee great phenomena (he cut YESTERDA, the sheep ARE gras ing are there osha a tht pss and platy az il present even then not every matked. Grammatical ts, then play as cri & Tol in meaning a do eile hgh alike Leia tem they Seldon within our porto pick ard choose, al we eanot invent or a new oes "And yet men philowpbers alk about mesning they almost always talk sbou xia Rema, sual ht mou, ad mst fen shout con {rete rmuns fone kinda abate, The only exceptions small andl ‘i grummtia en uch ae fond, rl or which happen to have oi fal signcance. The ret they ually either rcail fom o ignore Willan! Quine for estance, wns bled by the fact that al finite sen- fencer mt express sme Kind of tee, a ita for hich he could te po lapel neces. TE they dont mitor ssthing specie io the work of experience, a re pamatical item fr? Do hey have meaning, and if 2, what in? What do we mean ears, when we sy thot eran anceps are {ramnatiied? Ther ace wo things a ese ere nbc we sould ry 10 pemte Tooke fom one point of view, gamma tems ae simpy te= tu pieces that hl the more eugl pare of sentence together, tater nthe eae way otra ur ier’ mtaphn) as srtches ‘fad ne fen find Boring nk togter the towns revo areas tht rT sue all we realy wat to vs But jst a thve well-engienred yet rary leeway enable us to dive with minimal etenon, developing four oun thoughts ae we travel, 20 ranma tne ena uo py ‘sto conscious ateton tothe consrvton af ur owe sentence, frtothe deciphering athe sentences of thers, while allowing uo de- tote ourselves emily 1 the content of what we ay and hear. We donot aveta be cntnslypering for od sign and ett to font where wove ating, cr ws dd wha! to nome The broad highemy of gram {Paintin grubs mand takes freely where we wat os ‘We wil turn to te structural anton side of gemma tens inthe section on sya. Iie oo ther only ede, owen, fo hough they may nevr ave referents a which you could pity they ar by m0 tmean devil af manting, They consti, at were, the coordinates of the linguistic map, «kind of opel prid whereby the postions of abject and events care plted relative tthe sverer and to ene toate “This elativiy ie ericl abate of gratia jetive, Jet a mali aaye relative to the eatery under dacu ‘Son thr han wo abealte sie 20 tema ike por down ar ied with ‘ut any celeenee to abelute ditance, You can go ap the te or ap ‘Mount Bsr and there ism impition neither eae thal you come led the ascent Een ifyou have ly scene othe secon third ter f branches you hae one wp th re, ad he sentence He tent up ‘ert But coulda mate tothe tpi ono way cnteaicoy. More ‘over, there 90 word flup such tat I went fp the mountain wold mea, say,“ ascended the mauntin to «height of five hed fst Simul there aren tenses that wold illest betwen, ‘ent that happened within your fetine an pas eves that happened Tela yu were ben. The same past tne ued fo thing that hap pened seconde aoa things that happened ion af years inthe pst "The elaine that grammatical te can expen nl relative lo cation (abr, belo, tn an ly ext), relative tie (fore, fer, thle, andthe various indeatos of tenn}, ela mmber (many, fos, ‘ome te a pray relative duction fom, hough, ig, ‘tp down), elaive fait (he for things th speaker thnks he ester vl ecgnze, for thing the speaker thinks the bearer weit reso iz), relive posibiy con, may, might) and reaive eoningeney (unde ahouph, ant brs), es well a6 varity of elainshipe ‘uch as psoeaton (ef, posensive hae, agency (i) purge fe necessity (mu, hate), eligaion (sould, ought 0, existence (le), ‘oneistece (20, nme, tot) and so on al foi ‘Oy elaine foul in English have been lited here. Other lanhte Te nee ay ot abaye expec ll ice relations o ay express ones {Bar Engh dace nt Fer stinoe, aneges diverse as Turkish and Hopi have ve tection tu Fete wheter «statement is bse ‘crpermna experience o on information bined ot second hand Bat Ii mean evry lation inthe rea wr san be gramaticned Indes what tear f ha the ot of gemaiciable wis eco short, capedally when yu consider that the number of omit gules nd elation inthe word ice immense and Ferhap innit. Why do lngungesgranatcienfew of thee rations tut eonsisely, but never sramaticie the vast major of them ‘One gus igh be tat wha languages grmmaticied were the things tha hd pov mos wef tus evan. tis isc ietartom being obviou ao IF were, weigh expt oid at est hme langoge tat tached tery nour a grammatical tem iting ether the thing refered to wae elle o wa, hr to humans oF Tso same other quality of «similar nature. Yt apparectly no such lnnganges i “Phere seems no obvious reason why distinctions ke one/moresthan oe or pstfnonect shuld have paged mre mpotant role in ot ‘Notation than dition Uke ibleinedle ox hostileienly. For ‘ease nt Yet understand, lanpgefores uso express cutmaicaly (vey rested wet fll he possble qualities and relation nthe Arr fe matt expec ter, we ato course do so. ewan to oy that meting is endo eile, ot whatever, we can, but tha Siltateup wine sentence: We ent bd thee things into the very Tiractre af our dace, as wth tense, plaraliy, and so on we are tiliged od This wth noting 0, dente to which itations on what ean be rammaiied alloc th may i wick Ingnage represents the word I ‘Fcven posble to think af caer where might see highly svar Tagen toave agama tom hat dese actualy exit—one that twould exes the lation between wholes and par, for insane. "Take an epresson like ate hs Joes In posing me may ebneve he otis a thi er Ae, which an appeina wie variety of a- tents and eres avait of very diferent elton: You havea cols Mary has sick grandmother, Bul has god jb, Who hs the exact fine? ands All these east shat the etre hat if you were to take ay your ol, Mary’ pander, or Bll job, you Bl, amd Mary woul sil eee ita. But paint ae as lees, we hn nay are es branches, te bars, atree hasan, ore has fer ake oay ll he hing that «woah and there eo ee et 9 “have! the _ agent Rpt Te aris In might be extremely convenient language could expe the rela. ins tha exist between wholes and pats by mean of gammatciato, her thas by seositinguneitable Ixia tome ike ase. One ih ‘hen substitu rrmatia items ike ite meaning ‘nla a part of Itself’ oon, forming apt of Thi would allow toa hg ike tren ae ata a re hes leo oleae one a eis af teas often ba a Bae in thi content since you ak sy ‘renthig thal = OF th we, ance agin you have no wee ltl. But mo Tange yet discovered doe thing hs way. When comes lescl ites, we cn venta many ew one swe mao etd, bu ca sata to the sore of grammatical teas. We ae tuck withthe ones wre gl otha we have ees coaept that or rami, Tike "pcan! wih is fad hese, in onder to express even sme thing as base wth pr-nble relationship. "You may dumise mich things a2 mere conventions of lnguee’. But enventons ae made and can be broken. Things ke our ways of ex: pressing the relation between thing and ie part are gute aula ed canot be altered, replat or oven ae to. Lexical ems ae ‘penned apd can alvays headed to, bat grammatical ems cna tate closed sets es a if nau hus prods wih a black box ‘ning ¢ machine that enables vw vent otreclves inthe semi ‘imac of the rel wold that languages representation eaten Batihe br sald: we an thr ale io (far) explain it Senex asing lacked ll tori, prediailiya grmmaisintion, we ‘mast now no the dad mt wide pil ngage sre tte apt, The oder ered wen se prov expos ing rgmectation, ch fhe remainder of hi ptr wl ebony ping Thee hovee eserves space Cov cpr thal yt ahr han frei ean, fee be mt most deisel septate ufo ther specie thi ‘othr cam bail peo anders wht ros remake ‘Boat urate ne de i hav tat te anderen of what ‘raed hr. “yw rermange ny rly etece consign wads, Thee sen pcp, excl 3,628,900 wap in which ocd do hi But forthe rt entence in hipaa ony oe of them ies or stand meg elt. That en 3,628,799 of hom ae nro i Hd we len hi? Coin mo patent ota ever cm Th nly wy nich we can hw aby psig a ryChapt Pe same recipe for bow 1 construct sentences, recipe complex an exe hustve that uta ales ot all 3,628, 79 wrong ways of put ting together ten word westenc nals only the ght ene, Bat ice uch a recipe mus apply ll sentences, not js the example given, ‘hat espe il fr svery language, rule ot more urgrammatial sen tence tan thee ate son he Soste~and there ar at Last five ‘used dfleen langage ‘What kind of handbook of ineraies coud allow uo pick our way serm the lf language in o delicate afarhion,aoiing #9 many ‘oni, acecting oo fw, abd et ding al of his vo automa {hat we are awa nly ofthe mote we can ay, and nota the waunain ‘Conatsins on puedeaiity and grammaticintion are only part, wba the salle pr ofthe tory. The pt othe sentence machine that enables ur oak at ifnie ruber of ew tearing tof om instions of words etl ite meanings, «prey foal etrctre Moreover, fr allt comes, we acquire that suctre without the lest conscious lt. More suprisingly ol, we learn t,t al ftots fn purpones without making mistakes Fr ofall the apparent "mis {ake a child may mike in Using English there x arly oe that ‘ould te cnost n ste othe language The lowing brief acount [this eyntacte machine wl ck al ely othe descriptive model ‘cumeny ning developed. by Noam Chomsky and his associatos—a Il ta fers in ome radial oopect fom his eae work Lets sat withthe shurtestpoxable kind of delartive sentence, sch Fed efor Night fl. We saw i chaper 2 that some fore, fethape th way concepts develope in anecedet speci, serlted in ‘tinction between enites and the behaviors (ctns, stats, po ‘ont that cane predicted af these emits. Ts the prectypial ‘tence consists ofan ety ad a beavin, rater of he label for ‘he concep ofthese. These two Kinds of label ar eed, respectively, “nou and eal hey ae paps the most aie locks of Language, fem which everthing eae x somehow a ther derived ‘Some readers may real the ld definion “a noun the mae of & peren, place, or thing. Thee abviotly wrong, since there are mune lke aienr or noneience Merover, nouns ae wa ames although 2 tame = bind moun Cow is meter the nme of any particule cow, tor the nate ofall cows. We might beter define nu a something oF ‘hich something canbe pedsed, I yeu conprdicat of ehacnce tht it imakes the her row fader orf nnesnenc that canstutes the feu ofsome Eater aligns, then alnence and nonexistence are nuns, gee ere: he sri ater of ot they deste anything. W nouns and vers ae the mat Tei element of yrs, then pelican iit ast basic a or Fred or night we can sbi pronouns, we can say he fo it {fe Me ce, we wold be fred oy things Uke Te young boy ‘ol theo ise of he oung boy thatthe joung boy dd nou what the oder iter of he your by wanted forthe oder iter of he youn loys Bothy. tis much quicker and easier wo say Hea her that he ‘didn't ka ha she waned fr er bthday, provided of ete that we on rei ety Bea, and er ore abut that na mame. ‘Naticehowener tht we cn thing ike the young he lt or Ne aver it el. Fom ur exumplos 4 aon might cone tha pro sour rece no, bt in fat they replace moun prac: vps the young bay, ae jst By Th at that you can space Fed by he in Fred ef but that ou ea replace by hein the ours by ef shows ‘tha oven whore we are only = bare oun, ike Fed or nigh there really «fll noun phrase prevent—theplrase jet doc happen (0 enti any elements ther than the nen. Tn fact, pronoun replace ot merely moun places, but the largest. svalale non pase, If they replace jst any hou pra, it would be ‘ite normal to replace Bland Mary ef with he and she ef. I fat this sounds very oe we naturally ay ey ef Bland Mary consti tute «Kind of spernoun phrase that contain two other cin pase ‘Of cours ou phrase Fred end ight enn be expended to for larger pases like The Fred you wore tallngabnat ot any nigh in he et ow wees, Her, the not ay be receled by 2 specie, a gram ‘tz tm like ae ar ey, ad followed by a emplment. a clause thot pase of same kind. Nauna and verbe may be the mot base bulig boc of language, bu the most important ate ples I we aw hf ont paces, and how jon phrase ane ante, se nor tof wht we ned to knw ince: coretren eons, Punase Smveront But hw do we know how to construct phrases? Because we have— somehow kindof template or adel of what a phrae man e ike Not jas» noun phrase: any kind of phrase. Forth remarkable thing hat phrases of al Kinds, eluding wale sentence tr eentone tres ‘att he just big prs with lscr phases ini) sr constrcted ie the same way. A pre camistof tee parts or levels, The most oi ‘apart the aly parthat an be there on itso, he ed. The ead ‘spare cant helper than single word and that ned mst be=Cage Tne Tong th sane ls othe se. No phrases ave nous ie SS spas te ve and wh pen ope lective rash pein ane nds lw th eps eal sit liked it complet For xan n noun thee tbecon nth acre oro iafnt inked with cramped Keren adit then peel ae N= i snp the Self sca termediate ets tht of he ead ran the 8 Teck ad hat of he fll rave Noe iar 3.2 Note hat wil ea camot toa bea pec complet may sonst of prea fron ovr pn eld ne anther (ee with erampld ftom i's pronto pas, sich intr coin ater roam rm rumpled hr) OM ating le oe pas mt hey mii agent ln sung gether sly bron ning Ps are The Chine bucked on ine another. The importance fis pout can hay be rere Many pple cece with theo TJ human langue, with the lle langung apis of wor Feman species, hve ban elo poor gay spicata {Sow be lngugy cold hve red, ipl on th bi 2 ie ‘Son mrs They ene th wd te srl chained no ‘rues en pan it semences apy ch the ae vo at Slope ee chin into mlking. or Gn 4 spy more cpl ion) Thane ey nts narey fret ae hae mo res of ‘tonto imance papi sig, ring om eed then lowe ‘nen up Nothing cond be hr fom he th ange Reais Ps ini ‘This ca be seen hy considering a phrase lke the cow wih the rane hora that Farmer Giese Although wo single word in this ae i ambiguows, the pra wl i becase we do mt ko tether the hom othe cow tat Fae ils kes. The wb prey structural deo the fact tat the ele that Farmer Gils es fan be tached in ithe ef two lass tithe ar he ks, he he ase is complement of arn it the othe clase comple ret of ow thor, even fin werance, comes dre afer hn ‘ater than diel afer om ‘This posible bonus ahead way have meee han oe compen Tewald be posible tte the iden of level wih ead tral ad lean all complements of rom single nade a in Gare 3: oever, ther ate srg esons for supposing tho re than ‘ranches can sping fom a size ede, 0 that the stuctae a the thre ter represented by pte 3.3, ln other wordy the NY level imply represents an abstract level itemediate between the noun an ‘hefull pe. Normally «ea wil hve only a singh complement ut ifthe i some other element hat ests sme tc endion for servings complement of that particular bead, then testa X evel ‘any be represeted by more than ee ira ee. Finally, we compet the prac by inking the highest tothe spe: er, the, a figure 3.2. The overall tern a that gure con be te peated for any other Lied of phrase, and consis, so to speaks the ‘ey ire of universal eat ge 3.4 ‘in Figure 3.4 stands for ary lee! eatery (nu, verb, adjctve, ‘postion, et.) that an be expanded oar «gas. The in paren those after X° indicts thatthe level, like X" and Xy ean be te ‘este, provided that ter is mare than one complet tha genuinely a ptin to X. The parentheses tod Spc and Carp indicat hs thes ite arent alga, alhough everthing else in The horn tal twos arom deste thatthe clive postions of Spec ened Xe dof X and Cap ean be exchanged ‘Conta, again the ida that anges some kn of stil rag ing process, sataceprincples have nothing tal to ay abt the ‘ler things come, ee iar as hs ie determine by thir hire hia positions relative tone anther. (As gure 3.3 sugges, the c= aloe of wands can be determined by stating rom the op eta Sea re and then working omni 0 the atom and up agin othe top righthand side.) Ta ater word, Xba ther lhe they of phrase situcture bre sketched abot} species verteal, bt mot orzo, relation,hae Te eis pany because general principles fil to determine word order thatthe yoines of the wor Langues lok as diverse ax they do. engages lly expt the posite of variation penned by the “chee shown in Sate 36 (wel a certain ovement posi to Ir discus tel). Tha in mans languages ene find verb preceding thee eabjets, rfalloring thei objects adjectives and relative clas la ™~ he 2.3, Nay se ey aching Lanes Retin: Tr (ee Pe 4 Ul pete “in the wrong order wit rept the none they mol 30 on ‘This ina dunting experience forthe learner, and ane tht has Ie sme linguist sopene that “universal gat? ea lng dear However, the regulates of figure 3.8 unde allthis peril vena "A mated int gue, specifier and complements are epson but eae ar igatay. This ie why single moan hat are de head fn plas (NP-heud) canoer in olaton, like night in Nigh ll But 2 specie oe complaneat can ever appedr witout ahead. You cold ay that aed ie nocensary in oder to “gven” Kaper und ‘complements However, sometimes nothing scully appears ina place where you ‘would expat fad at arts hed. Compare eet Bil oleae with expected level the econ sentence tere eo werd that crt ‘snd o Bill inthe ft, yet somehow we kw tha ite Tne ot Biller Mary or peopl in ner who was expested to do the Ising ‘Should we esume tht tees nothing thee, rat tere wa something there tht ha en taken ot? ‘Compare called Bile ask him alow with told Bl a hire abou whee inlcae the ponons of ul at overly expressed) team pat in both eases (oteone, some aubjoct mast be dang the ‘king. These senenoes look at fet ight asi thy ae ete a ‘mearing and siructre except fo the cc of werk. Bt thin cant be ‘2, fori the Bint sontene, hin can efor to Bl ad would normally be ake rding sn whereas i the second, him cant posbly reer Bill And i e lok a ite closer we wil se that we have to make iret arumptinne about ein each eat, Inthe ft onto ees ‘0 and inthe scot eft Bil Now genuine "othing an have ‘to diferent reierenes, no could it chage the tference a him. Wehag Pe ‘an therfore conclude that here mat be samahing’ here, For in lan page asin physica, there are tings tht ret perepuible to our ones ut he are ow oe preset because of hte dieing foc Te ur tum nto atracues Tager than the single rave. Te was ie abv all languge sprain strate, baton the fac of things thie somatk say sem od What about or very Bet and spe example, Fred et? Fed though appearing on te uric o be ‘sinale nun, has Boe shown, by the pronoun epaceaiity tet, tobe fn ely an Ntrctre, fll oun pase. Ins ay, igh ‘be ase that lf the heal sd only constituent of « V" o veh hase Bt wht then ome ofthe statement thet phrase ae alas {nid pes, Iie Chine ues? Here we soem hee oun phate ln verb phrase enough to gives complete sentence, with mething {et mer, Hw con these saemente be ronnie? ‘Contrary to appearance, Fred eft dos contain ‘meting lf ove: nadia lent that ae nt yt bees noted. The head of" ioe ely lee The er on lft simply Lease + past tense. Recall ‘Quine’ bevlderment a the fact tht evry sentence had to have ene. [Now we an se why this 0, and atthe same uine we can appeci- ste the wooo nature of grammatial tems: on one side they are ‘vey of meting, othe ter, iniapenible part af eytactic “ence conaites pt ofthe inflectional system of verb. Another tome at very apparent in English but muck mee coin language lke Spnich, i agreement, ussly agreement ofthe ver wih the sub jet of the suntnce. Agreement and enre are not parts ofeiter the un pave Fedo he vss phrane we Tes sometimes atches to the vet but it as scope over the whale sentence, nat Jost te predic tte For inaance inthe sentences Hie if him and Hise is Teeing him, hm asthe same gefeen, then the semencee can ony be stout man who has ad (atlas wo wives: is ate wll ve two Aint referents and only tener (ptt vert. preven) ill indicate siderite win cau pement may deni Propenies ofthe subject mal’ lara’ or whatever) but ity to, often "Mace tothe ver, and sy be eared a what es sujet and predi- tate ogetier, Ti teeragrement i neither « specifier nora complement of any- ‘hing eam oly sonattte a head Wwe aeeume that i does ther 2 tiple sabjectopedine sentence falls nto exatly the same ptt a8 to all ther pase. Since tense al agreement are geerlly ifec= ‘ins cllthat hea INFL or rsh. Then he sbjent nour pase ‘AS, Smet Fd et the epciton aL, whie the ver pas iit complement. (A price ike let mmadiy gute indeterminate ales ou speci ho le.) ‘sentence the, i sily P [Rollo thatthe fal struct of Fed tie hat shown in gar 3.5. Natta this figure allows exactly the mel of igure 3.4 Bl beesise in Fed le INFL i lem thae& word, canno remain ints vigil esta, but mt attach ital 6 tho near ed of simiar lass, @ ech You my ak how we know tha the eign] positon of INF twee sujet and predate when INFL usually attaches to the ends rather than the bgiing of verb (thy part, Bill or). Th a ‘ners tht INF. attached to sone speck word of te own, tea tl dos say in place, witness Fred DID lee! Ancuwes Sonverene utmost semtancs ae lng nd or complex than Fred and one vache that alee he comple and lengli af sentence he ma er of eater that makes reference to. (Ped leas, af course, mehg Tee tions aly ne.) That vale depends 4 slags extn on the verb ‘hore, fr each verb subestogorins fr (are of lst abigail = Tec) Ged numberof arguments’, each af which wil bean No simetinesaP" or even le cas (F).By an argument a a ven is tment simply «prac efersngo any paint nvled in or diet ‘eat the soon state, or event tht the verb expresses, ‘has ariee, sep fal expr, al ick ake only ane obligatory argument; Bet tap, drop, pice, and cl ake wo: angie, nde, promis, brings and el take thes. We cnnoetsy Tai him ay tee than we cans Beat Not tht faze aT ordeed him a Lease ijn a nach am argument of oder is hin—you canot jst sy 1 trdered iy although a course tees another verb order (ain they Crd so) ha ken ony ww arguments. As wil be apaten, there ‘re casos whore even subcetegorznd arguments can be omited, ot {ath may e nll elements with unepecied reference hey age (te he drinks. However, we say she est ell, no one woul take {hie mean he Uikes to tekle doorknobs, fem, Keen eiptent, tes but only the Hikes tok nttion that un rnpod t ein ek Ted Inthe same nay, they sang mean they sang sang, we ate means ‘we at fond’, an 0 o Tain to ubestgiiod argent, there may be optional aes rete eating tte om Phraday nel) pice (ght ute the dea instrment eh «hammer, and af aber members ofa very lite st this uggs, arguments ate not chen atari. We can if we Tike, conceive af a sentence, ratinally, ab eing Uke «fle play ot story ane in which each ef the carats has a specifi ol o perfor, “Then ite and dod ery sot it of tee rls, Noell ings se apecd tonal wht they ae, bt most, otal, would cle therole of Agent JOHN caked dinner) Patient e Me John cooked DINNER, Gol I gave TO MARY), Souco(T bought PROM PRED), Instat (Bill cu 1 WITH A KNIFE}, and Benbeury (I lought 1 FOR YOU), a well Tie and Place ‘sin, nit that he fanton of grammar involving bath eating ad stasture. The mean faction {rama item shows wht isthe that ole ofeach argument: 0 Indicates Gaal, from » Sour, ath an osrument, and wo 0. The “sructr’ faction sto gover arguments tat eat be governed by the vey and we wil rent this sory What ha bn very rial oketsbed shove something called ‘ru iment stvctue” One remarkable thing about argument strata is iver, When we Tear Gigs lange nally we make all ine of mistakes; we assume that structures inthe target language re Lagan Rermnin: Te rs seal setae in ou of thatthe sea rage fe wor are “eo with hone of words ou ngage, or thats tence syste relates tone in the sme way that our dave. Tn pracy every de patent of lenguage we ae conan by pital ich a thee. only te een do we never take mistakes, nfond our escess sw complete ‘pay never sale ow efetoaly we re ering “That aon ergument strate Ia foreign language hae ei hat meaner, we can beset wl hve ony one obligatory argument Wits sys tht mess a” hat vr wl vet, ad it has ‘esb that means ive hat verb ill lav ve, Beaer, the rls of "se argument wil in every eat be the rls that Ens vers sign ‘Argun srctre, thon univer. ie a frm of trate tht run parallel wih, yt separate fom, the pase ature diseased in the pevous geton. In order for sentences to be mae, oe Kind of stactre has tbe map onthe other A syste mapping ne sen because we arto corel ave a the meaning senener, we have tobe eble to deterive, automatically and quite unambigs- unl, who dd wht, and eth which, and o whom That snes mo I theaters cary dtingushng prepsins, we may hae a be thle to determine the themati oe ofan argument om the ect ptstion af that argue in the sentence “Am cxample wl make this mapoing process claret Most verb, a sown abo, regula take ae, two, tee arguments. Hower, there ar sie vers, ike mel, ol sink ands thal seis ake ne argument and sometines ne. Whether peo wo are preset, hee ‘always Patent, but the postion ofthe Patent sot lay the sae. Where are tre arguments, thon the Paton wil fallow the vt (Mary relied the er, The Navy ante sip, nd oon). bese is oly one, the Patient precedes the ver (The ice maid, The hip Son. "The reason for this ht segment sacar ie mapped onto phrase strate according ta ieachy of thematic roles, This hrc is roughly shown in Bigure 3.6. Usually nly the role above the tne in that gue are subentepriand fr, altough there ar oe o two excep ions (put, fritter, subeutegriae fo oat, 20 that we an put the dish onthe table bat mt simply put the di), Mapping oat Brae structure proceed by puting the highest available role i the Figen poston Spe the poston of Fred in igure 3.5). the ve rubeatporis for an Agent role, Agent willbe highest, and either Ps Went or Goal wl ake the at highert postin tn, thug no mys these te can commute, a in gite Jon money verte ete money {a Jan. Any emining role wl tke al lower psitons ‘This process not without exception, Occasionally neneubeatehy Tee Insument Source Tine Location 86, Him of thee tevin role canbe fund higher than subcaeprized one. For ex [Sepa one can say By mil ape the da (whore ey ian Tstrament) “longi te dor wl pen witha By. Ale, what hae been sad applies only t active verb. Ihe ve is aun, the highest vole Agent, can ‘ever appear the highest pin, althagh tay optionally appear ina lower postion a para by pave. Bat native sentences there treo caves where lave thems ole abigail takes a higher posi- thon than higher then sle. Tht, there wl alye be a ele ative tht obeys the hierarchy lr example, the dor wll open with a fey} ad i most eases the form that obeys the herarly will be the nly Fr. 1 nas tte jst ow that pepsitions sch wort, and 20 on per forn wo Kinds af rol. The Sst lee that of ctrmining an argsoonts hemi le the second mote purely stctral one. Recall that in ‘dacusing hres aver a hod wae sid to govern ite complements Part of what we mean by thi i hat arguments cannot simpy wander sound lots ina sentenec. Every argent ha tobe governed by some~ ‘hing which jot amohee way of saying, every argument as to be sthin se X, ad every Xs have head ‘But ovry argument cannot e ovemed deel by V, because vb ‘ano ake an uliied ring of complemen or one thing, we would have tof treble in pocssing things Hke ote ler Bry Bil his computer sty night (at eet ot te han we mould Rave i pro ‘ring wrote erst Mary for Bil his crputr in is study ‘ph For another a verb car enly give themai oles to the arguments i cubeatgoies for in her words the ne can expect if we simply othe verbs meaning. So prepontins are necessary in Bglich—i other languages thelr Taetion ight be penned by pstpositions, or Lanne Rerin: Te res caer ypesof patil) ot oly asgs thematic, bt lot head typa sew X"strgctre win which the, as heads, a ove the te apd alo give case "The iden of eave has ha checkered carer yan At at, Eo lsh wos aid to have came Beene Latin hd cae a all god lt fages ought 10 Be like Latin. Then twas obered that (nate of romans these ae no ovet sins of ete in English, twas claimed that cane was mneastent in English. Later til ily ocely fat she universal grammar longer bse on Latin Began See wo ‘nly pure bt wel, cave came hack Take singe vente ike ‘Mary me he go. Neier Mary noe the gil as any over marking of cease: Rut f you replace these by pronouns, you hav os she (bo five) met he cctv). You can aay her met he emt se, oF ‘her mat er hen yon replace anon phar by «pon, tha pe tm eematcally gts nv-marted th uggs hal hen phme, too, mast have been receiving ease even If or eatesmaKng was vibe. ‘hat ction mo be nied ect ljceny of cseuskod argent ed case asigning conan, and nly oe Cae to he sige hy each nig. rented here soe parent exception t thi, which pe ae ns yt tinct expined— ‘ouble-objetconstations ike gow hin change, where bth hin snd ‘changeset get cae fom the verb—bet tithe anyone. Whatever the process i,t dont extend wo overtly case-marted items, a Test, not Arica Engh. Gine him i i unacerpable, we have tay ie hin ‘The ne fo aouns og case explains lt of ping things about langue. It explains, fr instance, the mystrious of in the seaence Tak en senteee tha you might think of hace cater in the chap te hich seemed ally meanings, Soi is here simply besuse ‘his doesnt seat foe N", but oly fora awe (They think i time to eae) Others, ita (I hin therefre Fam), eit ia question of hnking though (Since ere is oting hat can be the bjt hk exept ought, the ater unt en idiom, nd there {er alls utd nya hoary proper) ‘Think mast be able wo gover s complement, others it could not sperm isin to ate i They thine ole. Bat canplerents Tatar clases dn’ require cae, 0 the eon tha thik ean ave nu pase a Ks cmplemont maybe hat i ean asin case fo (This es soreting odo wth he fat that st dosnt subetegrie forhate Te nnn ase complement, ba wih a cae and which fot a x Sly clear) Think, therfore, bast be llowed by some grams ‘ttt wil sign ese, OF happen tobe chosen forthe jb nowadays tube maybe ed to, wit light or smetimes onexient ier fences n eaniag. AL an ear stage of English, on cold be chosen (Thon hae things). What sche, and whal tha someting mean, {2 seondary to geting the purely formal work done ut oe gerrlly chown when yerbr are tured into nouns we say Columb daconred Ameria we don ned a of bla Avia ine ow ie sy Columbus digoered of Amerie, te sentence ie bad hed yet we att al abot Calumbar dicey Ameria, only about Columba dss) OF Americ of beng exes in this cone. But hat docs of tothe mening? Nahin al Ii there imply to give America acuatve case: Discover uni hin can give case 103 n0u8 Pace complemen, bat notin, even nun formed fram verb, ant doth, something did give Ameria scousative te, the case tht verbs aml give to thet bjs, we would? ontmaticaly know th America i il elated to dcr inexact the sae way 2 wa rented to dcoer in Calambas daconered Americ. That we would at Kw tht Ameria is tl «complement and Patent argument of « verbalize noun. Wiost of, we woulda’ eutamatialy be able to dtu the agence of Colundus, dicey, and Ameria from the tame sequence fn, ey, Since Calumbur dicovery Ameri has never leer the vame, where America and dacoory ae tally docomnected from oe ancter Te other words, cate and goverment faction (among ther was) at beck ayatom i roceming ad interpreting the rot of thea ensrctirephrare-stactre system. Ther prieipledpresciabity ‘take it pose fore oer sentences quite automaticaly, wi ‘paying any onaiou tention whatsoever to HOW things ar aid, frecing sto devote all of our concouanes to WHAT isi Cas end ferment achiev his rst by ating oto speak, a a kind of ge {hat ack sentences together, emsring that evehing ba place end ‘in hat plac, or test can e elated to tat pace Mowe ano Ksserse TRAce oF THINGS 1 the aytem decribed to fr wre the whale of Inguage, lngutge would be a very uneesponsive inst, rghl aed restive With Til exceptions, we would no be fee to move words ara is out sentences aso emhsine cersn things wile de-cophasning others, fe to eet aur Bearer allen othe exact shade of meaning we tried exrese. We ned that freed but we bv tat the sk hat TFovvement i unprinted, we may no loge be abe to rcontruct ‘meting 0 dtemine who did what o wha! things ete moe, we tut be able to Le tack af then, ono where they have moved om “The atu stu of ovement in til controversial: Tho ar hice tho old that, im sentences lke What did yo soe 2, what realy did tno fromthe poston marked bye. What, afer al th diet abject tse, it eas the ternal of Patent mally atid thingy t the penton of and indeed the poston of «i actualy oceupied by teha in the queaion eessingsupsise, You sou WHAT? Others bal that these sno uch thing x movement Things are wre hey ae they ‘would y although mechani wills be equred tink cen ele- ‘ers, Hke what in What did yow se, 0 certain empty pasions 20 that hey ea be interpreted aortic or, rgarlom af haber we hypubeize movement tnt, we have to have ame ny of explaining hoe we ko, fr fntance, thts tence like Ho do you know wh he se? in pone quetion, Bet mo ‘question abot How someone sa someone ar who You Knowle Whe dry ko how he sm? ot 2 pose question a al, eventhough thet woul be x perfectly lois ee yosibleanaer fr hc he Sew Bil by loking though «tlre, but Tee mo ea os he so Prd) ‘Chora hus suggested that these we approach, overcame “sonmarement may tr ato be merely ntti vrante fone a ther, tnd the ue cotinlyt worth he paper that as Bon edi “rpg about it Perhaps bet think af movement a convenient ‘metaphor wo belp a grap pocesses tha are sl fa frm being the uphly anders The imptance of movement may Hein ling vs to telive tha, wth alt every second sentence me ate, we deal Withely saya, with leas two Kinds of ating” I someone sys Wa id you tell me odo? ther es othing hal represents exp that tometing has been towed om, ata nein that represents sone thing ht i deel tl here. Tor ward inthe sentence What ‘dd you tll meet do #2 ¢, maths the nace from which what hs ‘moved ot mich tot be sled), and the space where a inv ible et-peron pronoun al iy because fs Tmo a who ise posed to do something ‘Bat to datingush one Kind of mall clement fren anther is et eng We ne seme way of finding In far we have t bk, fom aChg Pe ge ef by movement, in onder t lose the hig that moved fo Moremvr, since thi looking hss to be a automatic ad unconaioas at ‘nesting that way ha te bot highly spect and inflible, The way in alo quite compen, but in til thingy can move gute «long way they ea op, soa speak, fom one space to aotat ‘ake a sentence ike Bil head tha Mary sod tht Joke kaw what Fred dd where eats the pace that what moved fem. You can also sy, Bil heard that Mary sad what John kes e tha red deo Bill Tear hot Mery said ea Jn kno thas Freddie or even What id Bil aretha Mary aid thas Jo knw «that Freddi 2 Tie posible Hecause, foreach”, each clue ensang ofa vee and is {rgument, thers ually (oo ava} an ational phrase a Kind of siperpzace that ncadee I” ite complement. Stace im many cases uch apse x beaded by an vet complements gramunatial em Tike thar which intros slau), we ell ths Coo ge 3), and the space o which things novel actully the specie of, When there isa chain of ach positions, asin he Bl heard.» sonenee, ings ‘a hop fo ane position tthe next. ‘The reason we can't have Who do you kage how he sa oP is wh swore rm the pontine by ei ast pase troup the space ‘tcdy oocpied by hn Bho esp jump oer i Dace the Inna af phrases, the N's and V"s ad Gy, act x bares to p= vent thing rom geting "oo fe rm Nome’, ot speak. I something “ptt LaP, you could no longer know for size, nd automatically and unconeiousy, here it came fom. So mover, even when seer 0 realy very hcl phenomenon ‘hy th it ban some sone tobe an ‘expectabl’ phe amen. Tings can ealy only move iter ct of sige oe-lause ‘enences, a in What did you see? oo of clauses that are sub ‘aegorised complement of tame verb, ain the Bil heard. te tence jst discussed. Tha sto 3), you ean move something ine the highest clase if the else where it orgmtes has to be there. Bat ‘ther Kinds of lau, asc a eave elses, adjunct clases and “ent clauses, don't have abe there. Asabcatograed cause one that he sentence weld be incomplete without these thar Kinds can be ‘mite at wil and sl ayes complete sentence. 1 follows that ithe claus la a reative cause, you ean extract a _qesin.word fr it You can sty We kw the fay sho comes fem Tess, Who do wt lon? or cron Wore doc the boy whe we ke came rm? bu not Where do ks the by ho ome frm? the las ian adjne, you cat ext queton word em i. You can C—O eng retin: Ph iri say Join ead the paper whe wang for he uso When did Jo read the pape? or What was John wating for while he red the paper? bat tt What di John rod the poper whe waing for? the cla coor inate wth ater ele you cat extract a question word om i YYourcan say Mary washed ihe dog and Joe cote spagtt Dut ou Cantey either Wha id Mary wash and Jan oo spaghe? or What (id Mary was ke dog and Job cok? Now romeo the ats ate fl tht we were ever aug by tacrs orb pret Nor ate hey things that ar tated by oil neces, soil convention, a any lnguageexenal facta it we might thi iT sould be apparent hat ear in the presence, not merely of = ‘yet tt deters wha we can nd cont ay bt of end ‘holly below the level a siousnes tht cant have been suit Uhmugh nstrction,indtion, or any ofthe aber recognised processes Dy wich Learning aks place ‘Te Neca or Suarax ‘The render mois mot acute to thinking about Language from pel frnal viewpoint may find the whole system of syntny as de rib above, excnivelyabtat and compen In ft such readers ‘howl fa lieved rer than pu-upo, sine ths account hs bee ‘tastially shortened and implied (ernie, in sme eases) or restore of space an ese af expsition,Fatemore, again fo ase of ‘ston, this annua ha deat ith aly one Language, English. Al Thong the principle deseibe ae univer, and have een show to beoperatie in a wide range af languages, some of which are very ier en fom English, the fact that ter languages include deren types of ‘ammatia item (lis, noun classifiers, sith-eference partes, {pie markets and fon) a lla diferent process (ecramblng ‘fi, vee serlzation, and 009) mean ht these peineples wil Inevitably be expressed in diferent ways. Tnguage oer simple and ansparet tite wre because ite ps comes ae quite alors apd wncoacinae. There perhaps, Tendency to blleve ta uti nd unconscious operations are aso ‘ated with ower facie resting, digeton, ration of the ‘ood wile "higher faculties cae, simply by vite of beng “igh to be somehow within the reach of introspection If we cn ntsc thom, we may think, they cnt be tare, Fer the reas, mtny people, Inclading even some Linguist, contin o spose tha the comps ch eytas represent tome kindof arcane copa lle In by &‘apf of sorytomer grammars, oF the supesical wpesing af sere itary ih’ language remote fom the ways in which onary espe pea Ts at the mre clely you examine ayntay, the moe complex you find it to be andthe more widely st compen how up, even i the allegedly simple’ speech of everyday ange, For instar, lhe ero ‘al eaampls inthis chapter are sentones ach a might be heed ‘ry casual conversation. Yell ofthe completes described here, end tore bese, were erential four spcie wast achieve comm ‘lative ote with he power that langage is "Ach and subt-lyered vocabulary, ste as we saw in copter 2, right be sulfient oeepeeent our ernment and what we thought tight be in that enirnment. Bat, ie were o be able to exchange "he epreetations with oe another, if we were opin the var incre ‘ert in egntv capacity that came rm being able o monipuat aed tram oar thought, andi we were td al of ths without having 0 pend a natant refltion onthe how of al then the ple star ing deriv rm recat, ganmatcztion, and yma (he great fst of which br yotan) was easel Indeed, no mater baw He the ‘ocabolary, thse thoughts could wot even have heen formed ules ot the same tne we hd had some speci este for organising them — prevsly the system of foal properties dexebed inthis chapter. In Inter chapters, when we yt see how human lanpage could hve came int eiinoe, may bein clare ky the fea propre wore see The Origins of Representational Systems In chapter I we encountered what ha seemed to many x paadon. On the ‘one ha, lnguage cold wot hve evolved aut of animal stems of ‘emmmunication. On the ter, language man ave evolved, ine, forall Its complexity, i simply one af the courlesedepive mechanisms ‘that hate detloped in species in the course of evn. But me ea ‘cope fom thn pad ie acept hat language was tar fore Ist pte of epecenttion. Iw here ke al he ch se- {erm inches te to lage extent real its own outp—rather than erly replicating in aother mode, what was fed ite Preise bctse oth langage was able oer, hy several des of mag rites ot rt the tangy but the Kinds thing tat reste co femanicate about, No were communicnive mechanism could ever have done this "Ths fw reo sak forthe amet origin of anguage, we cant ape to find thee ngs by loking atthe means by which other ren fares exact wi pane. ToS ut ho language, with ll it couplets, evolved itis necessary ook at how syste of rept sentation ole Tsou be mde ear otis pot eset hw he er represent ‘iis being edt hs sometimes ben sein pyehnogy i a uh daly nace nns,trefer a fied knowledge jens (whether derived Innatly rfrom experience, or by interaction of experience and ona ‘meshaians) OF soume facd knowledge spstens te representational ‘ate which language jut cme Bat he mast ting pereeptions sreoqually rereaeniatios, On th bigest level of abstain t which ‘re mest wrk to ge any sense of how creatures in genera oneton ntheword, Yepeseniton’ wll mean spl ‘reapndingo avg perma Ten property fo espa tos anon event the enteral wold, interme fy ptioular pattern of neural sti ‘Spon fr iatance that oe foe of han say, aan act of worship, ie reprsented i we diferent odes. Suppose that one of thou made i the teselltd pavement of » Roman Tnhoume where te rpesenation sain bute or limon ew hoe ‘nd yeu, and, hating now been excevsted ad artiicialy preserved, nay eadane for thowande mes The other ix = subliminal image, Projted on widen serena eapily that our conscious mind canta Lppreend i abou aubneqent beavior may strongly ndcate hat st tar indo boon soon. Surly both of thee te representations, 1 andes fhe very diferent Lents of tine for which they pes. Morster. the ease of human perceptions and kravled ystems, the penton involved, whether esting ar qas-prmanen, ae, unlike the mmc ad video image, geerted in ways sir wo exch ‘er, Whether they ae simple or comple, inate lean, viggered lithe immedi ator permanently sored hey wil all be ome tov tanta by pte of sal or potential atin selected ol and cits fhe cea ners pte (CNS) Inthe cave of snearyperxpton, tice neural ation and interac tins muy be elaivelyspeaing extremely nie end spe, whereas inthe cove of Knowledge syters they may be prolonged and comple Moreover, in the eve af ponpins, tbe neuronal ati ade pil ‘lta Tsing no dicerable ace, whereas Koowege stems aye hte even when thei eral infasrctre i relaively inci for kong ‘iol, mul at th monsic endured ander ea an rabble when far ‘entries no buman ee could observe it ‘The lative endaranceof sin and sobliminal images of course etrmined by dferenee between the properite of sons ane light traer. Hower, no such diference ean aceunt fr the varying dh ality of prep aed knowledge syste, since bath are predacts of the CNS. Alou sil far fom clear bow long-term memory works, the diferenoe between storage and immedi representation cn involve ‘aly diving conditions within the CNS, conitions in which the ‘Seng synaptic commestine may play eal ale Bot eit relly legitimate speak of wets sch as sein, esr ing, ad sling consisting basally of representation? And can we realy ater atvies a part we vecing, bearing and smelling on ‘hone hand, and ebring, thinkin, abd owing, onthe ober, under ‘he sume ein? ori the anrwerto these questions ae positive this he Orig of Renin me is equivalent to saying hat representations at singly ways knowing the wold—petheps th aly ways in which the word an be kn ‘Questions such a thee an be anewered pontiney oy i can be how that what seem wo be highly smu and omg tes nd Tehaviows were derived, though eteleonary procases, from fat ‘ingle ones: Thi the task thatthe remainder ofthis chapter wl temp Bee boiming, however, «weed warning i inorder, Ay ch account bs to deal with nesrloial syste und tir modes of eperaton Newoigcleatre, even gute simple nc, a ong the ‘owt complex thing known yan wl be ard to Kep the ain thread ofthe agua wien prosloversiglifing thee mde. ‘A operation. Hopefly, alhough sone detail may be dato ard ‘many aes wl have be geared the geet principles invaved wl ‘eran ler and wil not be flee, Soni Reesesramons (One extemal difernce between anintes sd inaimaic ie thatthe former ate cmiualy ating in Dir owe intro to maxiie thir hance of servi, whereas he Inter ser. Stones ut ether wl heat pd fet crumble them edt bt aiateeestures eve plants td amoebas, may reset repeatedly without losing their rot, Bat ore any rete can rac here mist smething fr to eo “Tha i, some kindof norman tps fom enone cree ture. Tnfrmation i Grogry Bateson’ tr, dere th makes 1 dieenc’—news of some change in sme dimension the environ. ent that has a potatialeet, e-thestening w Meesaccings on ‘ome priularcteture. But of coume, the ft ht some such change takes plaoe doesnot mes tat the information ill utoatialy be tratmied The creature concerned ha oe able gather the ane tion That meas that tat have oe mechani capable rpte= Senting the infomation thrgh some ptelar paler of ner Impulse. Moreover, the creature is wlkely to be abl to pater the n= farmation vale thas ome eapiy to eset appoptly to that infomation, ‘any plan spies are capable of renctin to change in erxprature, umd, o vale gt which cause them o contact or expand te ae of leaf surface thats exposed tthe arunding at However, ty 1 ery fer plant specie the socalled “senate pls) rnp ho ing tucked by ater animate creates. This i at bea the in satan conveyed by toh ie wy Tee cri othe lar than the norChapt Fr tion conveyed by clinatie changes. Being touched is fen only fel to ing ten. Iti esate the plant hos ey limited resources For repering to touch, Inder, has only the sane repose that ‘lant in aneal hve to climate changes, whch that of varying hee Ira are. Planta anna pul yp their fot and hike of when some be ver tarts naehingon them. Tbe eave of rot pase sense or there, shady appro prints to speak epesettion, sine the cll that recive the infor Imation atthe sao aa, or at lean of the samo type at those tha reepod fo. This tive even whe, with seme snstve species, touching the tip 4 single lea ends a epple of escciated activiy Uhh the whale plat. The eas of inetivorous plant, wach a8 the ‘inde, is ae fret, Typically 2 sue has leaves covered with tek his: When fy becores lace a oe of ese ai, the ea {inal cloves ound ity iprvning he By wich the plan igs! iu Teeth celle tat gather the information are dative fom the cll that case the Teves clone. Cell gether prtiy with ther ike i veitr the fact that. By or seeing) is i ad hen tsi "hat information to ell B, Cll By together ith ther cell of «sini type then clas the leaves. Could we deserve the eaton fell Aya itive sewny calla a eprenetaton af the act hata By (r some hing) bs Tandad on "Tome! people hs might seem excessive. Admit atthe purely nconslous apne of «snd andor on conscious ad highly tailed vino fy may have very iar automa: he leaves else on the fh the uma each fr y-sater Bat the ist oteome is more {oma than the sovond Ina of wating the human my wet yom aes the, only nore This dierence cores abut b= ein the sun ther is othingbetweve th eprsenttion and the ‘estion, wheres he human ter sini och, ‘nwter wore inetate dierence between ou epesctations and the unde’ es in degre of deinton, We can distinguish is tem cher insects and even diferent species of, meres the sundew can ‘tot dtnuih ic fom serine or even eva fo ite af earth stick that the estou leret may place pon it The sundew' cll A is capa cay of distinguishing between to sates, atte of mo contact td at of ontac wth omthing "Ta we et cay say tat he cation of cll A to a Bis the sunde's epresetation of By a eno By-landing event. And yet "The ri of nina Sms ‘ich consti the mst crcl tp dstguhing Wo sates re ‘thers dingo sone, or dining ntl many end of tery wa? Coin fr tp warn nde preter these Scale rng fod A tind torent ‘8 at ad penn fatal ry chp ccm tor Corenonable Forte detapent fee dy eget ‘mechan cae ea in ae pa, hgh te te alton ad iconmeton of eal sige tert ite prope ot eset at he cat fa of intel ep sera sdb and seg hs to pears H- deen sex ances snd he it.The is bec ego {Sete on rerouted pod at Bre poy nol fecogy cman the mow bse peru o ee bang pean tl Be pay topo lsh petal Te apc tm ‘eis th xen of cll spied ep oreo Paiirny epson yen sapere We may spat he went of sch lege nate sandr fabionTsgh moral gcc verti and ln ee Coal av Svclped a wide ane o pict sons However, ‘ents tht dnt mater instee the ap ed tel ‘iredng pl toner wold nee opel neh option nr under fare devlopmest One yp seaey {Cheer sou ie, ote at) igh i three {Cen tocone ips heen! tha eld ei pro ten ‘thorny by mang tc sae ot presen feta Fro or enue them werape me dongs iy eresing tet Frey). Tene ter ps ery ney be psd fie Crem fee Inco the prcssf nlaringphogph The fal apt hie rons ic se anny onic only on diferese Wands can be cna Tn tap the proces ae ‘ene, being ih he py image apse eerste {el puogap Te deve smash anise aps to of spss oer cous milla eno eet Siar ht ree pont, Among ater spec dria ‘iin Gradual, sag hope le alse ee ele thamstesne enable sje nen eter lng wi at the becrand onan lr Ost a thee th pce il he thetoephrseiethe etal rl that ou own space se ‘Patra compared witha hv ¢ shay Tied ngs ofseattites, More ctl they lack fam on tn dtr) ay tems fr svn intra los th that lon, une tome yi be ral sana etn Th ko age pce i tthe aly raton pln ea ea. Thee isto ackoaeratine char Noma fa eny Gen ‘time plane ve only oe pone yp rapes, By compar, {hehe nits ae he op, font by se ahr og if openching or ioving en i You nigh el at hae re totes, tt hn ial pred respon toma {Sy to cetin winch But the nate of svar (pomted tao co onenin “uke pci of tn seme known m Stamps ocin, wince taba fected by eleven seo wari, to of ch pry ‘on Stang I mene of ne ofthe nine inaesivespeion “Tmld pyentotmcha Sephsopecimen te seman kono tes Hamer fa member ne th ato wpe tc ihr ids You wight sy thot this ile ele, bt “mutes engton prose ta ue set the sue’ ese To ‘Seve theses, the anemone at be ale to digs etn ‘ember of difocatsareh pcr setting thal even amen of Cheaper coud ot itt ning Of ome he anemone dea {cr in, am erm ny secon gue. Al prenmaly thes pion sos of nas eal aay Yt ene datngih og peal bar Ee ‘rpms ht re are Tren single evel tho he aint nk Keren infomation nd bebo, Bebo ny Kind depends formato, Ht ne ‘ery inlaratn vb the behav canbe pater prope Say the vit tin, te igh reste, and 0 fot) he Aecranry inrmtions' svlble, the havior wll ot happen or itinpen intel ways: Th somes of rere pneale Tek rl ge them ot andor gunna of ination, ba the or ton te nud wpe hone Rehr th they ae eepped sen. Pet the back egg af cockroaches have fine hiairs on them, hairs that cova escrito Changes nies 50 tha te cockach Saco dodge your ceding sos, Th tips that ive nthe cium efthe Amicon Southwest haves eave ruth eae theo 0 dit nteon aad ard asmnne eve en th etre {Stoned fn ht von. A bel sete wold pete cokrach Ire nomaton, sed pesun-acsive cle wel gv the i oe Ph gi of Rain! Sys ‘more infrmaton, but thee developments ave come about and are Tike to. The cckrocls chances of surrival wold it be improved it foul tal warmbloode from ecblonded creator, nor would the ipa it became seitve oa buildup nat preset, a ene doe not enance eeu’ Gnesi some way, tha see will t develop owl at develop past atin pit Indeed existing Cenece muy decay i they ace not nese met creatures tha dell a ves ae blind). We sould bear och things in mind, becuve cur ma Senses particularly ear vense of sgh tend to misleads about what tetme re and do man visa, for instance, may fe ike a gic window on the wos diet evatng too al hte ely Ur, Df cure thi an ison. What happen ny act facing something tha, it ot tain alsin he Fetin rect to lcd features ofthat vmcshing by ‘acyng the nomal ate at which they Se. Sine of hove calle my be le more sephnicated than thon the srdew ot ncn, ec ing merely to the presence or abaenoe of some feature auch a ight ot Imevement. Others say respond to a range of fears, ay Hines of ‘Sela eientato, ing t peak ate nly in the dle othe range and esining sharply on either de of tro he object "see were “roken dow it al ts component fstares and then each etre wore fives a dg cade Ts the coved for the iformaton ie sen subtial viul centers well tothe visual catn, where It rneambled, oto speak However, this rascal dove oat erate era rpliet of what be faethe ee, but inroduces avait of elle resrangeenes, Icom panei fr or own movement and pres connec ist hape despite moverors of the abject concerned, among oe things. Inisonly hen these complex et al-butinstantencousproedare are been cad ut that we ne! the abjent ere ay hinted inert the information that i epresene for us bya unique pater of real act. ‘Compare this with our sese of eel, While we can distinguish en Indi variety of aber by spt, there oly ban of sels hat We en distinguish, and we distinguish them que reel. We tend mot ta be aware of thar imitations. We asune that most objets have no tal eon that would wt lt longi dogs col tal ‘Conta this with rome ctr senses. An abeece of information Gen ur ere which we call enc’ canbe quite disturbing i complete rough An absnoe of information frou ees unas we he lve them deliberately) brings inet panic. An absence of informationhate For from our moze, however, sea the natural, marl coon, wheceass sce smell a mast sal orf sel are somehow unusual and totoworthy events Imagine what it would be ke so mos of the ie se sw nating ed only wasn sone random jens nce, Crna, loomed within the seope of our vison. Yet even ou sense of el, with tf a arom trl through wall olfactory blind zw, fs uber than the meshaniam with wick sense orgnated and hich al sens ae founded ‘No centr, including oureles, reeves from is senses moe shan 2 selection fom the range of information tht ie potently avallable, (Geatures ot the sens they nee forthe hehavo they ae capable of. Ifthe cca to nee thm hey lose them, a eave dling opaie se ‘ght anda the pints, culinting nue, have beon sig el Th flows that wht presented to any species ot exci ou em, by isons entity bata peer spi view af reality —not what 1S out thee’, but what is ust forthe species o Know about wha ut there epcint-pesi view conaites what we my cll the primary representational system (PRS) of any wremure. APRS may be very simple or very compen, bt regalo of thir degte of complexity al RSs tengo the sme type- No speries, nat venous, hae ny pi lege come to realy, although some apie, ad in partcaar cure, ‘may perceive roe aspects of it than do others But the most complex PRS (ae dtint fon the secondary representational syste that ln fusge provides for us alone) derives from the same sturee as the ‘Stipe, and simple representations ara naturally from the conjunc {ion aftr things: al that ould senate betwoon tw tats he Aisinton between sensory eels that gered infrmaton and motor ‘ll that acted ont and motor celle at could perform more than one ‘ape of behavior i response toa given tials, What most sharply dif ferent simple or complex PRS isthe degree of proosing thal ‘upto sensory calls under Processne or Situ Repneseurarions Inthe kinds of crstare me hav considered fer, ther i no ntermedi- ste lvel of processing, Simul and tesponse-—ihe wach of thebad? "vfih and he anemones wihdrawal—re det Haked. When uch 1 erate perceiver, noone would suppne thet it pees «homunoalg ints head ovead it percptions, Yetoven ahi tge incre nthe ‘Sue of restores were sultcien oeause the sppesance af ells iter Org of Krai Sms edit ttn sey td tr cll hough tt tev were ‘eure merely bon heresies fens lls ve ierering Sano ovr i meth ne ype fanny al vlan nes extend end che dt enya Flow yer of snoy cell bce like oth i intermediate {SIA new tinct iw spe the trode cl incor She opto kth ssn call On th splat sumption, whch hr hth sero als tsi ely ether mesg Te the ah dev cel Ay te interned cl cn te ar exage ee {Rint two rll preven rnc ingles cl 2s Stig aloe, bath dae Bing nie el i ng inact calle 1 aod 2 mod tot bth be anny cll, One may bo nheventios oe peopingin,ropting or bo ee ead ‘tir proving fndack from ovement. Even aman tsar {tavcan do Ke bt move atl et th fr tha they ate steno Covey snes and cil sek ton energy supply fan ha ‘Sere ut berome ofan een in on epoae at ee front beth cra ed intra imation Quite tp reds eve todeidenot mec ths ej prey or nt at al, a ha cranes beat comers ‘energy by hunting when hungry and resting ‘ten elt they sche al py wham eto the Uhl lating rol weld be indgesion Acorigy, ination om {Etcetera ha be allt: Revue tee ea bah tcl a ssc ite no genta em, peste y ai tsi he hing eof the mlvat bene, eames en oe: cela may eae ten oe fase han, slower the, ther oral “rating te Thee vanaf, wre am arash ha terse whe hppening ccchere, bh ide endo the Crean The inenedinte ner) ht eg thse wo sacs el deine theese bern score ih he fnag quien 4 ely fat = py pee ~ Sell! ~ sy preset = ati bey far + ey ree = sete = ely fll + prey ese = at” For simplicity sake, thas heen assume that the lly fl sig, ike the sgl tht we bate pci onside, xan along signal Bethe is by no mean lays the case, Son tinal ae otheCate ow sry tte binary: a By (or abit feat) touches the aude’ bis a "Sa starfish touches oF fais o tach the anemone Buti many caer tial are gant nate “ake the hypothetical eae of «grub tht ives cracks inthe bak twos and vesjonds oa nea night enn which may rea hat ome predator x opening up the e's prtstiv hark. Change in ight Into are ov continuum. A sight change sould mt have any effect ‘nthe rh since st might arise from nnacent eases, The grb wl be ‘moe lien! iit wares ite te runing fom nonexistent dangers Int responds quickly to real ons, ts nervous system il then inl tome tp of thes mechanism, some level tat the stimals has to ‘each befote the eli gered. The gu emane inactive sl this ‘hrehald ia cached, then moves. A eae gradient in ters of ight Intensity i stow translated into to tte, nactinlmoton Buta thresbald does nat epreset fed point on sch a eae. Com sider what is Known a bition, The a ine a create recive & ‘novel tis, it ection is usualy quick and extreme. However, ‘ect lle ad the imal ix repeated, each rsurece lt & ‘weaker reponre The commen case has a escape mechanism hat “aussi touched fro the teat pth arards abr, so that t Toke aie standing om ite head. However, you touch atone ‘minut iter, you wl venually reach a point at which it eat ‘act tal I might soem exraive to yt he casieh has esc! ‘remember’ Dt yor touche harmles. Bat poceses sch a thee faethe precursors of leaning, at show tat een the mst gil ro ‘one Leavers are malleable under the hammer of experience ‘The information eeu receives ay be, a often gradient in ature, consisting of reativel gral changes in the size ad shape of ‘bjs, for insane, Taher than tudden eppesrances and disap penancen This graionce ix rlected by vaiations inthe frequency ‘ih which ven neurons fe. But in genera crestre wll stings tiene onl if they posses grad range of reaponses to mach the ‘alin iefomnation. Ths im tm il depend on ow sphistioted par Toil motor npn (and the nls contain the have become, Can those organs only respond with a grab? Or can they make a ray of tions rom all-out pb to tentative, steal extension? Other things Tring equal, behavioral plantity—theeapiy to male moe ard more ‘arid responses to slighlydifeing stili—wil ive an adapsive ad ‘antag othe eran thet posses i But plasticity aloe bt enough The more plastica creature be comes, the more sophisticated it must be, bath i is senses and in ts Me gf Rn yy bility tole efrmaton form mre than one sersny source. This Tait racer involes ara thn merely summing data, forse times information oe diferent sources may suggest foe oe of ‘Consider liard on a wall stalking ay. You might sy that its moves are poprogrammed, a tel action patern. The mover themselves, 2 award or lntise dats and long pases a need stretypel. Yet the eaeaton ofthis rine ermmt be prepayammed. The ange at hich he Tizard moves, the distance it covers om each forward move Inet ad the amount af ime that laps between movement eal tavables, smetiesclealy dependent om the acti, or lack fi, Shown bythe Tor the lizard must coinuly maitr the Bs movements and in parca its degre of eslessnss, snc hi may indicat that sina te of high svarense The nas hunger and it knowledge tha ie vita string distance ofthe ly wll urge it fwatd, whe is obser tno the ys extrome restless wl ol it back A lane hao I srucks a compos (nlf course quite sumac and unconscious) eemputtion hao be made that wil hpi il the ext igh = tet forthe Lad sek. "Taste process of eollating int can pore st he describ (i oem pgs thot oft comcains cl comtiamen) an cane an rood, The lizard, ot ay creature of ual pete eamplex- iy, weighs the infomation and on the baa of that dnfrmation| terines te next move, ‘The ability to evaluate config data srongly suggests tha the ren ture redy far mere than a pave puppet of te enitnment. For eihs nt ony inputs fom diferent senses and its own intemal ond ex eral atte, but alo clement of experience that ae elie te ‘wn. Tht thai os mnie even in proce es rhb tbr the creature lnk back, bape, tH pas experience a ‘hes this to eva curenexperince. Th thie way crete begin to sequzeatoaoms. Autenamy doesnot sea wl although auton is clea anaeasry precursor af te tte we ourselves enya statin which we can a eae wonder wheter emt have somthing called eo wil. I merely mea tha, a thoigh decane may all be uneoraciows nd atom the pace here decisions re made no lnge le somewhere between the erate dite enizenent (hich x where wo might spose tat the dione ‘famnebos, of anenanes, sundows tke pce: Rather rest ely thn the bein ofthe eteatnte canonhe Fe ‘What this means may at fist sound paradoxes, The opening of the sues of cnscousness sin ft a progressive distancing othe ereatre from he actual word of exteral tects and evens Fora tne, no evel «repmsentatin intervenes Between it and the ra of ale A he lowet eels of rani Me there ar simple eprecetatons consisting of the sctiviiw af ener el, From te higher invertebrates on up there have te representations in terms ofthe processing mecharime that inoresngly intervene between sensor and meta call summa and ‘alate the inp of the former, As inthe eae of the etching ead, itie these representations er than extemal events, that gee a. "en, Evenly langue wll conaitae yt another level of represent Yin, futor distancing the creature frm ts enitnment ren sei ng tht environmen futher yt unde the eeatuts conto ‘At this stage, the reader may sk how we can alle about sence and bain precenses ‘Staci’ eetre from the eternal world, hen ‘hey ain fact ony things that give the cesar acces otha wo. the view ofthat wold hey gave were ota rue oe, how could res res avid ing int alls, walking into the embrace of pdr, or tying tomate with member af the wrong spots? Te fact i reaninglesr to talk bout a bu view ofthe wor To stain suck ion, a minim prerequisite would be forthe viewer not to belng to any parca species. Fur eer species hat # unique view the word. All theso views may sen defective in swe respect when ‘imu withthe wows father creatine, lt ane fn any able ‘sence, bt this tae of eae ie incapable. Bach specie’ ew, what ve have teed is PRS, is determined by is species-specific eatin tet. This equpment is inten determine, in pat by bsg ec ent ad in pr by wha bos proven wsefl er beet that species ‘one the cuts of eal. Moreover the paras of cnslouene—that the more conscious esc one haste more yes of processing vide one fom the workd— Tike 0 mich lei alte, tade-of. Progresvediatncing fom, the extemal wold simpy the pice that sp for knowing anyhing owt the weld at all The decper and broer conaciousness of the ‘world becomes, the mor complex the layers af processing ncesay to ‘hin tha craciourpese The more comple the ler of processing, the peter te chance thatthe proper hse ayers, like the proper ties of all eresertatonal stone, willbe imposed on what i ree sented, caning diroins af wish the procear ca hardly be aware Indeot te clanty and deta that complex reeesentaton provide ae 50 ‘The ri of eatin Sins eats convincing, that it ear to eliove they ool ever he defer reat misleading a2 guide woth el Filly abou spoak bot tv view af th wrk” boca it isnot event for any entre that whats prcelved i the word ull ‘What constitutes any erature’ view is esse system of catego seas The ana ane, for instance, divides the werd into prey" abd ‘oomprey’ then divides the later ater it ‘osatal pedo” ed ‘lhe. while the fog dives the word ito ros ying bug “qunde’ and pechpe afew aor categories ike lege loming object (potential cet II that changes, as creatures row progressively tine comple, ithe numberof calories into which things can be Sided. From Remnesenration 0 Carvsontts Suppose you say tome,‘ saa golden eagle yesterday’, What hie ell tmeane,cumberame Hog it may sou ie"An ajc presented ll ‘ny sl eld that seme to corcespod oan intemal epesetation labeled golden eae No supe tht you ae alone in ose a night and hee oie. ‘Youre oct eo yt aig that nin tow atgary. Only if 90 at do this can you make an appropriate reponse: ignore i, x the Seewen dot lt the et ot ell he police, a htevet. You bv ete fazed ita "snoee. This means tat you have not really eaten ‘he expetince slut have merely denied the sensory channel hat Dre to you inal, sappse that something awakens you fom «deep sleep but yu have no idea whether that something as noise, «Aah of High, teach, «change in tempest, o something dea. You have rt ‘ten end the sey channel tough which the experience can ‘o you (or even ete it soure af Bing seaor channel, vec ream camot be exci. Have you then pereied or exprenend styling at all? The amwer would ser to bo flee you count he ‘akong ie a an experince ie ny we hve perceived something, we are simply saying hat we tuvesespaded to some eine thatscemed to arn in he extra ver and have assigned that sinus to soe category of ater. We ve determined the appropri elegay by «process of selection, Se losing what soma the tt uf the et ofall eategrinatlableo ‘ak Tht agent might ofcourse, be wrong, What we ought was aae Fr gle might tr outa have bon «burr, what we thought was the ct ld be a inter who wil ota ves. The fact hat our asi ents may more fn hen ot rove erect des ot ler tho at tht ‘tm peorion” in anything moe than a eaegory assignment, a ber ea at what maybe ut ere “Te nt of catego rom wish a cratre ean elect i agely deter tine by is epeies membership, and wil vary acording to wheter the feature concer is an anemone, a fog, oat of human. The fact that these eateries vary acorn o species fellows natal fro he fact tha hey ve no separate existence In the exenal world. They exist only a intemal representations, specialized mechaisms fr ap rchending that word IF knowing the wo consists of ening it nto categories, how are such ctegorce sve? In sone caver thee ean be ite doubt that the ‘eprecntatios on whic they are bused ae innately given. Wo sav in ‘haper I bow captive monkey raved i elation ll eon t fit sight of ona wth ear and avoidance, Itcanot have bd a pevie cm bad experience with take, nor can te mater some older ‘monkey have sms ld abou anak. Yel owe aso Sw hee Is ‘ohn either mystical oe mstrous in eaiming tha the monkey has ome kindof inate reprecetation o's snake. If hase neurone that ‘ould be excite rahe by the varios aspect of snake's apes “nee happen sey te inked ether tothe fear centr oe dzely to ‘als coming vidoe bebevior, the tho monkey wil react with Tear o avoidance to his very frst experience ofa snake. ‘Yt fal ae such mechan ve tee isa Lait wo their uy. ‘One weakness is that inate representations tnd to be fair Tear aoes—if this were nt so, A auld note t0 ash to fol monkey by waving «pice a rope of alength of uber hose. But amore ‘rial weaken is tht each innate representation must be matched dha singe reaps. simple case his doen't mater: Wsameane ist ja a pencil a our ee, there smoking more fal you could do than blink I you feel sudden het on any pat of your bay, there 0 seoibe aerate 1s jerking that part sway from he et sree Bt relatively few things eed quite sich unowivoeal responses. Indeed, in many cases te ponent kind would be deinen Suppo a pecs auch a the wildest was so programmed that it semiea tok to thi hea where they saw ine Such a specie eal have les feng ine than te oats and would exhaust it Self more Wildebeest wold then fll pre to ions much tener than Te Origin of erninal Ss members of ober species, and might son become exe Ie ob ‘val nthe intro of idebresto diferente betwoen thee Hons That comattat advected edit het to them apd ose that do tt, Such distinction, evclving much ae act ealsi of tin Be Ivica oly be nade on th bis of erpeience-—in oer wore mt Lame But problem ance hee. Creatures bose activin are baked on fae ston pterns have stented representations to which hey a lomatclly respond, becaae a Wigaring ofthe repesettion dell tigers the action, Buc te advantage of lead representations i pester plasticity of respanee, hw ean the ik belwoun eeprescttiog nd ppeprist reponse be maintained? Say that the weet a Teamel orecagin on in ie way of peeetstons (pha ‘much tbe tame wey as, in ntligence tot, we are able rene titer am abr ire rtiod i space fs the sae en iret Fp: How eit w know when on Behavior eting dangers? What ‘sto stp it from jst standing there ad ayg to Hull, tele ‘abet might “Hm, that Hon appear toe tng big, which ‘es hat itis approaching me, ow ttre? “The ost ale analysis of on behavior wil ac efit the widest tunes itis fal of ions Mer ight ofthe lin des nat gg ani Iedine response, i might in alse complex creature, but dosti fers partir tat of arencas, tate tha ones inensifd ihe Tan approaches need, ta crain point we ight uy that he sate ‘changes quately ae tin tm tigger Behavioral repens, I the widbeest were pssessd af our awn face, we would have na hes tation in eaying hat slr had rnd inte far, or in mone ate can, tha feat had aod into error pani, {nf it my ot be a alarm to say thatthe wideboest, ‘orang her eee of adequate somes ha jut sc ange of ermtons. Emotions oe ridges betwoon representation and response ‘at become eset as learing increasingly replaces fed ction pat- tema: Tey ae probably eon lose wll understood than representations ‘ot behavioral espns, x relatively litle il be asd abot thr here, Batis eesental 1 note thee enerzence, ar they mack farther tage inthe development owareconsiosnes natn ate the unique popes af the crete that experiences them. All poral embers ofa species may eatin the same may the sme harkoied ceprennation it ie tthe ce tha one of om ‘ecko a ed-bot objet while others do ot But emonal ection 1o-gien stimula vary astray and mpredaly fom one personap a > anther. Ths vaio wil ele nets compen specie, But thee Will abvays be same degree of variation, because emotions ave tigered by lead eprvertatins, ad since no two creatures have ext the save exponen, no two eestor wll have exactly the same set of Tear presentations ‘Ths eration contibte tothe aon of inlividal creatures. ‘The Hee fom thei own particular fears ad rch with aggression to incident that mae them angry but might leave anther eonspecitic un- ‘ove. They purse theirown wants and desreon the basis of what haz been pleasreble wo them sedate inde pea, The more varied the ‘experienc, the greater this emetional ton. We wll nd, in chap- ter 8, that thee facts playa important pat he greater peace of tnd and conacionaness 1At leat one fy dzect link betwcn learned sepresentations and concious canbe beely mentioned here I lerwed ater than innate formation tha ie accaible to human consiouseae. Ifyou Ahnu he, ty dencrbing how you wre, ae sem swim, and then try {ihn conning «physiology tooo! to dverbe haw you metabo- nef, produce hormone, ro hor, for that mater, How You pace satences in your native language. Why consciousness should Eecireumseribed inthis manner remaine mystebue. The general ring system ofthe bra, which Kinks eotain eeas mach mote fully than thes is perhaps lamgely responsible, and this estem jn urn may be Inluened by some hind of "need to know’. Our bowels conaitate flogd system that ean adjstautorstically to most factors afecting i heres or behavior in the wos equites constant feedback if it sw be propery adjusted: input fom ab many soars as posible should he salted that adjstment so be optimal Yat, whether representations ae inate o Lerma, they all have ear lain hinge in crtmon. Both innate and leamed represcttions led to category formation, bat dow form eatogores unaided. We su above that fr the monkey ofr its eategoy “snake required mace than ust snake and an ner reprsesaton of lng tin nonsrigh objects ‘What linked objet to category wes the particular emotion thats certain representation aroused sd the particule behavior hat tht emaion 30 tivated. In oer wor, three thing not to, have to be present for 8 ‘aogay tobe famed: an ject ithe external word; pattems of cll Sess ivan bstver ai, that are dey indvecly eigaered by that objet and the observers responses, both internal and extemal, 12 thexe pater ; Because we lok at category formation as « pat of meaning, end speaning os romethingctlaive worsen, we tend to ae categorie ‘Te Ort of arin! Syms the elt fsome ind af analyte proce ia which a observer ake “bjectvely othe wold and somehow decides hn what. no doing se iene the psi that on eategriatins may owe macht the Tresor, prelingitic rate. For them, egy f= tion eey reall a fom some stat frm of analyse bt ator fo 2 dyamic interaction betwen themselves and thei envrnent Rater then ereting it of fetes or etinating distance fm poe tapes thi atgoies were hall onsets of phenomena to wich they espn in sil way Trotems likly heeft we todo ot il categorie rely by sling sensory inp, by eounting pis of sma, o by extapor Itting fom seme psa dace nce Categories ay be Influenced by such factor, ond certainly, ale the cnt We can make tp plasble stores abut bow we could bavearved at them by these ‘mean: Buta farher al perhaps re rial ator in eategary for {ion is the grouping tngtier of rpesetations tat require siniar be aval esponse, Ths, «bird fot terely something with wo leg tl fethre that Bes, noe ie simpy = quality that radiate frm ‘abi. Is something that lye rund things you can et if you can Bad ‘hem. Aue is ot jut seething that stale ose than a bas, tis smething that iw sane af wood f mature) al that egies fn ans crs of som kind ct I alo something that you can limb, if parsed, rather than merely something you can hide ike a sh Tether word, the se of ealegres that consti the PRS of any species i determine by the evaltonaryroguierente ofthat seve: trite, wht tbe hing it ted wht ery what ie prefered "aepes for survival are, aed bw the tatoo interact wih the “ape of ther spcin, The PRS a ale conten at were, ‘lof rainy that serves to guide Bean Bat what excl ens category? As wold be aparet fom «he forging discsion «cao is simpy at conept. Or to put ‘another way, “cncep! simpy the name We give to a eatgy when sr Know that tis ategory and hat we have to ison forthe Seeing raw experience. The eateries by which othe rears pe ‘ea whos enstonce they have (ve may Srsma no concious aare ores pete be mre appropriately ere ta protcanept, Tn this way we tay resolve an suc tht wa elt vag nears. in: Did concept ree para anguae, or wa language the caalye ‘hat produced thn? Tall probably, Language served othe Beto lance merely olbelpotconcepts dived fom prlinguatie exper face Ofcourse, in the lang ran it id far more than thi, gentChote Foe or concep like sheen’ run’ o en mounts’, that a to basi whssoever inthe PRS. But inital at les, language ay ave conte te to conception beyond means By which ts ren ld be more easly manipulated. “The oral mecanione by which ategnis ee formed are stil very ‘ac fron ning undersod,tgh fortunately thir preize mature ei itr t the present discsron. We may suppe, fer example tht @ eat o simple ba og esa eategey of sll round, dak abject that arena late of pid motion I the fg cou abel its own catego "is it would probably label thi one bu However, the fac that fogs ‘an be deceived ino snapping small ound pellets Aipped past thir ede shoe tha the rg forthe snapping ation eanot be eq withsea-nrld bg Inthe sae way, the wlio of young thrasbeo To gape at's gure thal quite ata (consisting basically of «smal cirte aap ensieraly larger one) shows that the tiger for epi Iehavioreanet be tue recognition of the bird? own mer. These systems sem 1 us mae ad esl fold. Buin fact, nosy tem of eatpriation would werk Hf could nat operate serosal trod anges of ejetvepenemens. Fa, in thers! wordy objects of the sin ki seldom pent themselves oon exe he same w ‘They may appear Fotlly or obguly with varying degoes of cool sion at vying distance, sn under widely diferng light condone. Unless «erent can rably categorize over mt f tthe whole, of this ange te chances of survival my be sharply reduced. ‘What himean ith ay creature whowe aeteory capacities exceed howe described in the fit sction of thie chapter somehow percives ‘elton of unity between ejects that in superficial detail appear ite Aizen. Caner for example the diversity of those objects that we ‘ould clsiy ab wees including os they do palms, pines, maples bab ole, and poplar, rm which, someliow, common identi is abwuscied. Shing very similar happens tn eur processing of syeech. Any aterance of given spench-ound may der acoustically, ren if enly slighty, fom any ther. This i «problem for automated ‘pocch-eengition devices hit has ail ot been completly overcome. ‘The human ear, howerer, automaticaly equlibvaes these difeonce, at lent ods with wich the Dare i iia. Tal proba, sucerfl categorization depends xe much om nega~ abstract rm them some fammon quntssence of weenes. It is more plausible Yo suppose ESSE oe Oni of Rysttna Sens tat —sine our minds work a they do, wth age numbers of weak p= allel pocomors rather than sng stvong liner prcessr—we smal {aneotaly inate posible siematives tipsy i rive fe feature of PRS that hes 2 fr gone ‘uaaticed. Ass shown in chapter in angge—our secondary sep scaatonal rece system of exis ides the nlvree ee atively. Bat the same srely te ofthe primary system ale. the ‘only eateries a foes are "to pond, "blag boing abet, tnd whats lel Geeta to gs). then these ati compa the Frogs wo and everthing th og persis mit be aeigned io one tater arabe. Tetegivies re itdoed contd inthis ay, they shal be ite sy to define negatively. Pesape the most asc category fr any sp ‘ie ha epodueee sexually stato own species This woud i tally give he frog forexample, thew carrie of ro’ and "eno ‘The veo could hen be utr eulivied oa ny eatery coal te datined in ema of nonmembership of ther estesre: rg ei tion pond might be nef, onbug,sotlargelooning ae, Qt ‘ilove. And this i oly shat we would expos deed ll fervor deve ttely from cellar striae, Whe light ‘itches, dtinguish only tw sates. Inthe begnning, there was the ‘fretted vod. The came "x and ‘nt? (he sundews ntact ‘eth varething’ versus "no coat). Than "wt was divided int nd cy he se anemones gpd sare’ and ad tars). Een tual, sepresetatons proliferated. The resemblance tothe “igi toy of Tanism may not be agate oiedent "There x evidene tht reatineyninteligent creatures have oan evelop) categories that are quite sophisticated, For instance, expe rents by Richard Herein snd his seats have show hat pgeene pest wellertalished protoconceps of auch things as te end Pople, Pigeros were frst tain to peck at a beton when itareap- [are that contuned «pve clase feel re, hun, or whatever. ‘When thy had acuite his behavior, thy were pesto with wider ‘riya pictures, some of which contained ropeeneniatives of he eae tory bing tested, wile ter did ot. The pigeons were ale a espn Wiha high degree af cearacy, pecking fr re petro inte, ren when ony fow branches appeared within a predowinanly urban ‘Scene Its hard to acho auch lehavos cul be performed igen Id mo acquired prtosoncept that lowed, a do human ences, fo ‘ve wile varaion inthe objective phemonensasorated with ther ‘ut are sich prtoconepts intel) specie, requ oly samefor of eovromentaleigering 1 activate them, ate they soured inductively? Thal they ae all hard-wired i mplauile in view a the fact that lacs have abo been ined to behave sila ways it petrol fh San earns thing mo pigeon ean have had oir naw of. Yet, rnc things looking mateo les like people have probably ben achat to pigans fort est ve nilion years, and snce tres have heen «haven fr pigeon a ong as there have ben penn it seem ule thet the bans af plas ate complete teuloe rae ‘on which expeiene mu laerouly rewrite such cru envitme tal facts foreach individ cach ef milion of pigeon generations Te at leat a ikely tha oer the couse of evolution thee enesped pigton whose neural equtpment povided snot imaediaterecogaiton oF things ike wees and people) that ad specie signitence for igeana std th the nears eaparto required fr sch ask (espa tie tl hry understood, nd ard, sf 2t impale, to instantiate machines) were subsoquently tater the analyse of novel jects Inthe environ, repulse of whether thee objets wore sigifeat ‘Any evolutionary model pret tht, if ths supposition is correct sch capac, once presen in any indus, wll spread and develop “ntl they became characteris of hole poplation. Morsover, prem {he conservative nature of genetic lupe, one woul expect «par tial ptoooncept to be fund among descendents ofthe species in hich i test oceared, provided tat the referent of the proseconcept otinued 1s be sigan inthe liven of descendent epoch ‘ny, protconcepte woud end wo accumulate ver eveitonry tne Repnestararion or Seace Sofa, for simplicity’ sake, but the cost of sme arti, we have bon treating erate ofeach af them pesceived only single, lated phenomena and asi each phenoreoon was some Kind of ste entity ‘This of coum, ifr rom the th. What eretuos peeve a expe ce isa gual, «lla vow that fnlsen, at he very leat the lehaviors of ebjecte andthe velations betwen diferent abject, se well, 1 the objets themselves. “Tike, fr example, the eptal relationships that exist between Bed jects Thee an similar relation are iterally epeseted as 28 the objects thenelves ae. Ife ate amar witha rom, we oan ove sound int even intl darker wth ur ey ced. Ori we walk through region thie sang ou, we ean, witha ile tention, fe Me Orns of aration Syms our way ack egaio eve thug we willbe approaching all nda from an opp directo, tocar wo do uch things, we hae to come struct sn knd of internal representation af the ates concerned. Tis Tepresentation constitutes nee onnteraied map the rom othe ‘efi, aap thal a eat some of cold traaer to pager if we were reuied t do 0. "The general capacice use har are ct onique te eo event “Viger species. There are species of insect that ay in their heads ‘map ofthe iene envronmnt win which they net sd ed (One species a uring wap, Phdantas,locates tet not by wing astoatized homing stuns bt by memoria the loation a anos Tendmarks around Ifthe lasdnrks re tured, i tboriosly seniches otis neat and then eae a now set of landmarks. An ee ‘or sriking example is provided by soother wasp species, Ammaphila, ‘hich reas rea in burows and proving thw with eater “Ammephie may have se mays 1S larae hidden say a ant given Time andi st remember where ech ope ea wha stage of develo Inet ita eae node a tend it spenpiaty oth insects theo, have tebe ittalized nape of hei en ‘irnmens. Nate Ho the ned frac mg aries a 00 crear Aevlop the strategy af ani a sour base to operate eam Unless like hemi rb, they cary tha bate aroun wth hem, ke mae sels ce whe, hey te tached to that Ie, all such ereaures have t» Fd ther way ome. Since the Icaion of ae’ may vary aver tine, Seed action pattern lone ee useless here, andthe by Jara be csmes essential Bul» erstre cant construc a copsitve map onthe bai of tn sory iafrmation, Teaming, and memory sone. Wha eats has toe ‘mld in a peeing rework tht in eflet trator fe {eral spoce, Without ae ouch sort ink Btyoen tap ated ‘enviroment, the eesti sold ot know that pint «nthe interac Imap bore constant elation opin in he envionment, and hat the ‘portion bore bythe tances tthe dance rn the map ithe ‘Sime as that borne by to 22 tn the enviroment ‘Cogutve maps dow, of couse have to be based on sight. Monta rechanisms, inuding langage, ate modality. fe (sigoed languages ‘hey the same pipes as spoken language) Bat, operating by igh, ‘ey pencpally on ecoloaton o determine ther whereabouts. 100 ‘nie bas inn vaca barn aed then exec tho ery area wil tes, te bats wil ern the Fetins ofthe wes and wil ona trod them. But if daring the at leping prod, you rarange thevis, the bats on aking wil repestly Bln into the wes unt they have lamed the te range ‘What hi meri that bt de nonmaly operate on iret sensory Smpresons af their envrnment I they did hen the bt tomar ay tea wld immediatly info ther dat the wires bad bees moved 0 ew locations, and thee woud never be any accidents, Rather, ate nil intemal mote of thir enitrment and thea operate on the is ofthat mode, Under mast eitcumstances, such »courve has evolutionary advan- tages Rater than exptling alls energies om contin veriying snd vvening et that are elkaly change, as might rbot with no ior Knowledge ofthe word, hat est cre by assuring that fw tures f th evronment do at change and by concentrating alt ene fhe on those facto that do change and change rapidly, nic athe Treton af the isa! that itis ety pursing, Osea thin con= entation ey be exceweive wad may lad ater, but mat tes I vill nt ‘Ther isn reson t supp that thi degree mudel-depaenc United wo bats. For tat if ot ally species, any envicnmental fae utes are velately tbl, so thatthe same considerations of econocny sy. Moreover, thee no ean suppoee that made dependence United to opal mapa of the eminent. Such made ate best come ‘cred of or erly parts ofthe mach more comprehensive models of the ‘covimamont that are rested hy the PRS ofeach spies, Represenrasion of Action Sofar, we have spoken asthe categorie nt which models ofthe en ironman divide the werd were litte t types of objector eit. But this eanat be the eas, since the bin contains not merely cells taned to respun to clos, lghtinteates gs and oer sai Features, Int ls cells tuned to tepand to maion-matin of various types nd speed and in a are of dvetons, Reco work by David Ponet and ‘ers as shaw that diferent ellen the tmpoal cortex of monkeys ‘espa f dferent mevenents—forwad, backward, tothe let othe Tight—ola primate pu. Such el, moeorr, ate highly special Jae or instance, a cell exited by the mation fsck ge toward it emai ute unadeted by min say Hoe it ot oo side. Indeed, there ate even specie als that ar excite nly by specific motions of the (human or monkey hand: grabbing picking, tearing, ad soo, nigh of what has already Been srveyed, there ishing eseally TheOnion Sa mysterious aout sch pce. Givens st of sensory els A, B,C, Band E snmatory cell X fren only when all members ofthe ae are ‘ace sinnllaneouly. Dut auppoe tht what Ay By CD, and Each ‘espn oe sme property fail, orsze, or mation inherent i,m, lfsosight moveent ofa primate bois, o grabing gst of 8 pvimate hand. Lt we sappae, tao that X i not alloted iter bythe Fring fees elle or bythe fing of any set of the wet AE: The Fring of X night then be ait have the "meaning of primate body ing ighteard? or priate hand probing Tene temptig, this sta ose in the esponses of higher-level euns complex stimuli the nerloical infarct of the ei on that woud verly fr te building eck language, Where thou espns, py the existence of ati ike the pigeon "we" frhann sucha mote maybe legitiate These my wel be embryos of the conga that nus are epetnte by nouns. Wishart regard the monkeys pimale ing ghar’ or rns hand rabbi” ex tples af prtovers, For oe thing, thet referents reno eons but ‘Sgetplusactons. language were rad diel of tpt ike thane tdeellX, ten we would sly havea ‘cow gras Kodo language tht ‘apes an ett ante Boavie with ingle term ‘Ase aw i chapter 2 ad 3, th i comething that aver bappens: the suber preiostedsnction i pera the mest ae in angoae. Tt hie can hall be de to any dolieney inthe PRS. 1 may he de ited an inevitable balance tween the vprsentain of entities sd the represent of bei Tage two sts f pictures. One st shows tiger sleeping, a tiger seaking tiger stalling, tiger rnnings = ter tacking prey, ane so Gn Th thersct shows tiger running, hitnceos running, a otic rinsing, cockroach runing, aman runing, and 0 on Nie ow uch more cootncy ther singe than therein ranming’. Tie? Will reserve many consistent erures dros all fits behaviors. Ear, ‘tips, tas and 2 fh main mach the same regarlee of wa ‘he eal i doing, The representations of hee erat fst in the [PRS wil ae the frm of constellations of aerone 2very hgh percent ‘ge of whic will re on every presentation oa ae. "Ruri in cones, wil preserve raively Tow constant feturce cr all ote pefrmers. Sometimes thre wl be to lees rnin, ‘ametines fut sates six the les themes wll ay greatly | ‘ire and shape, and pon. The existence of the objective deren Ietwoon the dileten tokens af "running? means tat there wll be no single set of neural shot ll of which wil re or aay event of