Egyptian Mythology

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EgyptianmythologyWikipedia
Egyptianmythology
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Egyptianmythologyisthecollectionofmythsfromancient
Egypt,whichdescribetheactionsoftheEgyptiangodsasa
meansofunderstandingtheworld.Thebeliefsthatthesemyths
expressareanimportantpartofancientEgyptianreligion.
MythsappearfrequentlyinEgyptianwritingsandart,
particularlyinshortstoriesandinreligiousmaterialsuchas
hymns,ritualtexts,funerarytexts,andtempledecoration.
Thesesourcesrarelycontainacompleteaccountofamythand
oftendescribeonlybrieffragments.
Inspiredbythecyclesofnature,theEgyptianssawtimeinthe
presentasaseriesofrecurringpatterns,whereastheearliest
periodsoftimewerelinear.Mythsaresetintheseearliest
times,andmythsetsthepatternforthecyclesofthepresent.
Presenteventsrepeattheeventsofmyth,andindoingso
renewmaat,thefundamentalorderoftheuniverse.Amongst
themostimportantepisodesfromthemythicpastarethe
creationmyths,inwhichthegodsformtheuniverseoutof
primordialchaosthestoriesofthereignofthesungodRa
upontheearthandtheOsirismyth,concerningthestruggles
ofthegodsOsiris,Isis,andHorusagainstthedisruptivegod
Set.Eventsfromthepresentthatmightberegardedasmyths
includeRa'sdailyjourneythroughtheworldandits
otherworldlycounterpart,theDuat.Recurringthemesinthese
mythicepisodesincludetheconflictbetweentheupholdersof
maatandtheforcesofdisorder,theimportanceofthepharaoh
inmaintainingmaat,andthecontinualdeathandregeneration
ofthegods.
Nun,theembodimentoftheprimordialwaters,lifts
thebarqueofthesungodRaintotheskyatthe
momentofcreation.
Thedetailsofthesesacredeventsdiffergreatlyfromonetexttoanotherandoftenseemcontradictory.Egyptian
mythsareprimarilymetaphorical,translatingtheessenceandbehaviorofdeitiesintotermsthathumanscan
understand.Eachvariantofamythrepresentsadifferentsymbolicperspective,enrichingtheEgyptians'
understandingofthegodsandtheworld.
MythologyprofoundlyinfluencedEgyptianculture.Itinspiredorinfluencedmanyreligiousritualsandprovided
theideologicalbasisforkingship.Scenesandsymbolsfrommythappearedinartintombs,temples,andamulets.
Inliterature,mythsorelementsofthemwereusedinstoriesthatrangefromhumortoallegory,demonstratingthat
theEgyptiansadaptedmythologytoserveawidevarietyofpurposes.
Contents
1
2
3
4
Origins
Definitionandscope
Contentandmeaning
Sources
4.1 Religioussources
4.2 Othersources
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_mythology
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4.2 Othersources
5 Cosmology
5.1 Maat
5.2 Shapeoftheworld
5.3 Time
6 Majormyths
6.1 Creation
6.2 Thereignofthesungod
6.3 Osirismyth
6.4 Birthoftheroyalchild
6.5 Thejourneyofthesun
6.6 Endoftheuniverse
7 InfluenceinEgyptianculture
7.1 Inreligion
7.2 Inart
7.3 Inliterature
8 Seealso
9 Notesandcitations
9.1 Notes
9.2 Citations
10 Workscited
11 Furtherreading
Origins
ThedevelopmentofEgyptianmythisdifficulttotrace.Egyptologistsmustmakeeducatedguessesaboutits
earliestphases,basedonwrittensourcesthatappearedmuchlater.[1]Oneobviousinfluenceonmythisthe
Egyptians'naturalsurroundings.Eachdaythesunroseandset,bringinglighttothelandandregulatinghuman
activityeachyeartheNileflooded,renewingthefertilityofthesoilandallowingthehighlyproductivefarming
thatsustainedEgyptiancivilization.ThustheEgyptianssawwaterandthesunassymbolsoflifeandthoughtof
timeasaseriesofnaturalcycles.Thisorderlypatternwasatconstantriskofdisruption:unusuallylowfloods
resultedinfamine,andhighfloodsdestroyedcropsandbuildings.[2]ThehospitableNilevalleywassurroundedby
harshdesert,populatedbypeoplestheEgyptiansregardedasuncivilizedenemiesoforder.[3]Forthesereasons,the
Egyptianssawtheirlandasanisolatedplaceofstability,ormaat,surroundedandendangeredbychaos.These
themesorder,chaos,andrenewalappearrepeatedlyinEgyptianreligiousthought.[4]
Anotherpossiblesourceformythologyisritual.Manyritualsmakereferencetomythsandaresometimesbased
directlyonthem.[5]Butitisdifficulttodeterminewhetheraculture'smythsdevelopedbeforeritualsorvice
versa.[6]Questionsaboutthisrelationshipbetweenmythandritualhavespawnedmuchdiscussionamong
Egyptologistsandscholarsofcomparativereligioningeneral.InancientEgypt,theearliestevidenceofreligious
practicespredateswrittenmyths.[5]RitualsearlyinEgyptianhistoryincludedonlyafewmotifsfrommyth.For
thesereasons,somescholarshavearguedthat,inEgypt,ritualsemergedbeforemyths.[6]Butbecausetheearly
evidenceissosparse,thequestionmayneverberesolvedforcertain.[5]
Inprivaterituals,whichareoftencalled"magical",themythandtheritualareparticularlycloselytied.Manyof
themythlikestoriesthatappearintherituals'textsarenotfoundinothersources.Eventhewidespreadmotifof
thegoddessIsisrescuingherpoisonedsonHorusappearsonlyinthistypeoftext.TheEgyptologistDavid
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Frankfurterarguesthattheseritualsadaptbasicmythictraditionstofitthespecificritual,creatingelaboratenew
stories(calledhistoriolas)basedonmyth.[7]Incontrast,J.F.Borghoutssaysofmagicaltextsthatthereis"nota
shredofevidencethataspecifickindof'unorthodox'mythologywascoined...forthisgenre."[8]
MuchofEgyptianmythologyconsistsoforiginmyths,explainingthebeginningsofvariouselementsoftheworld,
includinghumaninstitutionsandnaturalphenomena.Kingshiparisesamongthegodsatthebeginningoftimeand
laterpassedtothehumanpharaohswarfareoriginateswhenhumansbeginfightingeachotherafterthesungod's
withdrawalintothesky.[9]Mythsalsodescribethesupposedbeginningsoflessfundamentaltraditions.Inaminor
mythicepisode,HorusbecomesangrywithhismotherIsisandcutsoffherhead.Isisreplacesherlostheadwith
thatofacow.ThiseventexplainswhyIsiswassometimesdepictedwiththehornsofacowaspartofher
headdress.[10]
Somemythsmayhavebeeninspiredbyhistoricalevents.TheunificationofEgyptunderthepharaohs,attheend
ofthePredynasticPeriodaround3100BC,madethekingthefocusofEgyptianreligion,andthustheideologyof
kingshipbecameanimportantpartofmythology.[11]Inthewakeofunification,godsthatwereoncelocalpatron
deitiesgainednationalimportance,formingnewrelationshipsthatlinkedthelocaldeitiesintoaunifiednational
tradition.GeraldinePinchsuggeststhatearlymythsmayhaveformedfromtheserelationships.[12]Egyptian
sourceslinkthemythicalstrifebetweenthegodsHorusandSetwithaconflictbetweentheregionsofUpperand
LowerEgypt,whichmayhavehappenedinthelatePredynasticeraorintheEarlyDynasticPeriod.[13][Note1]
Aftertheseearlytimes,mostchangestomythologydevelopedandadaptedpreexistingconceptsratherthan
creatingnewones,althoughtherewereexceptions.[14]Manyscholarshavesuggestedthatthemythofthesungod
withdrawingintothesky,leavinghumanstofightamongthemselves,wasinspiredbythebreakdownofroyal
authorityandnationalunityattheendoftheOldKingdom(c.2686BC2181BC).[15]IntheNewKingdom(c.
15501070BC),minormythsdevelopedarounddeitieslikeYamandAnatwhohadbeenadoptedfromCanaanite
religion.Incontrast,duringtheGreekandRomaneras(332BC641AD),GrecoRomanculturehadlittle
influenceonEgyptianmythology.[16]
Definitionandscope
ScholarshavedifficultydefiningwhichancientEgyptianbeliefsaremyths.Thebasicdefinitionofmythsuggested
bytheEgyptologistJohnBainesis"asacredorculturallycentralnarrative".InEgypt,thenarrativesthatare
centraltocultureandreligionarealmostentirelyabouteventsamongthegods.[17]Actualnarrativesaboutthe
gods'actionsarerareinEgyptiantexts,particularlyfromearlyperiods,andmostreferencestosucheventsare
merementionsorallusions.SomeEgyptologists,likeBaines,arguethatnarrativescompleteenoughtobecalled
"myths"existedinallperiods,butthatEgyptiantraditiondidnotfavorwritingthemdown.Others,likeJan
Assmann,havesaidthattruemythswererareinEgyptandmayonlyhaveemergedpartwaythroughitshistory,
developingoutofthefragmentsofnarrationthatappearintheearliestwritings.[18]Recently,however,Vincent
AriehTobin[19]andSusanneBickelhavesuggestedthatlengthynarrationwasnotneededinEgyptianmythology
becauseofitscomplexandflexiblenature.[20]Tobinarguesthatnarrativeisevenalientomyth,becausenarratives
tendtoformasimpleandfixedperspectiveontheeventstheydescribe.Ifnarrationisnotneededformyth,any
statementthatconveysanideaaboutthenatureoractionsofagodcanbecalled"mythic".[19]
Contentandmeaning
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Likemythsinmanyothercultures,Egyptianmythsservetojustifyhumantraditionsandtoaddressfundamental
questionsabouttheworld,[21]suchasthenatureofdisorderandtheultimatefateoftheuniverse.[14]TheEgyptians
explainedtheseprofoundissuesthroughstatementsaboutthegods.[20]
Egyptiandeitiesrepresentnaturalphenomena,fromphysicalobjectsliketheearthorthesuntoabstractforceslike
knowledgeandcreativity.Theactionsandinteractionsofthegods,theEgyptiansbelieved,governthebehaviorof
alloftheseforcesandelements.[22]Forthemostpart,theEgyptiansdidnotdescribethesemysteriousprocessesin
explicittheologicalwritings.Instead,therelationshipsandinteractionsofthegodsillustratedsuchprocesses
implicitly.[23]
MostofEgypt'sgods,includingmanyofthemajorones,donothavesignificantrolesinmythicnarratives,[24]
althoughtheirnatureandrelationshipswithotherdeitiesareoftenestablishedinlistsorbarestatementswithout
narration.[25]Forthegodswhoaredeeplyinvolvedinnarratives,mythiceventsareveryimportantexpressionsof
theirrolesinthecosmos.Therefore,ifonlynarrativesaremyths,mythologyisamajorelementinEgyptian
religiousunderstanding,butnotasessentialasitisinmanyothercultures.[26]
Thetruerealmofthegodsismysteriousandinaccessibletohumans.
Mythologicalstoriesusesymbolismtomaketheeventsinthisrealm
comprehensible.[28]Noteverydetailofamythicaccounthassymbolic
significance.Someimagesandincidents,eveninreligioustexts,aremeant
simplyasvisualordramaticembellishmentsofbroader,moremeaningful
myths.[29][30]
FewcompletestoriesappearinEgyptianmythologicalsources.These
sourcesoftencontainnothingmorethanallusionstotheeventstowhich
Theskydepictedasacowgoddess
theyrelate,andtextsthatcontainactualnarrativestellonlyportionsofa
supportedbyotherdeities.This
largerstory.Thus,foranygivenmyththeEgyptiansmayhavehadonlythe
imagecombinesseveralcoexisting
generaloutlinesofastory,fromwhichfragmentsdescribingparticular
visionsofthesky:asaroof,asthe
incidentsweredrawn.[24]Moreover,thegodsarenotwelldefined
surfaceofasea,asacow,andasa
characters,andthemotivationsfortheirsometimesinconsistentactionsare
goddessinhumanform. [27]
rarelygiven.[31]Egyptianmythsarenot,therefore,fullydevelopedtales.
Theirimportancelayintheirunderlyingmeaning,nottheircharacteristics
asstories.Insteadofcoalescingintolengthy,fixednarratives,theyremainedhighlyflexibleandnondogmatic.[28]
SoflexiblewereEgyptianmythsthattheycouldseeminglyconflictwitheachother.Manydescriptionsofthe
creationoftheworldandthemovementsofthesunoccurinEgyptiantexts,someverydifferentfromeach
other.[32]Therelationshipsbetweengodswerefluid,sothat,forinstance,thegoddessHathorcouldbecalledthe
mother,wife,ordaughterofthesungodRa.[33]Separatedeitiescouldevenbesyncretized,orlinked,asasingle
being.ThusthecreatorgodAtumwascombinedwithRatoformRaAtum.[34]
Onecommonlysuggestedreasonforinconsistenciesinmythisthatreligiousideasdifferedovertimeandin
differentregions.[35]Thelocalcultsofvariousdeitiesdevelopedtheologiescenteredontheirownpatrongods.[36]
Astheinfluenceofdifferentcultsshifted,somemythologicalsystemsattainednationaldominance.IntheOld
Kingdom(c.26862181BC)themostimportantofthesesystemswasthecultsofRaandAtum,centeredat
Heliopolis.Theyformedamythicalfamily,theEnnead,thatwassaidtohavecreatedtheworld.Itincludedthe
mostimportantdeitiesofthetimebutgaveprimacytoAtumandRa.[37]TheEgyptiansalsooverlaidoldreligious
ideaswithnewones.Forinstance,thegodPtah,whosecultwascenteredatMemphis,wasalsosaidtobethe
creatoroftheworld.Ptah'screationmythincorporatesoldermythsbysayingthatitistheEnneadwhocarryout
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Ptah'screativecommands.[38]Thus,themythmakesPtaholderandgreaterthantheEnnead.Manyscholarshave
seenthismythasapoliticalattempttoassertthesuperiorityofMemphis'godoverthoseofHeliopolis.[39]By
combiningconceptsinthisway,theEgyptiansproducedanimmenselycomplicatedsetofdeitiesandmyths.[40]
Egyptologistsintheearlytwentiethcenturythoughtthatpoliticallymotivatedchangesliketheseweretheprincipal
reasonforthecontradictoryimageryinEgyptianmyth.However,inthe1940s,HenriFrankfort,realizingthe
symbolicnatureofEgyptianmythology,arguedthatapparentlycontradictoryideasarepartofthe"multiplicityof
approaches"thattheEgyptiansusedtounderstandthedivinerealm.Frankfort'sargumentsarethebasisformuch
ofthemorerecentanalysisofEgyptianbeliefs.[41]PoliticalchangesaffectedEgyptianbeliefs,buttheideasthat
emergedthroughthosechangesalsohavedeepermeaning.Multipleversionsofthesamemythexpressdifferent
aspectsofthesamephenomenondifferentgodsthatbehaveinasimilarwayreflectthecloseconnectionsbetween
naturalforces.ThevaryingsymbolsofEgyptianmythologyexpressideastoocomplextobeseenthroughasingle
lens.[28]
Sources
Thesourcesthatareavailablerangefromsolemnhymnstoentertainingstories.Withoutasingle,canonicalversion
ofanymyth,theEgyptiansadaptedthebroadtraditionsofmythtofitthevariedpurposesoftheirwritings.[42]
MostEgyptianswereilliterateandmaythereforehavehadanelaborateoraltraditionthattransmittedmyths
throughspokenstorytelling.SusanneBickelsuggeststhattheexistenceofthistraditionhelpsexplainwhymany
textsrelatedtomythgivelittledetail:themythswerealreadyknowntoeveryEgyptian.[43]Verylittleevidenceof
thisoraltraditionhassurvived,andmodernknowledgeofEgyptianmythsisdrawnfromwrittenandpictorial
sources.Onlyasmallproportionofthesesourceshassurvivedtothepresent,somuchofthemythological
informationthatwasoncewrittendownhasbeenlost.[25]Thisinformationisnotequallyabundantinallperiods,
sothebeliefsthatEgyptiansheldinsomeerasoftheirhistoryaremorepoorlyunderstoodthanthebeliefsinbetter
documentedtimes.[44]
Religioussources
ManygodsappearinartworkfromtheEarlyDynasticPeriodofEgypt'shistory(c.31002686BC),butlittleabout
thegods'actionscanbegleanedfromthesesourcesbecausetheyincludeminimalwriting.TheEgyptiansbegan
usingwritingmoreextensivelyintheOldKingdom,inwhichappearedthefirstmajorsourceofEgyptian
mythology:thePyramidTexts.Thesetextsareacollectionofseveralhundredincantationsinscribedinthe
interiorsofpyramidsbeginninginthe24thcenturyBC.TheywerethefirstEgyptianfunerarytexts,intendedto
ensurethatthekingsburiedinthepyramidwouldpasssafelythroughtheafterlife.Manyoftheincantationsallude
tomythsrelatedtotheafterlife,includingcreationmythsandthemythofOsiris.Manyofthetextsarelikelymuch
olderthantheirfirstknownwrittencopies,andtheythereforeprovidecluesabouttheearlystagesofEgyptian
religiousbelief.[45]
DuringtheFirstIntermediatePeriod(c.21812055BC),thePyramidTextsdevelopedintotheCoffinTexts,which
containsimilarmaterialandwereavailabletononroyals.Succeedingfunerarytexts,liketheBookoftheDeadin
theNewKingdomandtheBooksofBreathingfromtheLatePeriod(664323BC)andafter,developedoutof
theseearliercollections.TheNewKingdomalsosawthedevelopmentofanothertypeoffunerarytext,containing
detailedandcohesivedescriptionsofthenocturnaljourneyofthesungod.TextsofthistypeincludetheAmduat,
theBookofGates,andtheBookofCaverns.[42]
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Temples,whosesurvivingremainsdatemostlyfromtheNewKingdomand
later,areanotherimportantsourceofmyth.Manytempleshadaperankh,
ortemplelibrary,storingpapyriforritualsandotheruses.Someofthese
papyricontainhymns,which,inpraisingagodforitsactions,oftenreferto
themythsthatdefinethoseactions.Othertemplepapyridescriberituals,
manyofwhicharebasedpartlyonmyth.[46]Scatteredremnantsofthese
papyruscollectionshavesurvivedtothepresent.Itispossiblethatthe
collectionsincludedmoresystematicrecordsofmyths,butnoevidenceof
suchtextshassurvived.[25]Mythologicaltextsandillustrations,similarto
thoseontemplepapyri,alsoappearinthedecorationofthetemple
buildings.Theelaboratelydecoratedandwellpreservedtemplesofthe
PtolemaicandRomanperiods(305BCAD380)areanespeciallyrich
sourceofmyth.[47]
TempledecorationatDendera,
depictingthegoddessesIsisand
Nephthyswatchingoverthecorpseof
theirbrotherOsiris
TheEgyptiansalsoperformedritualsforpersonalgoalssuchasprotectionfromorhealingofillness.Theserituals
areoftencalled"magical"ratherthanreligious,buttheywerebelievedtoworkonthesameprinciplesastemple
ceremonies,evokingmythicaleventsasthebasisfortheritual.[48]
Informationfromreligioussourcesislimitedbyasystemoftraditionalrestrictionsonwhattheycoulddescribe
anddepict.ThemurderofthegodOsiris,forinstance,isneverexplicitlydescribedinEgyptianwritings.[25]The
Egyptiansbelievedthatwordsandimagescouldaffectreality,sotheyavoidedtheriskofmakingsuchnegative
eventsreal.[49]TheconventionsofEgyptianartwerealsopoorlysuitedforportrayingwholenarratives,somost
mythrelatedartworkconsistsofsparseindividualscenes.[25]
Othersources
ReferencestomythalsoappearinnonreligiousEgyptianliterature,beginningintheMiddleKingdom.Manyof
thesereferencesaremereallusionstomythicmotifs,butseveralstoriesarebasedentirelyonmythicnarratives.
ThesemoredirectrenderingsofmythareparticularlycommonintheLateandGrecoRomanperiodswhen,
accordingtoscholarssuchasHeikeSternberg,Egyptianmythsreachedtheirmostfullydevelopedstate.[50]
TheattitudestowardmythinnonreligiousEgyptiantextsvarygreatly.Somestoriesresemblethenarrativesfrom
magicaltexts,whileothersaremoreclearlymeantasentertainmentandevencontainhumorousepisodes.[50]
AfinalsourceofEgyptianmythisthewritingsofGreekandRomanwriterslikeHerodotusandDiodorusSiculus,
whodescribedEgyptianreligioninthelastcenturiesofitsexistence.ProminentamongthesewritersisPlutarch,
whoseworkDeIsideetOsiridecontains,amongotherthings,thelongestancientaccountofthemythofOsiris.[51]
Theseauthors'knowledgeofEgyptianreligionwaslimitedbecausetheywereexcludedfrommanyreligious
practices,andtheirstatementsaboutEgyptianbeliefsareaffectedbytheirbiasesaboutEgypt'sculture.[25]
Cosmology
Maat
TheEgyptianwordmaatreferstothefundamentalorderoftheuniverseinEgyptianbelief.Establishedatthe
creationoftheworld,maatdistinguishestheworldfromthechaosthatprecededandsurroundsit.Maat
encompassesboththeproperbehaviorofhumansandthenormalfunctioningoftheforcesofnature,bothofwhich
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makelifeandhappinesspossible.Becausetheactionsofthegodsgovernnaturalforcesandmythsexpressthose
actions,Egyptianmythologyrepresentstheproperfunctioningoftheworldandthesustenanceoflifeitself.[52]
TotheEgyptians,themostimportanthumanmaintainerofmaatisthepharaoh.Inmyththepharaohisthesonofa
varietyofdeities.Assuch,heistheirdesignatedrepresentative,obligatedtomaintainorderinhumansocietyjust
astheydoinnature,andtocontinuetheritualsthatsustainthemandtheiractivities.[53]
Shapeoftheworld
InEgyptianbelief,thedisorderthatpredatestheorderedworld
existsbeyondtheworldasaninfiniteexpanseofformlesswater,
personifiedbythegodNun.Theearth,personifiedbythegod
Geb,isaflatpieceoflandoverwhicharchesthesky,usually
representedbythegoddessNut.Thetwoareseparatedbythe
personificationofair,Shu.ThesungodRaissaidtotravel
throughthesky,acrossthebodyofNut,enliveningtheworldwith
hislight.AtnightRapassesbeyondthewesternhorizonintothe
Duat,amysteriousregionthatborderstheformlessnessofNun.
AtdawnheemergesfromtheDuatintheeasternhorizon.[54]
TheairgodShu,assistedbyothergods,holds
ThenatureoftheskyandthelocationoftheDuatareuncertain.
upNut,thesky,asGeb,theearth,liesbeneath.
Egyptiantextsvariouslydescribethenighttimesunastraveling
beneaththeearthandwithinthebodyofNut.TheEgyptologist
JamesP.Allenbelievesthattheseexplanationsofthesun'smovementsaredissimilarbutcoexistingideas.In
Allen'sview,NutrepresentsthevisiblesurfaceofthewatersofNun,withthestarsfloatingonthissurface.The
sun,therefore,sailsacrossthewaterinacircle,eachnightpassingbeyondthehorizontoreachtheskiesthatarch
beneaththeinvertedlandoftheDuat.[55]LeonardH.Lesko,however,believesthattheEgyptianssawtheskyasa
solidcanopyanddescribedthesunastravelingthroughtheDuatabovethesurfaceofthesky,fromwesttoeast,
duringthenight.[56]JoanneConman,modifyingLesko'smodel,arguesthatthissolidskyisamoving,concave
domeoverarchingadeeplyconvexearth.Thesunandthestarsmovealongwiththisdome,andtheirpassage
belowthehorizonissimplytheirmovementoverareasoftheearththattheEgyptianscouldnotsee.Theseregions
wouldthenbetheDuat.[57]
ThefertilelandsoftheNileValley(UpperEgypt)andDelta(LowerEgypt)lieatthecenteroftheworldin
Egyptiancosmology.Outsidethemaretheinfertiledeserts,whichareassociatedwiththechaosthatliesbeyond
theworld.[58]Somewherebeyondthemisthehorizon,theakhet.There,twomountains,intheeastandthewest,
marktheplaceswherethesunentersandexitstheDuat.[59]
ForeignnationsareassociatedwiththehostiledesertsinEgyptianideology.Foreignpeople,likewise,are
generallylumpedinwiththe"ninebows",peoplewhothreatenpharaonicruleandthestabilityofmaat,although
peoplesalliedwithorsubjecttoEgyptmaybeviewedmorepositively.[60]Forthesereasons,eventsinEgyptian
mythologyrarelytakeplaceinforeignlands.WhilesomestoriespertaintotheskyortheDuat,Egyptitselfis
usuallythescenefortheactionsofthegods.Often,eventhemythssetinEgyptseemtotakeplaceonaplaneof
existenceseparatefromthatinhabitedbylivinghumans,althoughinotherstories,humansandgodsinteract.In
eithercase,theEgyptiangodsaredeeplytiedtotheirhomeland.[58]
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TheEgyptians'visionoftimewasinfluencedbytheirenvironment.Eachdaythesunroseandset,bringinglightto
thelandandregulatinghumanactivityeachyeartheNileflooded,renewingthefertilityofthesoilandallowing
thehighlyproductiveagriculturethatsustainedEgyptiancivilization.TheseperiodiceventsinspiredtheEgyptians
toseealloftimeasaseriesofrecurringpatternsregulatedbymaat,renewingthegodsandtheuniverse.[2]
AlthoughtheEgyptiansrecognizedthatdifferenthistoricalerasdifferintheirparticulars,mythicpatternsdominate
theEgyptianperceptionofhistory.[61]
ManyEgyptianstoriesaboutthegodsarecharacterizedashavingtakenplaceinaprimevaltimewhenthegods
weremanifestontheearthandruledoverit.Afterthistime,theEgyptiansbelieved,authorityonearthpassedto
humanpharaohs.[62]Thisprimevaleraseemstopredatethestartofthesun'sjourneyandtherecurringpatternsof
thepresentworld.Attheotherendoftimeistheendofthecyclesandthedissolutionoftheworld.Becausethese
distantperiodslendthemselvestolinearnarrativebetterthanthecyclesofthepresent,JohnBainesseesthemas
theonlyperiodsinwhichtruemythstakeplace.[63]Yet,tosomeextent,thecyclicalaspectoftimewaspresentin
themythicpastaswell.Egyptianssawevenstoriesthatweresetinthattimeasbeingperpetuallytrue.Themyths
weremaderealeverytimetheeventstowhichtheywererelatedoccurred.Theseeventswerecelebratedwith
rituals,whichoftenevokedmyths.[64]Ritualallowedtimetoperiodicallyreturntothemythicpastandrenewlife
intheuniverse.[65]
Majormyths
Someofthemostimportantcategoriesofmythsaredescribedbelow.Becauseofthefragmentarynatureof
Egyptianmyths,thereislittleindicationinEgyptiansourcesofachronologicalsequenceofmythicalevents.[66]
Nevertheless,thecategoriesarearrangedinaveryloosechronologicalorder.
Creation
Amongthemostimportantmythswerethosedescribingthecreationoftheworld.TheEgyptiandevelopedmany
accountsofthecreation,whichdiffergreatlyintheeventstheydescribe.Inparticular,thedeitiescreditedwith
creatingtheworldvaryineachaccount.ThisdifferencepartlyreflectsthedesireofEgypt'scitiesandpriesthoods
toexalttheirownpatrongodsbyattributingcreationtothem.Yetthedifferingaccountswerenotregardedas
contradictoryinstead,theEgyptianssawthecreationprocessashavingmanyaspectsandinvolvingmanydivine
forces.[67]
Onecommonfeatureofthemythsistheemergenceoftheworldfromthe
watersofchaosthatsurroundit.Thiseventrepresentstheestablishmentof
maatandtheoriginoflife.Onefragmentarytraditioncentersontheeight
godsoftheOgdoad,whorepresentthecharacteristicsoftheprimevalwater
itself.Theiractionsgiverisetothesun(representedincreationmythsby
variousgods,especiallyRa),whosebirthformsaspaceoflightanddryness
withinthedarkwater.[68]Thesunrisesfromthefirstmoundofdryland,
anothercommonmotifinthecreationmyths,whichwaslikelyinspiredby
thesightofmoundsofearthemergingastheNilefloodreceded.Withthe
emergenceofthesungod,theestablisherofmaat,theworldhasitsfirst
ruler.[69]AccountsfromthefirstmillenniumBCfocusontheactionsofthe
creatorgodinsubduingtheforcesofchaosthatthreatenthenewlyordered
world.[14]
Thesunrisesoverthecircularmound
ofcreationasgoddessespouroutthe
primevalwatersaroundit
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Atum,agodcloselyconnectedwiththesunandtheprimevalmound,isthefocusofacreationmythdatingbackat
leasttotheOldKingdom.Atum,whoincorporatesalltheelementsoftheworld,existswithinthewatersasa
potentialbeing.Atthetimeofcreationheemergestoproduceothergods,resultinginasetofninedeities,the
Ennead,whichincludesGeb,Nut,andotherkeyelementsoftheworld.TheEnneadcanbyextensionstandforall
thegods,soitscreationrepresentsthedifferentiationofAtum'sunifiedpotentialbeingintothemultiplicityof
elementspresentwithintheworld.[70]
Overtime,theEgyptiansdevelopedmoreabstractperspectivesonthecreationprocess.BythetimeoftheCoffin
Texts,theydescribedtheformationoftheworldastherealizationofaconceptfirstdevelopedwithinthemindof
thecreatorgod.Theforceofheka,ormagic,whichlinksthingsinthedivinerealmandthingsinthephysical
world,isthepowerthatlinksthecreator'soriginalconceptwithitsphysicalrealization.Hekaitselfcanbe
personifiedasagod,butthisintellectualprocessofcreationisnotassociatedwiththatgodalone.Aninscription
fromtheThirdIntermediatePeriod(c.1070664BC),whosetextmaybemucholder,describestheprocessin
detailandattributesittothegodPtah,whosecloseassociationwithcraftsmenmakeshimasuitabledeitytogivea
physicalformtotheoriginalcreativevision.HymnsfromtheNewKingdomdescribethegodAmun,amysterious
powerthatliesbehindeventheothergods,astheultimatesourceofthiscreativevision.[71]
TheoriginofhumansisnotamajorfeatureofEgyptiancreationstories.Insometextsthefirsthumansspringfrom
tearsthatRaAtumorhisfeminineaspect,theEyeofRa,shedsinamomentofweaknessanddistress,
foreshadowinghumans'flawednatureandsorrowfullives.Otherssayhumansaremoldedfromclaybythegod
Khnum.Butoverall,thefocusofthecreationmythsistheestablishmentofcosmicorderratherthanthespecial
placeofhumanswithinit.[72]
Thereignofthesungod
Intheperiodofthemythicpastafterthecreation,Radwellsonearthaskingofthegodsandofhumans.This
periodistheclosestthingtoagoldenageinEgyptiantradition,theperiodofstabilitythattheEgyptiansconstantly
soughttoevokeandimitate.YetthestoriesaboutRa'sreignfocusonconflictsbetweenhimandforcesthatdisrupt
hisrule,reflectingtheking'sroleinEgyptianideologyasenforcerofmaat.[73]
Inanepisodeknownindifferentversionsfromtempletexts,someofthegodsdefyRa'sauthority,andhedestroys
themwiththehelpandadviceofothergodslikeThothandHorustheElder.[74][Note2]Atonepointhefacesdissent
evenfromanextensionofhimself,theEyeofRa,whichcanactindependentlyofhimintheformofagoddess.
TheEyegoddessbecomesangrywithRaandrunsawayfromhim,wanderingwildanddangerousinthelands
outsideEgypt.Weakenedbyherabsence,RasendsoneoftheothergodsShu,Thoth,orAnhur,indifferent
accountstoretrieveher,byforceorpersuasion.BecausetheEyeofRaisassociatedwiththestarSothis,whose
heliacalrisingsignaledthestartoftheNileflood,thereturnoftheEyegoddesstoEgyptcoincideswiththelife
givinginundation.Uponherreturn,thegoddessbecomestheconsortofRaorofthegodwhohasretrievedher.
Herpacificationrestoresorderandrenewslife.[76]
AsRagrowsolderandweaker,humanity,too,turnsagainsthim.Inanepisodeoftencalled"TheDestructionof
Mankind",relatedinTheBookoftheHeavenlyCow,Radiscoversthathumanityisplottingrebellionagainsthim
andsendshisEyetopunishthem.Sheslaysmanypeople,butRaapparentlydecidesthathedoesnotwantherto
destroyallofhumanity.Hehasbeerdyedredtoresemblebloodandspreadsitoverthefield.TheEyegoddess
drinksthebeer,becomesdrunk,andceasesherrampage.Rathenwithdrawsintothesky,wearyofrulingonearth,
andbeginshisdailyjourneythroughtheheavensandtheDuat.Thesurvivinghumansaredismayed,andthey
attackthepeopleamongthemwhoplottedagainstRa.Thiseventistheoriginofwarfare,death,andhumans'
constantstruggletoprotectmaatfromthedestructiveactionsofotherpeople.[77]
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InTheBookoftheHeavenlyCow,theresultsofthedestructionofmankindseemtomarktheendofthedirect
reignofthegodsandofthelineartimeofmyth.ThebeginningofRa'sjourneyisthebeginningofthecyclicaltime
ofthepresent.[63]Yetinothersources,mythictimecontinuesafterthischange.Egyptianaccountsgivesequences
ofdivinerulerswhotaketheplaceofthesungodaskingonearth,eachreigningformanythousandsofyears.[78]
Althoughaccountsdifferastowhichgodsreignedandinwhatorder,thesuccessionfromRaAtumtohis
descendantsShuandGebinwhichthekingshippassestothemaleineachgenerationoftheEnneadis
common.Bothofthemfacerevoltsthatparallelthoseinthereignofthesungod,buttherevoltthatreceivesthe
mostattentioninEgyptiansourcesistheoneinthereignofGeb'sheirOsiris.[79]
Osirismyth
ThecollectionofepisodessurroundingOsiris'deathandsuccessionisthemostelaborateofallEgyptianmyths,
andithadthemostwidespreadinfluenceinEgyptianculture.[80]Inthefirstportionofthemyth,Osiris,whois
associatedwithbothfertilityandkingship,iskilledandhispositionusurpedbyhisbrotherSet.Insomeversions
ofthemyth,OsirisisactuallydismemberedandthepiecesofhiscorpsescatteredacrossEgypt.Osiris'sisterand
wife,Isis,findsherhusband'sbodyandrestoresittowholeness.[81]Sheisassistedbyfunerarydeitiessuchas
NephthysandAnubis,andtheprocessofOsiris'restorationreflectsEgyptiantraditionsofembalmingandburial.
IsisthenbrieflyrevivesOsiristoconceiveanheirwithhim:thegodHorus.[82]
ThenextportionofthemythconcernsHorus'birthandchildhood.Isis
givesbirthtoandraiseshersoninsecludedplaces,hiddenfromthemenace
ofSet.TheepisodesinthisphaseofthemythconcernIsis'effortstoprotect
hersonfromSetorotherhostilebeings,ortohealhimfromsicknessor
injury.IntheseepisodesIsisistheepitomeofmaternaldevotionanda
powerfulpractitionerofhealingmagic.[83]
Inthethirdphaseofthestory,HoruscompeteswithSetforthekingship.
Theirstruggleencompassesagreatnumberofseparateepisodesandranges
incharacterfromviolentconflicttoalegaljudgmentbytheassembled
gods.[84]Inoneimportantepisode,SettearsoutoneorbothofHorus'eyes,
whicharelaterrestoredbythehealingeffortsofThothorHathor.Forthis
reason,theEyeofHorusisaprominentsymboloflifeandwellbeingin
Egyptianiconography.BecauseHorusisaskygod,withoneeyeequated
withthesunandtheotherwiththemoon,thedestructionandrestorationof
thesingleeyeexplainswhythemoonislessbrightthanthesun.[85]
StatuesofOsirisandofIsisnursing
theinfantHorus
Textspresenttwodifferentresolutionsforthedivinecontest:oneinwhich
Egyptisdividedbetweenthetwoclaimants,andanotherinwhichHorus
becomessoleruler.Inthelatterversion,theascensionofHorus,Osiris'rightfulheir,symbolizesthe
reestablishmentofmaataftertheunrighteousruleofSet.Withorderrestored,Horuscanperformthefuneraryrites
forhisfatherthatarehisdutyassonandheir.ThroughthisserviceOsirisisgivennewlifeintheDuat,whoseruler
hebecomes.TherelationshipbetweenOsirisaskingofthedeadandHorusaskingofthelivingstandsforthe
relationshipbetweeneverykingandhisdeceasedpredecessors.Osiris,meanwhile,representstheregenerationof
life.Onearthheiscreditedwiththeannualgrowthofcrops,andintheDuatheisinvolvedintherebirthofthesun
andofdeceasedhumansouls.[86]
AlthoughHorustosomeextentrepresentsanylivingpharaoh,heisnottheendofthelineageofrulinggods.Heis
succeededfirstbygodsandthenbyspiritsthatrepresentdimmemoriesofEgypt'sPredynasticrulers,thesoulsof
NekhenandPe.Theylinktheentirelymythicalrulerstothefinalpartofthesequence,thelineageofEgypt's
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historicalkings.[62]
Birthoftheroyalchild
SeveraldisparateEgyptiantextsaddressasimilartheme:thebirthofadivinelyfatheredchildwhoisheirtothe
kingship.Theearliestknownappearanceofsuchastorydoesnotappeartobeamythbutanentertainingfolktale,
foundintheMiddleKingdomWestcarPapyrus,aboutthebirthofthefirstthreekingsofEgypt'sFifthDynasty.In
thatstory,thethreekingsaretheoffspringofRaandahumanwoman.Thesamethemeappearsinafirmly
religiouscontextintheNewKingdom,whentherulersHatshepsut,AmenhotepIII,andRamessesIIdepictedin
templereliefstheirownconceptionandbirth,inwhichthegodAmunisthefatherandthehistoricalqueenthe
mother.Bystatingthatthekingoriginatedamongthegodsandwasdeliberatelycreatedbythemostimportantgod
oftheperiod,thestorygivesamythicalbackgroundtotheking'scoronation,whichappearsalongsidethebirth
story.Thedivineconnectionlegitimizestheking'sruleandprovidesarationaleforhisroleasintercessorbetween
godsandhumans.[87]
SimilarscenesappearinmanypostNewKingdomtemples,butthistimetheeventstheydepictinvolvethegods
alone.Inthisperiod,mosttempleswerededicatedtoamythicalfamilyofdeities,usuallyafather,mother,andson.
Intheseversionsofthestory,thebirthisthatofthesonineachtriad.[88]Eachofthesechildgodsistheheirtothe
throne,whowillrestorestabilitytothecountry.Thisshiftinfocusfromthehumankingtothegodswhoare
associatedwithhimreflectsadeclineinthestatusofthepharaohinthelatestagesofEgyptianhistory.[87]
Thejourneyofthesun
Ra'smovementsthroughtheskyandtheDuatarenotfullynarratedinEgyptiansources,[89]althoughfunerary
textsliketheAmduat,BookofGates,andBookofCavernsrelatethenighttimehalfofthejourneyinsequencesof
vignettes.[90]ThisjourneyiskeytoRa'snatureandtothesustenanceofalllife.[30]
Intravelingacrossthesky,Rabringslighttotheearth,sustainingallthingsthatlivethere.Hereachesthepeakof
hisstrengthatnoonandthenagesandweakensashemovestowardsunset.Intheevening,Ratakestheformof
Atum,thecreatorgod,oldestofallthingsintheworld.AccordingtoearlyEgyptiantexts,attheendofthedayhe
spitsoutalltheotherdeities,whomhedevouredatsunrise.Heretheyrepresentthestars,andthestoryexplains
whythestarsarevisibleatnightandseeminglyabsentduringtheday.[91]
AtsunsetRapassesthroughtheakhet,thehorizon,inthewest.Attimesthehorizonisdescribedasagateordoor
thatleadstotheDuat.Atothers,theskygoddessNutissaidtoswallowthesungod,sothathisjourneythrough
theDuatislikenedtoajourneythroughherbody.[92]Infunerarytexts,theDuatandthedeitiesinitareportrayed
inelaborate,detailed,andwidelyvaryingimagery.Theseimagesaresymbolicoftheawesomeandenigmatic
natureoftheDuat,whereboththegodsandthedeadarerenewedbycontactwiththeoriginalpowersofcreation.
Indeed,althoughEgyptiantextsavoidsayingitexplicitly,Ra'sentryintotheDuatisseenashisdeath.[93]
Certainthemesappearrepeatedlyindepictionsofthejourney.Raovercomesnumerousobstaclesinhiscourse,
representativeoftheeffortnecessarytomaintainmaat.ThegreatestchallengeistheoppositionofApep,aserpent
godwhorepresentsthedestructiveaspectofdisorder,andwhothreatenstodestroythesungodandplunge
creationintochaos.[95]Inmanyofthetexts,Raovercomestheseobstacleswiththeassistanceofotherdeitieswho
travelwithhimtheystandforvariouspowersthatarenecessarytoupholdRa'sauthority.[96]InhispassageRa
alsobringslighttotheDuat,enliveningtheblesseddeadwhodwellthere.Incontrast,hisenemiespeoplewho
haveunderminedmaataretormentedandthrownintodarkpitsorlakesoffire.[97]
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ThekeyeventinthejourneyisthemeetingofRaandOsiris.
IntheNewKingdom,thiseventdevelopedintoacomplex
symboloftheEgyptianconceptionoflifeandtime.Osiris,
relegatedtotheDuat,islikeamummifiedbodywithinits
tomb.Ra,endlesslymoving,isliketheba,orsoul,ofa
deceasedhuman,whichmaytravelduringthedaybutmust
returntoitsbodyeachnight.WhenRaandOsirismeet,they
mergeintoasinglebeing.TheirpairingreflectstheEgyptian
visionoftimeasacontinuousrepeatingpattern,withone
member(Osiris)beingalwaysstaticandtheother(Ra)living
inaconstantcycle.OncehehasunitedwithOsiris'
Ra(atcenter)travelsthroughtheunderworldinhis
regenerativepower,Racontinuesonhisjourneywithrenewed
barque,accompaniedbyothergods[94]
vitality.[65]ThisrenewalmakespossibleRa'semergenceat
dawn,whichisseenastherebirthofthesunexpressedbya
metaphorinwhichNutgivesbirthtoRaaftershehasswallowedhimandtherepetitionofthefirstsunriseatthe
momentofcreation.Atthismoment,therisingsungodswallowsthestarsoncemore,absorbingtheirpower.[91]In
thisrevitalizedstate,RaisdepictedasachildorasthescarabbeetlegodKhepri,bothofwhichrepresentrebirthin
Egyptianiconography.[98]
Endoftheuniverse
Egyptiantextstypicallytreatthedissolutionoftheworldasapossibilitytobeavoided,andforthatreasontheydo
notoftendescribeitindetail.However,manytextsalludetotheideathattheworld,aftercountlesscyclesof
renewal,isdestinedtoend.ThisendisdescribedinapassageintheCoffinTextsandamoreexplicitoneinthe
BookoftheDead,inwhichAtumsaysthathewillonedaydissolvetheorderedworldandreturntohisprimeval,
inertstatewithinthewatersofchaos.Allthingsotherthanthecreatorwillceasetoexist,exceptOsiris,whowill
survivealongwithhim.[99]Detailsaboutthiseschatologicalprospectareleftunclear,includingthefateofthedead
whoareassociatedwithOsiris.[100]Yetwiththecreatorgodandthegodofrenewaltogetherinthewatersthat
gaverisetotheorderlyworld,thereisthepotentialforanewcreationtoariseinthesamemannerastheold.[101]
InfluenceinEgyptianculture
Inreligion
BecausetheEgyptiansrarelydescribedtheologicalideasexplicitly,theimplicitideasofmythologyformedmuch
ofthebasisforEgyptianreligion.ThepurposeofEgyptianreligionwasthemaintenanceofmaat,andtheconcepts
thatmythsexpresswerebelievedtobeessentialtomaat.TheritualsofEgyptianreligionweremeanttomakethe
mythicevents,andtheconceptstheyrepresented,realoncemore,therebyrenewingmaat.[64]Theritualswere
believedtoachievethiseffectthroughtheforceofheka,thesameconnectionbetweenthephysicalanddivine
realmsthatenabledtheoriginalcreation.[103]
Forthisreason,Egyptianritualsoftenincludedactionsthatsymbolizedmythicalevents.[64]Templeritesincluded
thedestructionofmodelsrepresentingmaligngodslikeSetorApophis,privatemagicalspellscalleduponIsisto
healthesickasshedidforHorus,[104]andfuneraryritessuchastheOpeningoftheMouthceremony[105]andritual
offeringstothedeadevokedthemythofOsiris'resurrection.[106]Yetritualsrarely,ifever,involveddramatic
reenactmentsofmyths.Thereareborderlinecases,likeaceremonyalludingtotheOsirismythinwhichtwo
womentookontherolesofIsisandNephthys,butscholarsdisagreeaboutwhethertheseperformancesformed
sequencesofevents.[107]MuchofEgyptianritualwasfocusedonmorebasicactivitieslikegivingofferingstothe
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gods,withmythicthemesservingasideologicalbackgroundratherthanas
thefocusofarite.[108]Nevertheless,mythandritualstronglyinfluenced
eachother.Mythscouldinspirerituals,liketheceremonywithIsisand
Nephthysandritualsthatdidnotoriginallyhaveamythicmeaningcould
bereinterpretedashavingone,asinthecaseofofferingceremonies,in
whichfoodandotheritemsgiventothegodsorthedeadwereequatedwith
theEyeofHorus.[109]
KingshipwasakeyelementofEgyptianreligion,throughtheking'sroleas
linkbetweenhumanityandthegods.Mythsexplainthebackgroundforthis
connectionbetweenroyaltyanddivinity.ThemythsabouttheEnnead
establishthekingasheirtothelineageofrulersreachingbacktothe
creatorthemythofdivinebirthstatesthatthekingisthesonandheirofa
godandthemythsaboutOsirisandHorusemphasizethatrightful
successiontothethroneisessentialtothemaintenanceofmaat.Thus,
mythologyprovidedtherationalefortheverynatureofEgyptian
government.[110]
SetandHorussupportthepharaoh.
Thereconciledrivalgodsoftenstand
fortheunityofEgyptundertherule
ofitsking. [102]
Inart
Illustrationsofgodsandmythicaleventsappearextensivelyalongside
religiouswritingintombs,temples,andfunerarytexts.[42]Mythological
scenesinEgyptianartworkarerarelyplacedinsequenceasanarrative,but
individualscenes,particularlydepictingtheresurrectionofOsiris,do
sometimesappearinreligiousartwork.[111]
AllusionstomythwereverywidespreadinEgyptianartandarchitecture.In
templedesign,thecentralpathofthetempleaxiswaslikenedtothesun
god'spathacrossthesky,andthesanctuaryattheendofthepath
representedtheplaceofcreationfromwhichherose.Templedecoration
Funeraryamuletintheshapeofa
wasfilledwithsolaremblemsthatunderscoredthisrelationship.Similarly,
scarab
thecorridorsoftombswerelinkedwiththegod'sjourneythroughtheDuat,
andtheburialchamberwiththetombofOsiris.[112]Thepyramid,thebest
knownofallEgyptianarchitecturalforms,mayhavebeeninspiredbymythicsymbolism,foritrepresentedthe
moundofcreationandtheoriginalsunrise,appropriateforamonumentintendedtoassuretheowner'srebirthafter
death.[113]SymbolsinEgyptiantraditionwerefrequentlyreinterpreted,sothatthemeaningsofmythicalsymbols
couldchangeandmultiplyovertimelikethemythsthemselves.[114]
Moreordinaryworksofartwerealsodesignedtoevokemythicthemes,liketheamuletsthatEgyptianscommonly
woretoinvokedivinepowers.TheEyeofHorus,forinstance,wasaverycommonshapeforprotectiveamulets
becauseitrepresentedHorus'wellbeingaftertherestorationofhislosteye.[115]Scarabshapedamulets
symbolizedtheregenerationoflife,referringtothegodKhepri,theformthatthesungodwassaidtotakeat
dawn.[116]
Inliterature
ThemesandmotifsfrommythologyappearfrequentlyinEgyptianliterature,evenoutsideofreligiouswritings.An
earlyinstructiontext,the"TeachingforKingMerykara"fromtheMiddleKingdom,containsabriefreferencetoa
mythofsomekind,possiblytheDestructionofMankindtheearliestknownEgyptianshortstory,"Taleofthe
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ShipwreckedSailor",incorporatesideasaboutthegodsandtheeventualdissolutionoftheworldintoastorysetin
thepast.Somelaterstoriestakemuchoftheirplotfrommythicalevents:"TaleoftheTwoBrothers"adaptsparts
oftheOsirismythintoafantasticstoryaboutordinarypeople,and"TheBlindingofTruthbyFalsehood"
transformstheconflictbetweenHorusandSetintoanallegory.[117]
AfragmentofatextabouttheactionsofHorusandSetdatestotheMiddleKingdom,suggestingthatstoriesabout
thegodsaroseinthatera.SeveraltextsofthistypeareknownfromtheNewKingdom,andmanymorewere
writtenintheLateandGrecoRomanperiods.Althoughthesetextsaremoreclearlyderivedfrommyththanthose
mentionedabove,theystilladaptthemythsfornonreligiouspurposes."TheContendingsofHorusandSeth",
fromtheNewKingdom,tellsthestoryoftheconflictbetweenthetwogods,oftenwithahumorousandseemingly
irreverenttone.TheRomanera"MythoftheEyeoftheSun"incorporatesfablesintoaframingstorytakenfrom
myth.Thegoalsofwrittenfictioncouldalsoaffectthenarrativesinmagicaltexts,aswiththeNewKingdomstory
"Isis,theRichWoman'sSon,andtheFisherman'sWife",whichconveysamoralmessageunconnectedtoits
magicalpurpose.Thevarietyofwaysthatthesestoriestreatmythologydemonstratesthewiderangeofpurposes
thatmythcouldserveinEgyptianculture.[118]
Seealso
IndexofEgyptianmythologyarticles
Kemetism
Notesandcitations
Notes
1.HorusandSet,portrayedtogether,oftenstandforthepairingofUpperandLowerEgypt,althougheithergodcanstand
foreitherregion.Bothofthemwerepatronsofcitiesinbothhalvesofthecountry.Theconflictbetweenthetwodeities
mayalludetothepresumedconflictthatprecededtheunificationofUpperandLowerEgyptatthestartofEgyptian
history,oritmaybetiedtoanapparentconflictbetweenworshippersofHorusandSetneartheendoftheSecond
Dynasty.[13]
2.HorustheElderisoftentreatedasaseparatedeityfromHorus,thechildborntoIsis.[75]
Citations
1.AnthesinKramer1961,pp.2930
2.David2002,pp.12
3.O'Connor,David,"Egypt'sViewof'Others'",inTait
2003,pp.155,178179
4.Tobin1989,pp.1011
5.Morenz1973,pp.8184
6.Baines1991,p.83
7.FrankfurterinMeyerandMirecki2001,pp.472474
8.Pinch2004,p.17
9.Assmann2001,pp.113,115,119122
10.Griffiths,J.Gwyn,"Isis",inRedford2001,vol.II,pp.
188190
12.Pinch2004,pp.67
13.Meltzer,EdmundS.,"Horus",inRedford2001,vol.II,
pp.119122
14.BickelinJohnston2003,p.580
15.Assmann2001,p.116
16.MeeksandFavardMeeks1996,pp.4951
17.Baines,inLoprieno1996,p.361
18.Baines1991,pp.8185,104
19.Tobin,VincentArieh,"Myths:AnOverview",in
Redford2001,vol.II,pp.464468
21.Pinch2004,pp.12
22.Assmann2001,pp.8081
23.Assmann2001,pp.107112
24.Tobin1989,pp.3839
25.Baines1991,pp.100104
26.Baines1991,pp.104105
28.Tobin1989,pp.18,2326
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30.Tobin1989,pp.4849
32.Hornung1992,pp.4145,96
33.Vischak,Deborah,"Hathor",inRedford2001,vol.II,
pp.8285
35.Allen1989,pp.6263
36.Traunecker2001,pp.101103
37.David2002,pp.28,8485
39.Allen1989,pp.4546
40.Tobin1989,pp.1617
44.Baines1991,pp.84,90
45.Pinch2004,pp.611
46.Morenz1971,pp.218219
47.Pinch2004,pp.3738
48.Ritner1993,pp.243249
49.Pinch2004,p.6
50.Baines,inLoprieno1996,pp.365376
51.Pinch2004,pp.35,3942
52.Tobin1989,pp.7982,197199
53.Pinch2004,p.156
54.Allen1989,pp.37
55.Allen,JamesP.,"TheEgyptianConceptoftheWorld",
inO'ConnorandQuirke2003,pp.2529
56.Lesko,inShafer1991,pp.117120
57.Conman2003,pp.3337
58.MeeksandFavardMeeks1994,pp.8288,91
59.Lurker1980,pp.6465,82
60.O'Connor,David,"Egypt'sViewof'Others'",inTait
2003,pp.155156,169171
61.Hornung1992,pp.151154
62.Pinch2004,p.85
63.Baines,inLoprieno1996,pp.364365
64.Tobin1989,pp.2731
65.Assmann2001,pp.7780
66.Pinch2004,p.57
67.David2002,pp.81,89
68.DunandandZivieCoche2005,pp.4550
69.MeeksandFavardMeeks,pp.1921
70.Allen1989,pp.811
71.Allen1989,pp.3642,60
72.Pinch2004,pp.6668
73.Pinch2004,p.69
75.Pinch2004,p.143
76.Pinch2004,pp.7174
77.Assmann2001,pp.113116
78.Uphill,E.P.,"TheAncientEgyptianViewofWorld
History",inTait2003,pp.1726
79.Pinch2004,pp.7678
81.Hart1990,pp.3033
82.Pinch2004,pp.7980
83.Assmann2001,pp.131134
84.Hart1990,pp.3638
85.Kaper,OlafE.,"Myths:LunarCycle",inRedford
2001,vol.II,pp.480482
86.Assmann2001,pp.129,141145
87.Assmann2001,pp.116119
88.Feucht,Erika,"Birth",inRedford2001,p.193
89.BainesinLoprieno1996,p.364
90.Hornung1992,p.96
91.Pinch2004,pp.9192
92.Hornung1992,pp.9697,113
93.Tobin1989,pp.49,136138
94.Pinch2004,pp.183184
95.Hart1990,pp.5254
96.Quirke2001,pp.4546
97.Hornung1992,pp.95,99101
98.Hart1990,pp.57,61
99.Hornung1982,pp.162165
100.DunandandZivieCoche2005,pp.6768
102.teVelde,Herman,"Seth",inRedford2001,vol.III,pp.
269270
103.Ritner1993,pp.246249
104.Ritner1993,p.150
105.Roth,AnnMacy,"OpeningoftheMouth"inRedford
2001,vol.II,pp.605608
106.Assmann2001,pp.4951
107.O'Rourke,PaulF.,"Drama",inRedford2001,vol.I,
pp.407409
108.Baines1991,p.101
109.Morenz1973,p.84
110.Tobin1989,pp.9095
111.Baines1991,p.103
112.Wilkinson1992,pp.2729,6970
113.Quirke2001,p.115
114.Wilkinson1992,pp.1112
115.Andrews,CarolA.R.,"Amulets",inRedford2001,
vol.I,pp.7582
116.Lurker1980,pp.74,104105
117.BainesinLoprieno1996,pp.367369,373374
118.BainesinLoprieno1996,pp.366,371373,377
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Furtherreading
Armour,RobertA(2001)[1986].GodsandMythsofAncientEgypt.TheAmericanUniversityinCairo
Press.ISBN9774246691.
Ions,Veronica(1982)[1968].EgyptianMythology.PeterBedrickBooks.ISBN0911745076.
James,T.G.H(1971).MythsandLegendsofAncientEgypt.Grosset&Dunlap.ISBN0448008661.
Sternberg,Heike(1985).MythischeMotiveandMythenbildungindenagyptischenTempeinundPapyrider
GriechischRomischenZeit(inGerman).Harrassowitz.ISBN3447024976.
Tyldesley,Joyce(2010).MythsandLegendsofAncientEgypt.AllenLanes.ISBN1846143691.
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