Timing Advance With Calculation

A Timing Advance (TA) is used to compensate for the propagation delay as the signal
travels between the Mobile Station (MS) and Base Transceiver Station (BTS). The Base
Station System (BSS) assigns the TA to the MS based on how far away it perceives the
MS to be. Determination of the TA is a normally a function of the Base Station
Controller (BSC), bit this function can be handled anywhere in the BSS, depending on
the manufacturer.

Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) requires precise timing of both the MS
and BTS systems. When a MS wants to gain access to the network, it sends an
access burst on the RACH. The further away the MS is from the BTS, the
longer it will take the access burst to arrive at the BTS, due to propagation
delay. Eventually there comes a certain point where the access burst would
arrive so late that it would occur outside its designated timeslot and would
interfere with the next time slot.

Access Burst
As you recall from the TDMA Tutorial, an access burst has 68.25 guard bits at
the end of it.

This guard time is to compensate for propagation delay due to the unknown distance of
the MS from the BTS. It allows an access burst to arrive up to 68.25 bits later than it is
supposed to without interfering with the next time slot.

68.25 bits doesnt mean much to us in the sense of time, so we must convert 68.25 bits
into a frame of time. To do this, it is necessary to calculate the duration of a single bit,
the duration is the amount of time it would take to transmit a single bit.

Duration of a Single Bit

As you recall, GSM uses Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying (GMSK) as its modulation
method, which has a data throughput of 270.833 kilobits/second (kb/s).

Calculate duration of a bit.

So now we know that it takes 3.69s to transmit a single bit.

Propagation Delay
Now, if an access burst has a guard period of 68.25 bits this results in a maximum delay
time of approximately 252s (3.69s 68.25 bits). This means that a signal from the
MS could arrive up to 252s after it is expected and it would not interfere with the next
time slot.

The next step is to calculate how far away a mobile station would have to be
for a radio wave to take 252s to arrive at the BTS, this would be the
theoretical maximum distance that a MS could transmit and still arrive within
the correct time slot.

Using the speed of light, we can calculate the distance that a radio wave would
travel in a given time frame. The speed of light (c) is 300,000 km/s.

So, we can determine that a MS could theoretically be up to 75.6km away from

a BTS when it transmits its access burst and still not interfere with the next
time slot.

However, we must take into account that the MS synchronizes with

the signal it receives from the BTS. We must account for the time it
takes for the synchronization signal to travel from the BTS to the
MS. When the MS receives the synchronization signal from the
BTS, it has no way of determining how far away it is from the BTS.
So, when the MS receives the syncronization signal on the SCH, it
synchronizes its time with the timing of the system. However, by
the time the signal arrives at the MS, the timing of the BTS has
already progressed some. Therefore, the timing of the MS will now
be behind the timing of the BTS for an amount of time equal to the
travel time from the BTS to the MS.

For example, if a MS were exactly 75.6km away from the BTS, then
it would take 252s for the signal to travel from the BTS to the MS.

The MS would then synchronize with this timing and send its access burst on the
RACH. It would take 252s for this signal to return to the BTS. The total round trip
time would be 504s. So, by the time the signal from the MS arrives at the BTS, it will
be 504s behind the timing of the BTS. 504s equals about 136.5 bits.

The 68.25 bits of guard time would absorb some of the delay of 136.5 bits, but the
access burst would still cut into the next time slot a whopping 68.25bits.

Maximum Size of a Cell

In order to compensate for the two-way trip of the radio link, we must divide the
maximum delay distance in half. So, dividing 75.6km in half, we get approximately 37.8
km. If a MS is further out than 37.8km and transmits an access burst it will most likely
interfere with the following time slot. Any distance less than 37.8km and the access
burst should arrive within the guard time allowed for an access burst and it will not
interfere with the next time slot.
In GSM, the maximum distance of a cell is standardized at 35km. This is due mainly to
the number of timing advances allowed in GSM, which is explained below.

How a BSS Determines a Timing Advance

For each 3.69s of propagation delay, the TA will be incremented by 1. If the delay is less
than 3.69s, no adjustment is used and this is known as TA0. For every TA, the MS will
start its transmission 3.69s (or one bit) early. Each TA really corresponds to a range of
propagation delay. Each TA is essentially equal to a 1-bit delay detected in the
synchronization sequence.

In order to determine the propagation delay between the MS and the BSS, the BSS uses
the synchronization sequence within an access burst. The BSS examines the
synchronization sequence and sees how long it arrived after the time that it expected it
to arrive. As we learned from above, the duration of a single bit is approximately 3.69s.
So, if the BSS sees that the synchronization is late by a single bit, then it knows that the
propagation delay is 3.69s. This is how the BSS knows which TA to send to the MS.

The Distance of a Timing Advance

When calculating the distances involved for each TA, we must remember that the total
propagation delay accounts for a two-way trip of the radio wave. The first leg is the
synchronization signal traveling from the BTS to the MS, and the second leg is the
access burst traveling from the MS to the BTS. If we want to know the true distance of
the MS from the BTS, we must divide the total propagation delay in half.
For example, if the BSS determines the total propagation delay to be 3.69s, we can
determine the distance of the MS from the BTS.

We determined earlier that for each propagation delay of 3.69s the TA is inceremented
by one. We just learned that a propagation delay of 3.69s equals a one-way distance of
553.5 meters. So, we see that each TA is equal to a distance of 553.5 meters from the
tower. Starting from the BTS (0 meters) a new TA will start every 553.5m.

The TA becomes very important when the MS switches over to using a normal burst in
order to transmit data. The normal burst does not have the 68.25 bits of guard time. The
normal burst only has 8.25 bits of guard time, so the MS must transmit with more
precise timing. With a guard time of 8.25 bits, the normal burst can only be received up
to 30.44s late and not interfere with the next time slot. Because of the two-way trip of
the radio signal, if the MS transmits more than 15.22s after it is supposed to then it will
interfere with the next time slot.
0 comments

Links to this post

Hi
Hi All
Thanks all for your mails.
Now we are covering GSM basic and 2G optimization and CDMA basics.
Soon we are going to start a blog of 3G and wimax basics.
Hope all of you will enjoy these blogs also.
Need Your suggestions to make it better.
keep mailing

cellular.planning.optimization@gmail.com
0 comments

Links to this post

FREQUENCY HOPPING

What is Frequency Hopping?

Frequency Hopping is an old technique introduced firstly in military transmission
system to ensure the secrecy of communications and combat jamming. Frequency
Hopping is mechanism in which the system changes the frequency (uplink and
downlink) during transmission at regular intervals. It allows the RF channel used for
signaling channel (SDCCH) timeslot or traffic channel (TCH) timeslots, to change
frequency every TDMA frame (4.615 ms). The frequency is changed on a per burst
basis, which means that all the bits in a burst are transmitted in the same frequency.

Advantages of Frequency Hopping

1. Frequency Diversity
In cellular urban environment, multipath propagation exists in most cases. Due to
Rayleigh fading, short-term variations in received level are frequently observed. This
mainly affects stationary or quasi-stationary mobiles. For a fast moving mobile, the
fading situation can be avoided from one burst to another because it also depends on the
position of the mobile so the problem is not so serious. Frequency Hopping is able to
take the advantage due to frequency selective nature of fading to decrease the number of
errors and at the same time they are temporally spread. As a result, the decoding and
de-interleaving processes can more effectively remove bit errors caused by bursts
received whilst on fading frequencies (errors will be randomly distributed instead of
having long bursts of errors). This increase in effectiveness leads to a transmission
quality improvement of the same proportion.

Frame Erasure Rate reduces due to 6 dB to 8 dB gain.

Number of reports with rxqual 6 and 7 reduce.
Reported values of rxlev are more concentrated around mean.
2. Interference Averaging
Interference Averaging means spreading raw bit errors (BER caused by the interference)
in order to have random distribution of errors instead of having burst of errors, and
therefore, enhance the effectiveness of decoding and de-interleaving process to cope
with the BER and lead to better value of FER.
With hopping, the set of interfering calls will be continually changing and the effect is
that all the calls experience average quality rather than extreme situations of either good
or bad quality. All the calls suffer from controlled interference but only for short and
distant periods of time, not for all the duration of the call.

For the same capacity, Frequency Hopping improves quality and for a given average
quality Frequency Hopping makes possible increase in capacity.

When more than 3 % of the reports have rxqual of 6 or 7 then voice quality disturbances
start to appear.
Gains (reduction in the C/I value needed to satisfy the quality requirements involved in
the criterion) from hopping relative to fixed frequency operation can be achieved.
1/3 interference: 1 dB gain
i.e. if 1 out of 3 frequencies are experiencing a continuous interference a gain of 1 dB in
C/I requirement is obtained.
Similarly,
1/4 interference: 4 dB gain
1/5 interference: 6 dB gain
2/4 interference: 0 dB gain
2/5 interference: 4 dB gain
The effective gain obtained with Frequency Hopping is due to the fact that the
interference effect is minimized and it is easier to keep it under control.

Types of Frequency Hopping

There are two ways of implementing Frequency Hopping in a Base Station System, one
referred as Base Band Frequency Hopping (BBH) and another as Synthesizer Frequency
Hopping (SFH). Their operation differs in the way they establish the Base to Mobile
Station link (downlink), however there is not difference at all between Mobile Station to
Base Station link in both types of hopping. Motorola does not allow BBH and SFH to be
used together on the same site
1. Base Band Frequency Hopping
This is accomplished by routing the traffic channel data through fixed frequency DRCUs
via the TDM highway on a timeslot basis. In this case, the DRCU would have fixed
tuned transmitters combined either in low loss tuned combiners or hybrid combiners.

DRCU always transmits fixed frequency.

The information for every call is moved among the available DRCUs on a per burst basis.
(Burst of 577 s)
Call hops between same timeslots of all DRCUs.
Processing (coding and interleaving) is done by digital part associated with DRCU on
which call was initially assigned.
For uplink call is always processed by DRCU on which the call was initially assigned.
Number of DRCUs needed is equal to the number of frequencies in the hopping
sequence.
BCCH frequency can be included in the hopping sequence.
Power control does not apply to BCCH or bursts transmitting BCCH frequency.
BCCH, timeslot 0 will never hop.
Any timeslot with CCCH will never hop.
Timeslot carrying all SDCCHs can hop.

If a network running with fixed frequency plan is switched over to BBH (BCCH included
in MA list) without any frequency changes, significant quality improvement can be
observed in the network. As a result drop call rate reduces in the network.
Alternatively, for the existing network quality additional capacity can be provided. FHI
can be used effectively in BBH. Further details regarding FHI planning are discussed
later in the document.

2. Synthesizer Frequency Hopping

This is accomplished by high speed switching of the transmit and receive frequency
synthesizers of the individual DRCUs. As a result of dynamic nature of the transmit
frequency, broadband (hybrid) combining of the transmitters is necessary.

DRCU changes transmitting frequency every burst.

Call stays on the same DRCU where it started.
Remote tune combiners (RTC) are not allowed.
Number of DRCUs is not related to number of frequencies in hopping sequence.
BCCH can be included in the hopping sequence:
1. If BCCH is included in the hopping sequence, timeslots 1 to 7 can not be used to
carry traffic. They transmit dummy burst when BCCH frequency is not in the
burst. Whenever BCCH frequency is being transmitted in a burst by DRCU, it
will be transmitted at full power.
2. BCCH DRCU will never hop. It either carries traffic in timeslots 1 to 7 or it
transmits dummy bursts.

Transmission and reception is done on the same timeslot and same DRCU.

Frequency Hopping Parameters

GSM defines the following set of parameters:
Mobile Allocation (MA): Set of frequencies the mobile is allowed to hop over.
Maximum of 63 frequencies can be defined in the MA list.
Hopping Sequence Number (HSN): Determines the hopping order used in the
cell. It is possible to assign 64 different HSNs. Setting HSN = 0 provides cyclic hopping
sequence and HSN = 1 to 63 provide various pseudorandom hopping sequences.

Mobile Allocation Index Offset (MAIO): Determines inside the hopping sequence,
which frequency the mobile starts to transmit on. The value of MAIO ranges between 0
to (N-1) where N is the number of frequencies defined in the MA list. MAIO is set on per
carrier basis.
Motorola has defined an additional parameter, FHI.
Frequency Hopping Indicator (FHI): Defines a hopping system, made up by an
associated set of frequencies (MA) to hop over and sequence of hopping (HSN). The
value of FHI varies between 0 to 3. It is possible to define all 4 FHIs in a single cell.
Motorola system allows to define the hopping system on a per timeslot basis. So
different hopping configurations are allowed for different timeslots. This is very useful
for interference averaging and to randomize the distribution of errors.

GSM algorithm
GSM has defined an algorithm for deciding hopping sequence. The algorithm is used to
generate Mobile Allocation Index (MAI) for a given set of parameters.
ARFCN: absolute radio frequency channel number
MA: mobile allocation frequencies.
MAIO: Mobile allocation offset (0 to N-1), where N is the number of frequencies defined
in MA.
HSN: Hopping sequence number (0-63)
T1: Super frame number (0-2047)
T2: TCH multiframe number (0-25)
T3: Signaling multiframe number (0-50)
This algorithm generates a pseudorandom sequence of MAIs. MAI along with MAIO
and MA will decide the actual ARFCN to be used for the burst.

Planning for Frequency Hopping

1. Frequency Plan:
Frequency Hopping plan differs from the conventional fixed frequency plan. The plan
depends upon the type of Frequency Hopping system used. In case of SFH including
BCCH frequency in hopping sequence is not a practical option, as it results in loss of
traffic channels on BCCH carrier. A separate frequency plan is prepared for the BCCH

carriers. This planning is very much similar to the conventional fixed frequency plan
with lesser number of frequencies. This plan needs to be done very carefully as the
system monitors cells based on the BCCH frequency only. Since BCCH carrier radiates
continuously without downlink power control, frequencies used for BCCH on one cell
should not be used as hopping frequencies on other cell. The reason is to avoid
continuous interference from BCCH carriers. The benefits of hopping increase if more
frequencies are available for hopping. Generally the frequency band is divided into two
parts, one used for BCCH frequency plan and other for hopping frequencies. The
division of frequency band for allocation of BCCH and hopping carriers should be done
to maintain reasonable C/I for BCCH carriers as well as to have enough frequencies for
hopping.
e.g. consider a network with 31 frequencies, using 12 frequencies for BCCH and using 18
for hopping with 1 frequency as guard, is the ideal option. But it may not be practically
possible to plan BCCHs with 12 frequencies (4/12 reuse). Using 15 for BCCH plan and
15 for hopping frequencies is more practical. There always exists a trade-off between
BCCH and hopping plans. Using very less frequencies for BCCH plan might result in
poor quality on BCCH carrier and the advantages of having quality improvement on
hopping carriers may be lost.
In case of BBH, generally BCCH carrier is included in the hopping sequence. The
benefits of BBH can be obtained only when most of the sites in the network are having
more than one NBCCH carriers. Benefits of BBH comparable to SFH can only be
obtained by equipping additional hardware in order to include more frequencies in
hopping sequence. However BBH without additional hardware will result in quality
improvements and provide scope of additional capacity as compared to fixed frequency
plan though the benefits may not be as significant as seen in SFH.
2. Planning of HSN:
HSN allocation to the cells is done in random fashion. Various scenarios are explained
below:
a.

MA list is same for all the cells of the site In this case HSN is kept same for all the
cells of the site. MAIO is used on per carrier basis to provide offset for starting
frequency in hopping sequence and avoid hits among carriers of the site. Practically it is
possible to achieve 0% hit rate within the site, as all the cells of the same site are
synchronized.
b. MA list is same for the cells of different sites In this case HSN should be different for
all such cells. MAIO can be same or different in this case as HSN is different.
c. MA list is different for the cells In this case HSN planning is not important, as there
can not be any hits between these cells.
d. HSN is set to 0 This is the case of cyclic hopping. The sequence for hopping remains
same and is repeated continuously. This is not recommended in the urban environment
where frequency reuse is more. This is because the network is not synchronized so if
there is any one hit it will result in continuous sequence of hits. Cyclic hopping is

preferred in rural environment as it provides the maximum benefits of frequency

diversity.
3. Planning of MAIO:
The benefits of MAIO planning can be best achieved only in case when sectors having
same MA list are synchronized. For non-synchronized sectors MAIO can be the same.
In the present version (GSR2), Motorola does not provide manual MAIO setting. It is
set automatically by the system. However from GSR3 onwards it will be possible to set
MAIO manually. It has to be changed on a case to case basis. In cases where there are
large numbers of hits, MAIO change can be very effective as it adds the offset in the
hopping sequence and hitrate can be reduced.

4. Planning of FHI:
This parameter is not specified in GSM. FHI is the Motorola defined hopping system. It
actually means an independent hopping system consisting of MA and HSN. Total of 4
such hopping systems can be set in a cell.
FHI can be defined on a timeslot basis.
e.g. consider a cell with 3 carriers i.e. 2 carriers are hopping. It is then possible to
define 4 different FHIs for 16 timeslots. That means timeslot 0 to 3 of 1 carrier can have
one FHI and so on.
Benefits and Drawbacks of FHI

Separate FHI can be defined even for each carrier with separate MA list.
For a fully utilized cell, FHI can be used to control increase in hitrate during peak hours.
This can be done by defining different MA list associated with a FHI for one of the
carriers.
Main benefits of FHI can be obtained in BBH. Consider a cell with 2 carriers using BBH
with BCCH included in the hopping sequence. Timeslot 0 of BCCH will not hop. A
separate FHI (with MA list without BCCH frequency) has to be defined for timeslot 0 of
NBCCH.
Different FHIs in the same cell is not used extensively in Motorola networks with SFH,
where BCCH frequency is not included in hopping sequence.
One drawback of using FHI on timeslot basis is that it adds more complexity to the
database.
5. Reuse pattern for hopping carriers:
Conventionally there are 3 main reuse patterns followed for hopping frequencies.
1 X 1: It means all the cells in the network use the same frequencies for hopping.

e.g. If 15 frequencies are to be used for hopping, then every cell will have all 15
frequencies in the MA list. This type of reuse is useful in urban areas, where capacity
requirement is large. However there is very less planning involved and so less control
over quality problems.
3 X 9: Three hopping groups are used in 3 sites, one per site. In this case all the sites
should be considered as omni sites for planning frequency reuse. The advantage of this
scheme is it provides better isolation between sites using same hopping frequencies.
The problem with this method is that, addition of new site may require frequency replan
for the area.
1 X 3: This scheme is very commonly used in Motorola networks. Hopping frequencies
are divided in 3 groups. Each cell on a site uses one group and it is repeated on all sites.
e.g. consider a network with standard orientation, all V1 sectors will use the same group
and so on. It is very easy to add a site in the network. This reuse scheme is suitable for
homogeneous network with minimum overlapping areas. The problem with this scheme
is in peak hours there may be more hits.
6. Effect of Frequency Hopping
Handovers: When SFH is implemented, BCCH plan is done using lesser number of
frequencies as compared to fixed frequency plan. This may result in quality
degradation. However quality of hopping carriers improves than before. Also, quality
threshold for handovers on hopping carrier should be increased as compared to fixed
frequency plan. In the present version (GSR2), same quality threshold settings are set
for both BCCH and NBCCH. This may result on more drop calls on BCCH carriers.
However GSR 3 provides separate settings for BCCH and NBCCH carriers. By setting
lower quality thresholds for BCCH as compared to NBCCH, number of dropped calls can
be controlled.
Call setup: In call setup, SDCCH hopping is also possible. There are no separate
settings required for SDCCH hopping. b Since GSR3 allows control over SDCCH
configuration (location of SDCCH on timeslot basis), SDCCH hopping depends on the
location of SDCCH. In case of SFH (with BCCH not included in MA list), if SDCCHs are
on BCCH carrier they will not hop whereas SDCCHs on NBCCH carriers may hop.
Generally it is preferred to keep SDCCHs on hopping carriers as they have better C/I
compared to BCCH carriers. Call success rate will depend on the cleanliness of BCCH
carriers.
Frame Erasure Rate (FER): FER indicates the number of TDMA frames that could
not be decoded by the mobile due to interference. This parameter gives the indication of
hitrate. FER improves (gain of 6 to 8 dB) after implementation of frequency hopping.
7. Tools for simulation and drive test: Motorola uses a tool Handsem which can
simulate SFH plan (different reuse patters and HSN plan). Latest versions of plaNET
and Golf are supposed to support Frequency Hopping simulation. Drive test tools that
display decoded layer 3 information are used for monitoring frequency hopping
networks. TEMS is one of the drive test tools that can be used for the purpose.

0 comments

Links to this post

TDMA
TimeDivisionMultipleAccess(TDMA)isatechnologyforshared
medium(usuallyradio)networks.Itallowsseveraluserstoshare
thesamefrequencybydividingitintodifferenttimeslots.The
userstransmitinrapidsuccession,oneaftertheother,each
usingtheirowntimeslot.Thisallowsmultipleuserstosharethe
sametransmissionmedium(e.g.radiofrequency)whilstusingonly
thepartofitsbandwidththeyrequire.UsedintheGSM,PDCand
iDENdigitalcellularstandards,amongothers.TDMAisalsoused
extensivelyinsatellitesystems,localareanetworks,physical
securitysystems,andcombatnetradiosystems.
Thename"TDMA" is also commonlyusedinAmericatorefertoa
specificsecondgeneration(2G)mobilephonestandard,more
properlyreferredtoasIS136orDAMPS,whichusestheTDMA
techniquetotimesharethebandwidthofthecarrierwave.
Thetwodifferentusesofthistermcanbeconfusing.TDMA(the
technique)isusedintheGSMstandard.However,TDMA(the
standard,i.e.IS136)hasbeencompetingagainstGSMandsystems
basedonCDMAmodulationforadoptionbythecarriers,although
itisnowbeingphasedoutinfavorofGSMtechnology.

TDMA frame structure showing a data stream divided into frames

and those frames divided into timeslots.
TDMAisatypeofTimedivisionmultiplexing,withthespecial
pointthatinsteadofhavingonetransmitterconnectedtoone
receiver,therearemultipletransmitters.Inthecaseofthe
uplink from a mobile phone to a base station this becomes
particularly difficult because the mobile phone can move around
and vary the timingoffset required to make its transmission
match the gap in transmission from its peers.
IntheGSMsystem,thesynchronizationofthemobilephonesis
achievedbysendingtimingoffsetcommandsfromthebasestation
whichinstructsthemobilephonetotransmitearlierorlater.
Themobilephoneisnotallowedtotransmitforitsentire
timeslot,butthereisaguardperiodatthebeginningandendof
thetimeslot.Asthetransmissionmovesintotheguardperiod,
themobilenetworkadjuststhetimingoffsettorecenterthe
transmission.

Initial synchronisation of a phone requires even more care.

Before a mobile transmits there is no way to actually know the
offset required. For this reason, an entire timeslot has to be
dedicated to mobiles attempting to contact the network (known as
the RACH in GSM). The mobile attempts to broadcast at the
beginning of the timeslot, as received from the network. If the
mobile is located next to the base station, there will be no time
delay and this will succeed. If, however, the mobile phone is at
just less than 35km from the base station, the time delay will
mean the mobile's broadcast arrives at the very end of the
timeslot. In that case, the mobile will be instructed to
broadcast its messages starting a whole timeslot earlier than
would be expected otherwise. Finally, if the mobile is beyond the
35 km cell range in GSM, then the RACH will arrive in a
neighboring time slot and be ignored. It is this feature, rather
than limitations of power which limits the range of a GSM cell to
35 kilometers when no special tricks are used. By changing the
synchronization between the uplink and downlink at the base
station, however, this limitation can be overcome.
Inradiosystems,TDMAisalmostalwaysusedalongsideFDMA
(Frequencydivisionmultipleaccess)andFDD(Frequencydivision
duplex);thecombinationisreferredtoasFDMA/TDMA/FDD.Thisis
thecaseinbothGSMandIS136forexample.Theexceptionsto
thisruleincludeWCDMATDDwhichcombinesFDMA/CDMA/TDMAandTDD
instead.

Advantage of TDMA
A major advantage of TDMA is that the radio part of the
mobile only needs to listen and broadcast for its own
timeslot. For the rest of the time, the mobile can carry
out measurements on the network, detecting surrounding
transmitters on different frequencies. This allows safe
inter frequency handovers, something which is difficult
in CDMA systems, not supported at all in IS-95 and
supported through complex system additions in UMTS. This
in turn allows for co-existence of microcell layers with
macrocell layers. But, CDMA supports "soft hand-off"
which allows a mobile phone to be in communication with
up to 6 base stations simultaneously, a type of "samefrequency handover". The incoming packets are compared
for quality, and the best one is selected. This enables
CDMA to perform in areas where TDMA calls would be
dropped.
DisadvantageofTDMA

AdisadvantageofTDMAsystemsisthattheycreate
interferenceatafrequencywhichisdirectlyconnected
tothetimeslotlength.Thisistheirritatingbuzz
whichcansometimesbeheardifaGSMphoneisleftnext
toaradio.Anotherdisadvantageisthatthe"deadtime"
betweentimeslotslimitsthepotentialbandwidthofa
TDMAchannel.Thisiswhyearlyeffortstoincorporate
timeslotsintoUMTSfailed,leavingUMTSasapurelyCDMA
technology.TheonlycountrytocontinuepursuingTD
SCDMA(timedivisionsynchronousCDMA)ismainlandChina,
becausethegovernmentdoesnotwanttopaypatent
royaltiestoQualcommoftheUSAorlicensingfeestothe
mainlyEuropeanUMTSconsortium.