CIEM 5250 Renovation Engineering

Prof. Zongjin Li
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering

3.5 Concrete Strength Assessment

3.5.1 Compressive tests on the cored specimen
Coring process

Concrete Core Samples

3.5.1 Compressive tests on the cored specimen

1. Core size: diameter > 3 dmax (50, 75, 100, 150 mm)
2. Core length: 1 to 2 times of diameter
3. During coring: Prevent relative movement; use
water to lubricate;
4. After coring: Check the length; check the
reinforcement and void in the cored specimen;
5. Re-fill the hole.

3.5.1 Compressive tests on the cored specimen

1. Before compression test, specimen
should be trimmed by a diamond saw;
2. The ends should be grinded or
capped;
3. To be tested under saturated
condition (UK) or dry (USA);
4. Loading rate: 12-24 Mpa/min.
5. Influence factors: moisture content,
curing condition and voids in the cored
specimen (1st) ; length-diameter ratio of
the core specimen; Core diameter;
drilling direction; and reinforcement.
6. Correction of compressive strength

3.5.2 Rebound hammer measurement

1. One of the oldest non-invasive methods of accessing
variation of concrete strength;
2. The equipment was developed by Ernst Schmidt in
Switzerland in the 1940s;
3. Offers a simple means of measuring the in-situ
hardness of a localized area of the concrete surface
through measuring the rebound value of a springdriven hammer mass after its impact with concrete;
4. Measurement is principally a surface hardness; little
apparent theoretical relationship between the strength
of concrete and the rebound number of the hammer.
6

3.5.2 Rebound hammer measurement

Rebound hammer measurement

3.5.2 Rebound hammer measurement

3.5.2 Rebound hammer measurement

Can be influenced by the following
factors:
i. Formation and smoothness of the
concrete surface;
ii. Age of concrete;
iii. Type of cement used in concrete
mix;
iv. Moisture conditions of the
concrete;
v. Type of coarse aggregate used in
concrete; and
vi. Carbonation degree of concrete.
9

3.5 Concrete strength assessment

Pull-out method

h
s

3.5.3 Surface wave measurement method

A controlled impact-based stress wave generator, two receiving
accelerometers (receivers), a digital oscilloscope, and a personal
computer are needed.
Impact source
x

Transducer 1

Transducer 2

C
VR

3.5.3 Surface wave measurement method

The surface wave velocity is given by the following approximate
formula (Viktorov 1967):

where G is the shear modulus of elasticity.

For concrete, with a typical Poissons ratio of 0.2, the Rayliegh

wave velocity is 92% of the shear wave, or 56% of the
compression wave under plane strain condition.

3.6 Surface Cracking Measurement

Detection of crack - One-side surface wave measurement
to digital oscilloscope
Solenoid - driven
impactor

specimen

crack

30 mm

30 mm

30 mm

Self-Compensated Attenuation
To eliminate the variability of coupling (receiver) and the impact
source for the self-compensating scheme is used.

Ai and Si - sending and receiving source functions, dij - attenuation function

Attenuation Measurement Scheme

(Self-Compensating Method)
From

the measured waveforms in frequency domain, Vij, the

magnitude of attenuation (geometric, scattering, and adsorbtion)
is obtained.

d 23 f

V13V 42
V12V 43

Assumptions

Path direction independence: d23 = d32

coupled receivers 2 and 3 have negligible effects upon passing waves

Amplitude Ration of C/B

3.6 Surface Cracking Measurement

Experimentally obtained surface wave transmission from a 102 mm thick

concrete free slab with varying damage conditions.

3.7 Assessment of Fire Damage to Concrete

Long time exposure to fire or high temperature will
cause concrete deterioration and reinforcing steel
degradation;
Such deterioration and degradation may lead to losing
service ability or collapse of the structure;
After a fire, the concrete structure should be
evaluated and the deterioration caused by fire should
be assessed before any repair work is taken.

17

3.7.1 Determination of the maximum temperature

Examine the debris found on the scene
After the compartment is cooled down, such it is
accessible again, any traces concerning the evolution of
the fire must be carefully collected before the clearing
works start.
Especially the location and state of glass, steel,
nonferrous metals, melting and charring of plastics,
fibres, wood, from which the temperature elapse and the
duration of the fire can be estimated.
a.

24

3.7.1 Determination of the maximum temperature

Table 3.3 Survey on behavior of commonly used building materials under high temperature
Material

Polystyrene

PVC

Typical examples
Thin wall food containers
foam, light shades,
handlers, curtain hooks,
radio casings
Cables, pipes, ducts,
Linings, profiles, handles,
Knobs, house ware, toys
bottles

Conditions

Appr. Temp
(C)

Collapse
Softens
Melts and flows

120
120140
150180

Degrades
Fumes
Browns
Charring

100
150
200
400500

Cellulose

Wood, paper, cotton

Darkens

200300

Wood

Doors, windows, floors

Ignites

250

Lead

Plumbing
Sanitary installations, toys

Melts, sharp edges rounded

Drop formation

300350

Zinc

Sanitary installations
gutter, down pipes

Drop formation
Melts

400
420

25

3.7.1 Determination of the maximum temperature

Aluminium
and alloys

Fixtures, casings brackets,

small mech. parts

Softens, Melts
Drop formation

400
650

Glass

Glazing, bottles

Softens, sharp edges,

rounded,
Flowing easily, viscous

500600
800

Silver

Jewellery, spoons
cutlery etc.

Melts
Drop formation

950

Brass

Locks, taps,
door handles, clasps

Melts (particularly at edges)

Drop formation

9001000

Copper

Wiring, cables ornaments

Melts

10001100

Cast iron

Radiators
Pipes

Melts
Drop formation

11001200

Bronze

Windows, fittings, door

bells, ornamentation

Edges rounded
Drop formation

900
9001000
26

3.7.1 Determination of the maximum temperature

b. Thermoluminescence testing
Thermoluminescence (TL) is a faint violet-blue light that is
emitted when a piece of fired pottery is heated at a sufficiently
high temperature. The amount of TL is measured using a
sensitive detector known as a photomultiplier tube. The curve of
light output vs. temperature for a given sample depends upon its
thermal and radiation history. The thermoluminescence of sand
extracted from concrete can form the basis of a test for firedamaged concrete as a measure of the actual thermal exposure
experienced by the concrete.

27

3.7.1 Determination of the maximum temperature

28

3.7.1 Determination of the maximum temperature

Theoretical

calculation (max. T)

k q
Tm T0 0.435
a h
k Thermal diffusivity of the materials m2/s
a Depth, m
q The average heat flux, w/m2
t duration of fire exposure, s
h Thermal absorptivity (210 440 Jm-2s-0.5k-1)

3.7.2

Penetration of heat

The thermal gradient or penetration of heat in

concrete members, is another important factor for
assessing fire damage.
The penetration of heat can be conveniently studied
on core samples of 60-80 mm long, taken from the
walls and ceilings of fire-exposed compartments;
The color changes of concrete in the sample can be
used to inteprete the thermal gradient.

3.7.2
The

Penetration of heat

color of concrete changes on heating from

gray to light pink at about 300C;
The pink darkens with further rise of
temperature, attains maximum intensity around
600C;
Turn to whitish gray by 800C.

3.7.2
The

Penetration of heat

thermogravimetric tests:
-Different dehydration at different T
-Different mass loss at different T 100-850C
Test several small samples (about 500 mg
each) taken from various sections of the cores,
the distribution of maximum temperature
reached at various depths in the compartments
boundary elements during the fire can be
determined.

3.7.3

Fire-damage factors

a) Concrete
100-300oC -- Normal strength
( But consider 15% of strength loss)
300-600 oC--Loss in strength
(Up to 60% strength loss)
600-900 oC Weak and friable
( up to 100% strength loss)

3.7.3

Fire-damage factors

b) Steel reinforcing bars

100-550oC

--lost 30% of effectiveness

(cold work gain of steel will be lost at 450oC
due to recovery of elongated grain)
550-700oC --up to 90% strength loss
700-900 oC --up to 100% strength loss

3.8 Assessment for Bridges

Bridges are very important infrastructures.

The structural damage and failure can have
severe consequences because bridges often
provide vital links in a transportation
system. The primary purpose of bridge
inspection is to maintain the public safety,
confidence, and investment in bridges.
Ensuring public safety and investment
decision requires a comprehensive bridge
inspection.

3.8 Assessment for Bridges

Some of the major responsibilities of a bridge inspector
1. Identifying minor problems that can be corrected
before they develop into major repairs;
2. Identifying bridge components that require repairs
in order to avoid total replacement;
3. Identifying unsafe conditions;
4. Preparing accurate inspection records, documents,
and recommendation of corrective actions, and
5. Providing bridge inspection program support.

3.8 Assessment for Bridges

Bridge classification
(A) In accordance with structural types

Beam

Arch

Cable-stayed

Suspension
(B) In accordance with structural materials

Reinforced concrete bridges

Prestressed concrete bridges

Steel bridges

Wood bridges

Cable stayed bridge

39

3.8.1

Two levels of degradation

Two factors particularly contribute to the

deterioration of concrete bridges:
severe environments: extreme weather (too hot,
too cold, too dry or too humid) chemical
attack (severe chloride attack), and physical
attack (earthquake, typhoon).
Overloading: Heavy truck; impact; fatigue.

3.8.1

Two levels of degradation

a) Materials deteriorations
Properties of materials decay due to interaction with the
surrounding environment, slow process: ASR; Corrosion;
Sulphate attack; Erosion; Leaching.
The decks of concrete bridges are more susceptible to deterioration,
including surface wearing, scaling, delamination, spalls,
longitudinal flexure cracks, transverse flexure cracks in the
negative moment regions, corrosion of the deck rebars, cracks
due to reactive aggregates, and damage due to chemical
contamination.
The common deterioration phenomena include section losses in
concrete abutments, piers, piles, and the underside of decks.

3.8.1

Two levels of degradation

b. Structural damage
Structural damages on a bridge are mostly caused:
by accumulatedserious continued damage in material level,
by earthquake, wind, and scour.
Structural damages caused by material deterioration often
related to concrete spalling and reduction of cross section
area of reinforcing steel due to corrosion.

3.8.1

Two levels of degradation

Earthquake induced damages are often resulted from design

deficiencies. irregular configuration
Earthquakes can bring damages to bridge superstructures,
bearings, and substructures including columns, beams, joints,
abutments, foundations.
Most of the severe damage to bridges, caused by earthquakes: (a)
unseating of superstructure at in-span hinges or simple
supports attributable to inadequate seat lengths or restraint; (b)
column failure attributable to inadequate ductility; (c) damage
to shear keys at abutments.
Purposes: to understand how a specific design deficiency leads to
one or several forms of structural damages.

3.8.1

Two levels of degradation

Damaged Columns After

Earthquake (Taiwan, October
1999)

3.8.1

Two levels of degradation

Wind can cause the different mode of vibration that

may results in collapse of a bridge, especially for
lightweight flexible bridges such as suspension
bridges and cable-stayed bridges.
Bridges spanning over rives and streams are
especially susceptible to scour of the riverbed. Scour
around the bridge substructures poses potential
structural stability concerns and can cause uneven
settlement of bridges and then lead to collapse.

Scour (lost support of soil)

47

3.8.2 Bridge rating

Bridge rating is to classify the bridge safety through computing
the current live-load carrying capacity of the structure or of
individual members;
The bridge may have lost live-load capacity as a result of aging,
deterioration, damage to members, or its self weight has been
significantly increased due to later added weight such as a new
deck, or wearing course;
The load rating analysis needs properly account for the strength
of members and materials of construction in their current state;
For slabs, beams, and girders, bending moments are usually used.
For columns and truss members, axial force (stress) is
frequently used.

3.8.2 Bridge rating

The procedures
Step 1: Calculate member forces (or stresses)
resulting from the service loads, Fservice or Fdesign
Step 2: Calculate member forces (or stresses)
resulting from dead loads, Fdead
Step 3: Calculate load carrying capacity of
members based on their actual section properties and
allowable stresses, Ftotal
Step 4: Calculate the load carrying capacity
available to carry live-load, Flive
Step 5: Calculate RF
Flive
Ftotal Fdead

RF

Fdesign

Fdesign

3.7.3 Four levels inspection for bridges

Superficial inspection
-Observe occasionally whenever passing by bridge
General inspection
-A visual examination at two-year intervals.
Principal inspection
-A close visual examination less than six years
Special inspection
-Special equipment and test techniques involved
(AE, half cell, electrical magnetic sensors)

3.9 Assessment for Reinforcing Steel Corrosion

3.9.1Visual Inspection and Delamination Survey
Visual inspection can identify spalling, cracking and
rust staining
Visual Observation
Overhead concrete
deterioration

3.9 Assessment for Reinforcing Steel Corrosion

3.9.1Visual Inspection and Delamination Survey
For delaminations (which are parallel cracks under the
surface), can employ
chain drag method (drag a chain over a surface)
-change in sound when chain is over a delamination
ultrasonic pulses, radar
-reflection of signal from delamination
Infrared thermography method

3.9.1Visual Inspection and Delamination Survey

53

3.9.2 Half cell measurement

V

AE transducer

3.9.2 Half cell measurement

1. An electrical connection is made to the steel
reinforcement and connected to a high impedance
digital millivoltmeter
2. The other connection to millivoltmeter is taken to a
copper/copper sulfate half cell which has a porous
connection at one end which can be touched to the
concrete surface.

Half cell potential measurement

CIVL5840 Advanced
Concrete Technology
Prof. Zongjin Li, Department

Chapter 5 / Page 56

Beakout of cracked concrete for

examination of reinforcement

Rebar connection to carry out

the potential measurement

3.9.2 Half cell measurement

3.9.3 Linear polarization resistance measurement

- A controlled voltage of to 20mV is applied
- The change in potential/applied current density is
defined as polarization resistance(Rp:W.cm2)
- The corrosion current is obtained from
Icorr = B/Rp. B is a constant around 26 mV
Icorr reflects the activity of steel under the electrode
- exact area of steel measured not clear
- a guard ring can be placed around the electrode
to confine the area of impressed current

3.9.3 Linear polarization resistance measurement

Reference
electrode
Conductive
foam
Brass
plate

Steel
reinforcement
bar

Ag/AgCl
cell
Wood
base

Auxiliary
electrode
Working
electrode

Interpretation of linear polarization resistance measurement results

Icorr (mA/cm2)

Corrosion rate

Corrosion penetration

< 0.1 ~ 0.2

Passive

(m/yr)
<1

0.2 ~ 0.5

Low to moderate

1 ~ 10

0.5 ~ 1.0

Moderate to high

10 ~ 100

> 1.0

High

100 ~ 1000

3.9.4 Acoustic emission method

Plexiglass
pool
3% NaCl
eletrolyte
To AE system

Preamplifier

AE
sensor

Rebar

Resistor

Concrete

3.9.4 Acoustic emission method

Comparison of AE and Galvanic

measurement results

3.9.4 Acoustic emission method

Transducer

Rebar

corrosion

Transducer

L
Computation of corrosion position

L x x t C

L 2 x tC
L tC
x
2

AE source location

AE source location

Chapter 4 Conventional repair and strengthening

Repair - To replace or correct deteriorated,

damaged, or faulty materials, components, or
elements of a system. Repair includes restoration,
enhancement, and protection for durability.
Repair has to base on good understanding of the type
and nature of deterioration. Repair alternatives have
to base on service life expectancy and life cycle costs
Strengthening
The process of increasing the load-resistance capacity
of a structure or portion of the structure.

4.1

Principle consideration of repair and strengthening

Taking the whole structure as a system

Consider the repaired portion or member is only a
sub-system
The comprehensive behavior of whole structure after
repair is more important
Do not over-stress the superior properties of the
advanced repair and strengthening materials

4.1

Principle consideration of repair and strengthening

Prepare project plans and specifications

Existing guide specifications should be used
whenever possible (Uniform Building Code ,
International Concrete Repair Institute)
When the repair materials and/or repair methods
selected for a project are not covered by existing
specifications, a detailed specification based upon
experiences from similar projects should be prepared
Cost-effective consideration

Repair Service Life

Combination of Repair and Protection:

Patch and Seal

Patch & Membrane
Strip Patch & Membrane
Overlay
Full Depth Slab Replacement

1- 2 yr.
3-5 yr.
10-15 yr.
15-20 yr.
25+ yr.

Repair Costs Consideration

Initial Repair Costs

Future Maintenance Costs
Life Cycle Costs

Life Cycle Cost

Life Cycle Cost Analysis result in over
$5,000,000 Saving
$12,000,000

$10,000,000

Re pa ir Cos t $

$8,000,000

Option 1

$6,000,000

Option 4

$4,000,000

$2,000,000

$0
1

Cycle of Repairs - 5 years

4.2 Repair materials

4.2.1 Compatibility requirements of new and old materials
Compatibility Balance between the repair materials and the existing
concrete in the physical properties, chemical properties,
electrical-chemical properties, and dimensional
stability.
The balance shall insure that the structural system after
repair can co-ordinately carry the various loads and
resist the attack of aggressive environment.

4.2.1 Compatibility requirements of new

and old materials
Compatibility in dimension stability:
The repair materials and the existing concrete can
undergo a compatible volumetric change under the
influence of temperature, loading, and environment
change.
The key point for a successful repair.

Shrinkage consideration
New materials shrink
Old concrete not
-Shear stress generated at interface
may cause the separation of two
materials
or the crack in the repair mortar
-may lead to the failure of the repair

Shrinkage requirement for repair mortar

Agency

Testing condition

Sample size

Maximum
allowable
shrinkage

HKHA

27oC, 55% RH

25 x 25x 285 mm

7 day esh <300 e

ASTM

23oC, 50% RH

25 x 25x 285 mm

28 day esh <500 e

23oC, 50% RH

75 x 75x 285 mm

28 day esh <450 e

C1571989
AS1012

Thermal expansion consideration

Different thermal expansion coefficient leads to different
dimension change
-Interface bond restrain the different change- shear stress
produced
-Cyclic expansion and contract due temperature changes can
eventually lead to separation of two materials
Example :
-Polymer mortar or polymer concrete
( 1.0 - 3 x 10-4 /C)
-Normal concrete
( 1.0 - 1.5 x 10-5 /C)

Uneven distribution of stress

It is usually caused by the different Youngs
modulus or different creep
Parallel model: new Enewe and old Eolde

Uneven distribution of stress

Moduli of Elasticity of Repair Materials
Materials

Gpa

Materials

Gpa

Portland Cement Mortar

23

Magnesium Phosphate Cement Concrete

22

Preplaced-Aggregate Concrete

26

Microsilica Modified Portland Cement Concrete

28

Portland Cement Concrete

26

Polymer Modified Portland Cement Mortar with Non-sag Filler

17

Methyl-methacrylate Concrete

20

Latex Modified Portland Cement Concrete

17

Epoxy Mortar

15

Shotcrete

26

82

4.2.1.2 Compatibility in chemical reaction

Repair material -a foreigner
Existing concrete - host
-Big difference in chemical reaction Poor durability of
repaired system
Example:
Host concrete low alkaline cement and active aggregate
Repair cement high alkaline cement
ASR may be induced !

4.2.1.2 Compatibility in chemical

reaction
Host- normal concrete
Repair material - shrinkage compensating mortar or
concrete

-Improper expansion lead to cracking

4.2.1.3 Compatibility in permeability

Permeability of the repair material should be close to the host concrete.
-Repair material - lower permeability
-Host concrete - higher permeability
Wet-dry cycling
different volumetric strain in two parts
shear stress generated at interface
debonding at the interface

Oxygen and chloride ion penetration

higher in host concrete ; lower in repair concrete
-concentration cell may be generated
-corrosion possible

4.2.1.4 Other considerations in compatibility

Consideration on electrochemical
Repair material -Macromolecule compound mortar
Host material
-Normal concrete
Big difference in electrical impedance
Repair material -Portland cement-based materials
Host material
-Normal concrete
Similar in electrical impedance
Which one is better in corrosion resistance?

4.2.2 Standard testing methods and

requirements for repair materials
ASTM C928 (Standard specification for packaged, dry,
rapid-hardening cementitious materials for concrete
repairs)
Compressive strength : ASTM C 109/ C39
Slump of hydraulic cement concrete : ASTM C 143
Length change of hardened hydraulic-cement mortar
and concrete : ASTM C 157
Scaling resistance of concrete : ASTM C 672
Bond strength : ASTM C 882

4.2.3 Laboratory testing methods for bond strength

Bond strength test methods
Stress in the
joint

The shape of the sample

Tension

Direct
Tension

Tension by
splitting

Pull off test

Tension in
flexure

Shear or
cutting

shear

cutting
88

4.2.4 Field testing methods for bond strength

89