URBAN ECOLOGY

Central Park represents an ecosystem fragment within a larger urban environment.

Urban ecology is the scientific study of the relation of living organisms with each other and their surroundings in the context of
the proposed urban environment. The urban environment refers to environments dominated by high-density residential and
commercial buildings, paved surfaces, and other intense human influences, which create a unique landscape dissimilar to many
previous studied environments in the field of ecology.
Urban ecology is a recent field of study compared to ecology as a whole. The methods and studies of urban ecology are similar
to and comprise a subset of ecology. The study of urban ecology carries increasing importance because, within the next forty
years, two-thirds of the worlds population will be living in expanding urban centers. The ecological processes in the urban
environment are comparable to those outside the urban context. However, the types of urban habitats and the species that
inhabit them are poorly documented. Often, explanations for phenomena examined in the urban setting as well as predicting
changes because of urbanization are the centre for scientific research.
History of urban ecology
The creation of an important stream water garden in Metz's centre during the early 70s was one of the materializations of JeanMarie Pelt's works on urban ecology.
Ecology has historically focused on 'pristine' natural environments, however by the 1970s many ecologists began to turn their
interest towards ecological interactions taking place in, and caused by urban environments. Jean-Marie Pelt's 1977 book, The
Re-Naturalized Human, Brian Davis 1978 publication, Urbanization and the diversity of insects, as well as, Sukopp et al.s
1979 article, The soil, flora and vegetation of Berlins wastelands are some of the first publications to recognize the importance
of urban ecology as a separate and distinct form of ecology the same way one might see landscape ecology as different
from population ecology. Forman and Godrons 1986 book, Landscape Ecology, first distinguished urban settings and
landscapes from other landscapes by dividing all landscapes into five broad types. These types were divided by the intensity of
human influence ranging from pristine natural environments to urban centers. Urban ecology is recognized as a diverse and
complex concept which differs in application between North America and Europe. The European concept of urban ecology
examines the biota of urban areas while to the North American concept which has traditionally examined the social sciences of
the urban landscape. As well as the ecosystem fluxes and processes.
Methods of studying urban ecology
Since urban ecology is a subfield of ecology, many of the techniques are similar to that of ecology. Ecological study techniques
have been developed over centuries, but many of the techniques use for urban ecology are more recently developed. Methods
used for studying urban ecology involve chemical and biochemical techniques, temperature recording, heat mapping remote
sensing, and long-term ecological research sites.
Chemical and biochemical techniques
Chemical techniques may be used to determine pollutant concentrations and their effects. Tests can be as simple as dipping a
manufactured test strip, as in the case of pH testing, or be more complex, as in the case of examining the spatial and temporal
variation of heavy metal contamination due to industrial runoff. In that particular study, livers of birds from many regions of
the North Sea were ground up and mercury was extracted. Additionally, mercury bound in feathers was extracted from both live
birds and from museum specimens to test for mercury levels across many decades. Through these two different measurements,
researchers were able to make a complex picture of the spread of mercury due to industrial runoff both spatially and temporally.
Other chemical techniques include tests for nitrates, phosphates, sulfates, etc. which are commonly associated with urban
pollutants such as fertilizer and industrial byproducts. These biochemical fluxes are studied in the atmosphere (e.g. greenhouse
gasses), aquatic ecosystems and soil vegetation. Broad reaching effects of these biochemical fluxes can be seen in various
aspects of both the urban and surrounding rural ecosystems.
Temperature data and heat mapping
Temperature data can be used for various kinds of studies. An important aspect of temperature data is the ability to correlate
temperature with various factors that may be affecting or occurring in the environment. Oftentimes, temperature data is
collected long-term by the Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research (OAR), and made available to the scientific community
through the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). Data can be overlaid with maps of terrain, urban
features, and other spatial areas to create heat maps. These heat maps can be used to view trends and distribution over time and
space.
Remote sensing
Remote sensing allows collection of data using satellites. This map shows urban tree canopy in Boston.
Remote sensing is the technique in which data is collected from distant locations through the use of satellite imaging, radar, and
aerial photographs. In urban ecology, remote sensing is used to collect data about terrain, weather patterns, light, and vegetation.
One application of remote sensing for urban ecology is to detect the productivity of an area by measuring the photosynthetic

wavelengths of emitted light. Satellite images can also be used to detect differences in temperature and landscape diversity to
detect the effects of urbanization.
LTERs and long-term data sets
Long-term ecological research (LTER) sites are research sites funded by the government that have collected reliable long-term
data over an extended period of time in order to identify long-term climatic or ecological trends. These sites provide long-term
temporal and spatial data such as average temperature, rainfall and other ecological processes. The main purpose of LTERs for
urban ecologists is the collection of vast amounts of data over long periods of time. These long-term data sets can then be
analyzed to find trends relating to the effects of the urban environment on various ecological processes, such as species
diversity and abundance over time. Another example is the examination of temperature trends that are accompanied with the
growth of urban centers.
Urban effects on the environment
Humans are the driving force behind urban ecology and influence the
environment in variety of ways, such as modifying land surfaces and
waterways, introducing foreign species, and altering biogeochemical
cycles. Some of these effects are more apparent, such as the reversal
of
the Chicago River to accommodate the growing pollution levels and
trade on the river. Other effects can be more gradual such as the
change in global climate due to urbanization.
Modification of land and waterways
Deforestation in the Amazon rainforest- The fishbone pattern is a
result of the roads in the forest created by loggers.Humans place high
demand on land not only to build urban centers, but also to build
surrounding suburban areas for housing. Land is also allocated for agriculture to sustain the growing population of the city.
Expanding cities and suburban areas necessitate corresponding deforestation to meet the land-use and resource requirements of
urbanization. Key examples of this are deforestation in the United States and Brazil.
Along with manipulation of land to suit human needs, natural water resources such as rivers and streams are also modified in
urban establishments. Modification can come in the form of dams, artificial canals, and even the reversal of rivers. Reversing
the flow of the Chicago River is a major example of urban environmental modification. Urban areas in natural desert settings
often bring in water from far areas to maintain the human population and will likely have effects on the local desert
climate. Modification of aquatic systems in urban areas also results in decreased stream diversity and increased pollution.
Trade, shipping and the spread of invasive species
A ship navigates through the Firth of Clyde in Scotland, potentially carrying invasive species. Invasive kudzu vines growing on
trees in Atlanta, Georgia, USA
Both local shipping and long-distance trade are required to meet the resource demands important in maintaining urban
areas. Carbon dioxide emissions from the transport of goods also contribute to accumulating greenhouse gases and nutrient
deposits in the soil and air of urban environments. In addition, shipping facilitates the unintentional spread of living organisms,
and introduces them to environments that they would not naturally inhabit. Introduced or alien species are populations of
organisms living in a range in which they did not naturally evolve due to intentional or inadvertent human activity. Increased
transportation between urban centers furthers the incidental movement of animal and plant species. Alien species often have no
natural predators and pose a substantial threat to the dynamics of existing ecological populations in the new environment where
they are introduced. Such invasive species are numerous and include house sparrows, ring-necked pheasants, European
starlings, brown rats, Asian carp, American bullfrogs, emerald ash borer, Kudzu vines, and Zebra mussels among numerous
others, most notably domesticated animals.
Human effects on biogeochemical pathways in the urban landscape
Urbanization results in a large demand for chemical use by industry, construction, agriculture, and energy providing services.
Such demands have a substantial impact on biogeochemical cycles, resulting in phenomena such as acid rain, eutrophication,
and global warming. Furthermore, natural biogeochemical cycles in the urban environment can be impeded due to impermeable
surfaces that prevent nutrients from returning to the soil, water, and atmosphere.
Graphical representation of the carbon cycle.
Demand for fertilizers to meet agricultural needs exerted by expanding urban centers can alter chemical composition of soil.
Such effects often result in abnormally high concentrations of compounds including sulfur, phosphorus, nitrogen, and heavy
metals. In addition, nitrogen and phosphorus used in fertilizers have caused severe problems in the form of agricultural runoff,
which alters the concentration of these compounds in local rivers and streams, often resulting in adverse effects on native
species. A well-known effect of agricultural runoff is the phenomenon of eutrophication. When the fertilizer chemicals from

agricultural runoff reach the ocean, an algal bloom results, then rapidly dies off. The dead algae biomass is decomposed by
bacteria that also consume large quantities of oxygen, which they obtain from the water, creating a dead zone without oxygen
for fish or other organisms. A classic example is the dead zone in the Gulf of Mexico due to agricultural runoff into
the Mississippi River.
Urban effects on climate
Urban environments and outlying areas have been found to exhibit unique local temperatures, precipitation, and other
characteristic activity due to a variety of factors such as pollution and altered geochemical cycles. Some examples of the urban
effects on climate are urban heat island, oasis effect, green house gases, and acid rain. This further stirs the debate as to whether
urban areas should be considered a unique biome. Despite common trends among all urban centers, the surrounding local
environment heavily influences much of the climate. One such example of regional differences can be seen through the urban
heat island and oasis effect.
On the other hand, cities in desert environments show a different trend known as the urban oasis effect. This effect is
characterized by a cooler city center compared to the surrounding environments. LTER data from Phoenix, Arizona have
suggested the urban oasis effect. Increased vegetation in urban areas has been proposed as the cause for this phenomenon. The
urban oasis effect contributes to a decrease in temperature in the urban area making it less optimal for the native species.
Greenhouse gases
Greenhouse gas emissions include those of carbon dioxide and methane from the combustion of fossil fuels to supply energy
needed by vast urban metropolises. Other greenhouse gases include water vapour, nitrous oxide, and ozone. Increases
in greenhouse gases due to urban transport, construction, industry and other demands have been correlated strongly with
increase in temperature. Sources of methane are agricultural dairy cows and landfills.
Acid rain and pollution
Smokestacks from a wartime production plant releasing pollutants into the atmosphere.
Processes related to urban areas result in the emission of numerous pollutants, which change corresponding nutrient cycles of
carbon, sulfur, nitrogen, and other elements. Ecosystems in and around the urban center are especially influenced by these point
sources of pollution. High sulfur dioxide concentrations resulting from the industrial demands of urbanization cause rainwater
to become more acidic. Such an effect has been found to have a significant influence on locally affected populations, especially
in aquatic environments. Wastes from urban centers, especially large urban centers in developed nations, can drive
biogeochemical cycles on a global scale.
Urban environment as an anthropogenic biome
The urban environment has been classified as an anthropogenic biome, which is characterized by the predominance of certain
species and climate trends such as urban heat island across many urban areas. Examples of species characteristic of many urban
environments include, cats, dogs, mosquitoes, rats, flies, and pigeons, which are all generalists. Many of these are dependent on
human activity and have adapted accordingly to the niche created by urban centers.
Biodiversity and urbanization
Species responses to the urban setting
Research thus far indicates that many species exhibit common trends of increased abundance and decreased diversity with
increasing urbanization. These effects have been observed in plant, spider, ant, and bird species. Urban areas thus appear to be
exerting a strong homogenizing effect on local species. This effect may stem from the homogeneity of the urban setting as
designed by humans. The abundance and diversity of species thus reflects characteristics of the urban setting, indicating a low
degree of diversity, which ultimately favors the success of generalists.
Urban stream syndrome is a consistently observed trait of urbanization characterized by high nutrient and contaminant
concentration, altered stream morphology, increased dominance of dominant species, and decreased biodiversity. The two
primary causes of urban stream syndrome are storm water runoff and wastewater treatment plant effluent.
Edge effect and habitat corridors and fragmentation
Species diversity has been found to peak in fringe regions between urban and rural areas. Human activity to a certain point does
appear to increase local diversity in these edge areas, but high degrees of urbanization exert the aforementioned homogenizing
effect, sharply lowering species diversity because of uniform habitat structures. Just as with increasing urbanization and
increasing abundance but decreasing biodiversity, trends indicating high degrees of biodiversity were observed in ants, spiders,
and birds.

Fragmentation of park land by urban highways in Indiana

Landscape fragmentation and habitat loss in the urban environment is caused mainly by urban development. Since habitat
fragmentation is the subdivision of a large area of habitat into smaller isolated patches, fragmentation is thought to have severe
effects on the genetic structure of populations through population bottlenecks followed by erosion of genetic diversity, which
results in fitness reduction and the inability of a population to respond to environmental changes. Fragmentation causes habitats
suited for a particular species to become separated by distances sufficient to prevent migration among populations by
inhospitable terrain, such as roads, neighborhoods, and open parks, for said species. There have been many studies examining
the effects of fragmentation in amphibians, particularly the eastern red-backed salamander. Nol et al found low genetic
diversity in urban fragments of Montral, Canada, which threaten the long-term survival of the populations of red-back
salamanders, especially in the light of continued residential and commercial development projects and habitat degradation.
Some efforts have been proposed to establish species corridors, continuous or near-continuous segments of habitat through
urban and surrounding areas to minimize the disturbances imposed on ecosystems by urban stress and fragmentation. The I-90
Snoqualmie Pass Wildlife Corridor Project in Washington is one example of efforts to connect habitats separated by highways.
Civil engineering and sustainability in the urban environment
Cities should be planned and constructed in such a way that minimizes the urban effects on the surrounding environment (urban
heat island, precipitation, etc.) as well as optimizing ecological activity. For example, increasing the albedo, or reflective power,
of surfaces in urban areas, can minimize urban heat island, resulting in a lower magnitude of the urban heat island effect in
urban areas. By minimizing these abnormal temperature trends and others, ecological activity would likely be improved in the
urban setting.
Need for remediation
Urbanization has indeed had a profound effect on the environment, on both local and global scales. Difficulties in actively
constructing habitat corridor and returning biogeochemical cycles to normal raise the question as to whether such goals are
feasible. However, some groups are working to return areas of land affected by the urban landscape to a more natural state. This
includes using landscape architecture to model natural systems and restore rivers to pre-urban states.
Sustainability
Pipes carrying biogas produced by anaerobic digestion or fermentation of biodegradable materials as a form of carbon
sequestration .With the ever-increasing demands for resources necessitated by urbanization, recent campaigns to move toward
sustainable energy and resource consumption, such as LEED certification of buildings, Energy Star certified appliances,
and zero emission vehicles, have gained momentum. Sustainability reflects techniques and consumption ensuring reasonably
low resource use as a component of urban ecology. Techniques such as carbon recapture may also be used to sequester carbon
compounds produced in urban centers rather continually emitting more of the greenhouse gas.
Summary
Urbanization results in a series of both local and far-reaching effects on biodiversity, biogeochemical cycles, hydrology, and
climate, among many other stresses. Many of these effects are not fully understood, as urban ecology has only recently emerged
as a scientific discipline and much more research remains to be done. Observations on the impact of urbanization on
biodiversity and species interactions are consistent across many studies but definitive mechanisms have yet to be established.
Urban ecology constitutes an important and highly relevant subfield of ecology, and further study must be pursued to more fully
understand the effects of human urban areas on the environment.
ENVIRONMENTAL DISASTER
An environmental disaster is a disaster to the natural environment due to human activity, which
distinguishes it from the concept of a natural disaster. It is also distinct from intentional acts of war
such as nuclear bombing.
Environmental disasters can have an effect on agriculture, biodiversity, the economy and human
health. The causes include pollution, depletion of natural resources, industrial activity or
agriculture.
History

In this case, the impact of humans' alteration of the ecosystem has led to widespread and/or longlasting consequences. It can include the deaths of animals (including humans) and plants, or
severe disruption of human life, possibly requiring migration.
List of Environmental Disaster
This page is a list of environmental disasters. In this context it is an annotated list of specific
events caused by human activity that results in a negative effect on the environment.
Agricultural

Salinity in Australia

Salinization of the Fertile Crescent

The Dust Bowl in Canada and the United States (19341939)

The Great sparrow campaign; sparrows were eliminated from Chinese farms, which caused locusts to swarm the
farms and contributed to a famine which killed 38 million people.

Africanized bees, known colloquially as "killer bees"

Mismanagement of the Aral Sea

"Dirty dairying" in New Zealand

Biodiversity

Extinction of American megafauna

Extinction of Australian megafauna

Deforestation of Easter Island

Destruction of the old growth forests

Rabbits in Australia

Red imported fire ants

Dutch Elm Disease

Devil facial tumour disease

Reduction in the number of the American Bison

Introduction of the Nile perch into Lake Victoria in Africa, decimating indigenous fish species

The Saemangeum Seawall

Emerald Ash Borer

Environmental threats to the Great Barrier Reef

2006 Zakouma elephant slaughter

Invasive species in New Zealand

The loss of Biodiversity of New Zealand

Ghost nets

Grounding of SS Makambo on Lord Howe Island

Shark finning

Decline of vultures in India due to Diclofenac leading to increased incidence of rabies

Extinction of the Tasmanian Tiger

Human health

Introduction of the Bubonic Plague (the Plague of Justinian) in Europe from Africa in the 7th century resulting in the death
of up to 60% (100 million) of the population.

Introduction of the Bubonic Plague (the Black Death) in Europe from Central Asia in the 14th century resulting in
the death of up to 60% (200 million) of the population and recurring until the 18th century.

Introduction of infectious diseases by Europeans causing the death of indigenous people duringEuropean
colonization of the Americas

Health effects arising from the September 11 attacks

Goinia accident, human deaths resulting from dismantling a scrapped medical machine containing a source of
radioactivity
Mining
Phosphate mining in Nauru
Phosphate mining in St. Pierre Island
Coal mining

Martin County sludge spill

Tennessee coal sludge spill

Mountaintop removal mining

Oil industry

Environmental issues in the Niger Delta relating to the oil industry

Lago Agrio oil field issues

Exxon Valdez oil spill

Arctic Refuge drilling controversy

Deepwater Horizon oil spill

Sidoarjo mud flow triggered by Lapindo Brantas gas exploration in 2006; East Java, Indonesia

Leaded gasoline introduced 1920s; phased out globally by 2012.

Nuclear

Mushroom-shaped cloud and water column from the underwater nuclear explosion of July 25, 1946, which was part
of Operation Crossroads.
November 1951 nuclear test at the Nevada, from Operation Buster, with a yield of 21 kilotons. It was the first U.S. nuclear
field exercise conducted on land; troops shown are 6 mi (9.7 km) from the blast.

Chernobyl disaster in 1986 in Chernobyl, Ukraine, "killed at least 4056 people and damaged almost $7 billion of
property". Radioactive fallout from the accident concentrated near Belarus, Ukraine and Russia and at least 350,000 people
were forcibly resettled away from these areas. After the accident, "traces of radioactive deposits unique to Chernobyl were
found in nearly every country in the northern hemisphere".

Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster: Following an earthquake, tsunami, and failure of cooling systems at Fukushima
I Nuclear Power Plant and issues concerning other nuclear facilities in Japan on March 11, 2011, a nuclear emergency was
declared. This was the first time a nuclear emergency had been declared in Japan, and 140,000 residents within 20 km of the
plant were evacuated. Explosions and a fire have resulted in dangerous levels of radiation, sparking a stock market collapse
and panic-buying in supermarkets.

Mayak nuclear waste storage tank explosion, (Chelyabinsk, Soviet Union, 29 September 1957), 200+ people died
and 270,000 people were exposed to dangerous radiation levels. Over thirty small communities had been removed from
Soviet maps between 1958 and 1991.

Windscale fire, United Kingdom, October 8, 1957. Fire ignites plutonium piles and contaminates surrounding dairy
farms.

Soviet submarine K-431 accident, August 10, 1985 (10 people died and 49 suffered radiation injuries).

Soviet submarine K-19 accident, July 4, 1961. (8 deaths and more than 30 people were over-exposed to radiation) ..

Nuclear testing at Moruroa and Fangataufa in the Pacific Ocean

Fallout from the Castle Bravo nuclear test at Bikini Atoll in the Marshall Islands

The health of Downwinders

Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki Within the first two to four months of the bombings, the acute effects
killed 90,000166,000 people in Hiroshima and 60,00080,000 in Nagasaki, with roughly half of the deaths in each city
occurring on the first day.
Air/land/water
Air

The Donora Smog of 1948 in Donora, Pennsylvania in the United States

The Great Smog of 1952, which killed 4,000 Londoners

The 1983 Melbourne dust storm

The 1997 Southeast Asian haze

The 2005 Malaysian haze

The 2006 Southeast Asian haze

Yokkaichi asthma in Japan

Health problems due to the Jinkanpo Atsugi Incinerator in Japan

Kuwaiti oil fires

Land

Basin F, a disposal site in the United States for contaminated liquid wastes from the chemical manufacturing
operations of the Army and its lessee Shell Chemical Company

2006 Cte d'Ivoire toxic waste dump

Water
Freshwater

Sandoz chemical spill, severely polluting the Rhine in 1986

Selenium poisoning of wildlife due to farm runoff used to create Kesterson National Wildlife Refuge, and the
artificial wetland

The Jiyeh Power Station oil spill in the Mediterranean region

Effects of polluted water in the Berkeley Pit in the United States

Ignition and conflagration (13 times from 1868 to 1969) of the Cuyahoga River in Ohio, United States

Cheakamus River derailment which polluted a river with caustic soda

Draining and development of the Everglades

Loss of Louisiana Wetlands due to Mississippi River levees, saltwater intrusion through manmade channels, timber
harvesting, subsidence, and hurricane damage.
Marine

Coral bleaching
Gulf of Mexico Dead Zone due to high-nutrient fertilizer runoff from the Midwest that is drained through the
Mississippi River.
The artificial Osborne Reef off the coast of Fort Lauderdale, Florida in the United States
Dumping of conventional and chemical munitions in Beaufort's Dyke, a sea trench between Northern Ireland and
Scotland

Marine debris

Environmental threats to the Great Barrier Reef

Nurdles, plastic pellet typically under 5mm in diameter

Friendly Floatees

The Great Pacific Garbage Patch

Minamata disease, mercury poisoning in Japan

Mercury in fish

Ocean acidification due to anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions

Consumerism vs Survival ( artice available at http://devon.freepgs.com/2006/08/burning-oil-night-and-day.php)

At the NASA Visible Earth website I found this public domain satellite image of Europe and North Africa taken at night. It
made me think about how much energy is being used keeping towns and cities lit up at night. The original image was much
too large to fit the width of this column, so I created a smaller version.
Every single day of the year, towns and cities are using nuclear energy or oil to generate electricity. Already, major oil
companies have stopped large expenditures on exploration because no more reserves exist which can be extracted
economically. Ten out twelve oil industry analysts expect the peaking of world oil production to occur sometime between
now and 2020 (see a chart of the reports).
How many alternative fuels are available for powering motor vehicles? All alternative power systems for motor vehicles
rely ultimately on electricity, alternative gases or biodiesel. Methane and ethanol are viable, but they don't produce as much
power as gasoline or hydrogen. I haven't heard of solar cells being used successfully for large scale energy production, but
electricity can be produced from wind or hydro-electric sources. The United States Navy is conducting a research
program to generate electricity from the Gulf Stream near the coast of Florida.
So far, established methods for producing hydrogen as an energy source require expensive technology. In a report on an
exhibition of new environmental technologies, Globe 2004, the Environment News Service said:
"...there are technologies that governments and multinationals are boosting, such as hydrogen, which is not the most
efficient and cheapest technology but fits nicely into oil and gas companies' strategic plans..."
Destruction of forests & soil erosion
The fact that oil production will decline during the the first quarter of this century is not the only environmental problem
facing the world. Much has been written about the destruction of rainforests, but deforestation has been taking place in
Europe and North America for centuries. An image similar to the one below was available at one time on the website of
Caltech's Division of Geological and Planetary Sciences, showing the deforestation of America. This version shows the
region which became known as The Dust Bowl (see photos) in the 1930's.
The dust bowl covered farming areas in Colorado, Kansas, north west Oklahoma, north Texas and north east New Mexico.
Aggravated by the worst drought in US history, the dust bowl lasted for almost a decade. In 1935, the federal government
set up the Soil Conservation Service to promote appropriate land management strategies.
Another large-scale environmental disaster has occurred in what was the former Soviet Union. In the 1930s, rivers flowing
into the Aral Sea were partially diverted to irrigate agricultural land. As a consequence, the Aral Sea had shrunk to a quarter
of its former size by the end of the century. The fish died as it became more saline, ending the fishing industry that once
thrived. As the sea bed became exposed to the sun and wind, salts and toxic chemicals were blown as dust into nearby
towns, resulting in a dramatic increase in respiratory diseases.
Biodiversity crisis
In addition to five mass extinctions in the distant past the world is currently undergoing a sixth mass extinction. Most people
are aware by now that many animal species are close to becoming extinct, but few seem to realize how severe
the biodiversity crisis has become. This one has been caused by human activities. Research at the University of Florida
indicates that during the last Ice Age giant creatures were wiped out not by the change in climate, but by hunters.
Consumerism is anti-survival
Many people believe commercial competition will provide the stimulus to find answers for pressing environmental
problems. Unfortunately, at the same time, the market economy will keep on promoting a materialistic consumer lifestyle.
Until that changes, corporate greed is likely to undermine the best efforts of enlightened environmentalists.

In 2004, a documentary film, The Corporation, made the case that the operational principles of global corporations give
them a 'personality' which corresponds to "anti-social personality disorder" according to standard psychiatric diagnostic
criteria.
Population explosion
Most people are aware of the population explosion currently underway. If deserts expand due to global warming, a likely
scenario is that powerful nations will invade and purge weaker nations to steal fertile land. On the other hand, plants might
thrive with more greenhouse gasses and a warmer climate. However, rising sea levels will gradually reduce the land area
available for human habitation. The worst case scenario will involve famine and resource wars before the end of this
century.
Diamond identifies five factors that contribute to collapse: climate change, hostile neighbours, collapse of essential trading
partners, environmental problems, and failure to adapt to environmental issues.
He also lists 12 environmental problems facing humankind today. The first eight have historically contributed to the
collapse of past societies:
1.

Deforestation and habitat destruction

2.

Soil problems (erosion, salinization, and soil fertility losses)

3.

Water management problems

4.

Overhunting

5.

Overfishing

6.

Effects of introduced species on native species

7.

Overpopulation

8.

Increased per-capita impact of people

Further, he says four new factors may contribute to the weakening and collapse of present and future societies:

1.

Anthropogenic climate change

2.

Build-up of toxins in the environment

3.

Energy shortages

4.

Full human use of the Earths photosynthetic capacity

Diamond also writes about cultural factors, such as the apparent reluctance of the Greenland Norse to eat fish.
Diamond says Easter Island provides the best historical example of a societal collapse in isolation.
The root problem in all but one of Diamond's factors leading to collapse is overpopulation relative to the practicable (as
opposed to the ideal theoretical) carrying capacity of the environment. The one factor not related to overpopulation is the
harmful effect of accidentally or intentionally introducing non-native species to a region.
Diamond also states that "it would be absurd to claim that environmental damage must be a major factor in all collapses: the
collapse of the Soviet Union is a modern counter-example, and the destruction of Carthage by Rome in 146 BC is an ancient
one. It's obviously true that military or economic factors alone may suffice".
ENERGY PLANNING IN URBAN SETTLEMENTS
A settlement is a general term used in archaeology, geography, landscape history and other subjects for a permanent or
temporary community in which people live, without being specific as to size, population or importance. A settlement can

therefore range in size from a small number of dwellings grouped together to the largest of cities with surrounding
urbanized areas.
Environmental challenges
It is predicted that with urbanization, climate change will negatively affect access to water and that hundreds of millions of
people will be vulnerable to coastal flooding and related natural disasters as global warming increases. The poorest
countries and people will be the most vulnerable to this threat and who will suffer the earliest and the most.
The dependence on oil of urban settlements is also a major environmental concern. Sprawling and low-density settlements
prove to encourage the use of fossil fuel compared to high-density communities. Vehicle emissions contribute significantly
to greenhouse gas emissions and hence global warming. One of the most significant environmental challenges at present is
climate change. It is predicted that, within cities, climate change will negatively affect access to water and that hundreds of
millions of people will be vulnerable to coastal flooding and related natural disasters as global warming increases.
Moreover, it will be the poorest countries and people who will be most vulnerable to this threat and who will suffer the
earliest and the most. High urban land and housing costs currently are pushing the lowest-income people into locations that
are prone to natural hazards, such that four out of every ten non-permanent houses in the developing world are now located
in areas threatened by floods, landslides and other natural disasters, especially in slums and informal settlements.
Significantly, such disasters are only partly a result of natural forces they are also products of failed urban development
and planning. A second major concern is the environmental impact of fossil fuel use in urban areas, especially of oil, and its
likely long-term increase in cost. The global use of oil as an energy source has both promoted and permitted urbanization,
and its easy availability has allowed the emergence of low-density and sprawling urban forms suburbia dependent on
private cars. Beyond this, however, the entire global economy rests on the possibility of moving both people and goods
quickly, cheaply and over long distances. An oil-based economy and climate change are linked: vehicle emissions contribute
significantly to greenhouse gas emissions and hence global warming. Responding to a presents whole range of new
imperatives for urban planning, especially in terms of settlement density and transportation.
For the more prosperous cities, the urban challenges lie in the growing pressures on resources such as land, water and
energy, coupled with growing consumption demands and waste generation. Poorer cities may continue to grapple with basic
development issues of environmental degradation, inadequate housing and sanitation, aging infrastructure, lack of access to
basic amenities, marginalization of the disadvantaged and other forms of exclusion.
Planners and policy makers need new and enlarged tool kits to deal with the multi-dimensionality and complexity of the
issues. Advanced urban solutions have to be sought, and three areas appear to be appropriate starting points:
First, harnessing technological development. The traditional analytical and creative fields of urban planning and design have
to be complemented with technological inputs from science, engineering and information technology. Bring forth new
breakthroughs to address the many challenges in the areas of transport planning, waste management, energy systems and
advanced building construction methods. As we can see, tackling the problem of cars can be thorny if you want to keep a
city vibrant, effective and green.
Second, with the threat of resource constraints, particularly in energy, land and water, a pressing concern is to underpin all
city planning processes with resource conservation, optimization and recycling approaches. Fundamentally, closed loop
processes must be advocated to minimize waste and raw material inputs. In land development, more compact city forms
with a focus on urban revitalization, Brownfield regeneration and creative in fills should take precedence over urban
development on green field sites.
The third and perhaps the most critical urban challenge is to address the social divide to ensure that all residents have access
to the benefits of urban development. Cities are the vehicles to promote social change and a better quality of life. Housing
affordability and access to urban amenities are potentially the greatest social levelers. Ultimately, cities are powered by
people, and the primary aim should always be to build human-centred, sustainable communities for all.
Some simplified parameters to assess the energy efficiency of urban settlement configurations
As future with a very probable energy shortage, the urban settlement patterns must become far more energy efficient than
they are at present. This will require new planning, zoning, taxing, and financing policies and practices. For such policies
and practices to be successful, however, there must be methods for identifying and characterizing the energy needs of urban
settlement configurations. This defines and develops some parameters which act as measures of the minimal energy
consumption requirements of urban settlement configurations. The specific parameters are for the thermal quality of
buildings resulting from their size and shape, for some residential land-use intensities, for service-center and access
distances, and for public transportation viability as functions of dwelling-unit density. Values of these parameters are

calculated for several settlement configurations, specifically for detached single-family units sited on quarter acre lots, and
for several multistory multifamily configurations.

Urban Energy Management

The convergence in energy can be exploited not only at the entry level but also in service level. The junction of gas,
electricity and other sources may be possible as follows:
technical union: the use of gas as a fuel in power Generation
trading union: arbitrage and trading in gas and electricity commodities
Retail union: the joint marketing of gas and electricity, and possibly other utilities, to consumers.
Promoting Energy Conservation
Conservation saves energy and cuts cost. Energy conservation can be done at various levels of conversion, transmission and
distribution, usage patterns, and habits of inhabitants. The present practice of charging higher unit price for higher
consumption of electricity, by itself, did not have the desired effect.
Specific focus on urban settlements include the following:

Integrated approaches to urban systems and their environments

New housing types, materials, and production methods, with an emphasis on housing for limited-income
populations
Energy systems for densely populated settlements
Waste treatment, reuse and disposal
Disease surveillance and control and improved health care services
Environmental quality, with reference to water, soil, and air.
Information and communication technologies, including geographical information systems
Improved public and private transportation
Monitoring, maintenance and evolution of physical infrastructure, including improved prediction and mitigation of
natural disasters.
Human behavior and adaptability to urbanization--issues of urban crime and other social stresses.
Regulate commercial building standards with a view to enforcing green building construction practices.
Improving living quality in slum and deteriorated areas, informal neighborhoods, and squatter settlements.
Encourage and develop water-sensitive urban design as a means of capturing water within the urban landscape and
minimising pollution, erosion and disturbance by ensuring that storm water is treated as a valuable water resource and not
simply discharged to rivers or the sea.
Support the development of energy efficiency and renewable energy plans for cities and towns and support their
implementation.
ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION
is a collective term describing international treaties (conventions), statutes, regulations, and common law or national
legislation (where applicable) that operates to regulate the interaction of humanity and the natural environment, toward the
purpose of reducing the impacts of human activity.
The topic may be divided into two major subjects: pollution control and remediation, and resource conservation, individual
exhaustion. The limitations and expenses that such laws may impose on commerce, and the often unquantifiable (nonmonetized) benefit of environmental protection, have generated and continue to generate significant controversy.
Given the broad scope of environmental law, no fully definitive list of environmental laws is possible. The following
discussion and resources give an indication of the breadth of law that falls within the "environmental" metric.
HISTORY
Pure water has been an issue in many antique societies and therefore one can admittedly argue that the first legal rules on
environmental issues are pretty old - they are clearly originating from Roman law rules and were also applied in the Middle
Ages in Europe. While it is possible to identify early legal structures that would today fall into the "environmental" law
metric - for example the common law recognition of private and public rights to protect interests in land, such as nuisance,
or post-industrial revolution human health protections - the concept of "environmental law" as a separate and distinct body
of law is a 20th Century development. The recognition that the natural environment was fragile and in need of special legal

protections, the translation of that recognition into legal structures, and the development of those structures into a larger
body of "environmental law" did not occur until about the 1960s. At that time, numerous influences - including a growing
awareness of the unity and fragility of the biosphere following mankind's first steps into outer space (see, for example,
the Blue Marble), increased public concern over the impact of industrial activity on natural resources and human health (see,
for example, the 1969 Cuyahoga River fire), the increasing strength of the regulatory state, and more broadly the advent and
success of environmentalism as a political movement - coalesced to produce a huge new body of law in a relatively short
period of time. While the modern history of environmental law is one of continuing controversy, by the end of the 20th
Century, environmental law had been established as a component of the legal landscape in all developed nations of the
world, many developing ones, and the larger project of international law.
CONTROVERSY
Environmental law is often the source of controversy. Notably, the early history of national environmental regulation in the
United States (at the time the world leader in environmental regulation) was marked by relative political unity. The National
Environmental Policy Act (1969), the Clean Air Act (1970), the Clean Water Act (1972), and the Endangered Species
Act (1973) all were enacted with broad bipartisan support, and ultimately signed into law by Republican President Richard
Nixon. Even then, however, critics raised concerns regarding the need for such laws and the costs involved in implementing
them. Richard Nixon himself initially vetoed the Clean Water Act, citing its projected costs, though he was ultimately
overridden by Congress. Debates over the necessity, fairness, cost, and need for environmental regulation continue to this
day.
NECESSITY
The necessity of directly regulating a particular activity due to the activity's environmental consequences is often a subject
of debate. These debates may be scientific. For example, scientific uncertainty fuels the ongoing debate over greenhouse gas
regulation and is a major factor in the debate over whether to ban pesticides.
COST
It is very common for regulated industry to argue against environmental regulation on the basis of cost. Indeed, in the U.S.
estimates of the environmental regulation's total costs reach 2% of GDP, and any new regulation will arguably contribute in
some way to that burden. Difficulties arise, however, in performing cost-benefit analysis. The value of a healthy ecosystem
is not easily quantified, nor the value of clean air, species diversity, etc. Furthermore environmental issues may gain
an ethical or moral dimension that would discount cost.
EFFECTIVENESS
Environmental interests will often criticize environmental regulation as inadequately protective of the environment.
Furthermore, strong environmental laws do not guarantee strong enforcement. Nonetheless; the cost benefit analysis for
society at large, between having laws that protect citizens from toxic or dangerous living and work conditions (such as those
that existed in the early industrial 1900's) clearly comes down on the side of regulation.
ENVIRONMENTAL LAW BY COUNTRY
AFRICA
According to the International Network for Environmental Compliance and Enforcement (INECE), the major environmental
issues in Africa are drought and flooding, air pollution, deforestation, loss of biodiversity, freshwater availability,
degradation of soil and vegetation, and widespread poverty. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is focused
on the growing urban and industrial pollution, water quality, electronic waste and indoor air from cook stoves. They hope
to provide enough aid on concerns regarding pollution before their impacts are contaminate the African environment as well
as the global environment. By doing so, they intend to protect human health, particularly vulnerable populations such as
children and the poor. In order to accomplish these goals in Africa, EPA programs are focus on strengthening the ability to
enforce environmental laws as well as public compliance to them. Other programs work on developing stronger
environmental laws, regulations, and standards.
EGYPT

The Environmental Protection Law outlines the responsibilities of the Egyptian government to preparation of draft
legislation and decrees pertinent to environmental management, collection of data both nationally and internationally on the
state of the environment, preparation of periodical reports and studies on the state of the environment, formulation of the
national plan and its projects, preparation of environmental profiles for new and urban areas, and setting of standards to be
used in planning for their development, and preparation of an annual report on the state of the environment to be prepared to
the President.
BRAZIL
The Brazilian government created the Ministry of Environment in 1992 in order to develop better strategies of protecting the
environment, use natural resources sustainably, and enforce public environmental policies. The Ministry of Environment has
authority over policies involving environment, water resources, preservation, and environmental programs involving the
Amazon.
CANADA
The Department of the Environment Act establishes the Department of the Environment in the Canadian government as
well as the position Minister of the Environment. Their duties include the preservation and enhancement of the quality of
the natural environment, including water, air and soil quality; renewable resources, including migratory birds and other nondomestic flora and fauna; water; meteorology;" The Environmental Protection Act is the main piece of Canadian
environmental legislation that was put into place March 31, 2000. The Act focuses on respecting pollution prevention and
the protection of the environment and human health in order to contribute to sustainable development." Other principle
federal statutes include the Canadian Environmental Assessment Act, and the Species at Risk Act. When provincial and
federal legislation are in conflict federal legislation takes precedence, that being said individual provinces can have their
own legislation such as Ontario's Environmental Bill of Rights, and Clean Water Act.
ECUADOR
With the enactment of the 2008 Constitution, Ecuador became the first country in the world to codify the Rights of Nature.
The Constitution, specifically Articles 10 and 71-74, recognizes the inalienable rights of ecosystems to exist and flourish,
gives people the authority to petition on the behalf of ecosystems, and requires the government to remedy violations of these
rights. The rights approach is a break away from traditional environmental regulatory systems, which regard nature as
property and legalize and manage degradation of the environment rather than prevent it.
The influence of indigenous groups, from whom the concept of "Buen Vivir" originates, in the forming of the constitutional
ideals also facilitated the incorporation of the Rights of Nature as a basic tenet of their culture and conceptualization of
"Buen Vivir.
UNITED STATES
Considered in terms of historical precedence and worldwide emulation, the United States has been a world leader in the
development and implementation of environmental law. While subject to criticism at home and abroad on issues of
protection, enforcement, over-regulation, and imposition of externalities, the country remains an important source of
environmental legal expertise and experience.

FEDERAL REGULATION
Consistent with the federal statutes that they administer, U.S. federal agencies promulgate regulations in the Code of Federal
Regulations that fill out the broad programs enacted by Congress. Primary among these is Title 40 of the Code of Federal
Regulations, containing the regulations of the Environmental Protection Agency. Other import CFR sections include Title
10 (energy), Title 18 (Conservation of Power and Water Resources), Title 21 (Food and Drugs), Title 33 (Navigable Waters),
Title 36 (Parks, Forests and Public Property), Title 43 (Public Lands: Interior) and Title 50 (Wildlife and Fisheries)
JUDICIAL DECISIONS

The federal and state judiciaries have played an important role in the development of environmental law in the United
States, in many cases resolving significant controversy regarding the application of federal environmental laws in favor of
environmental interests. The decisions of the Supreme Court in cases such as Calvert Cliffs Coordinating Committee v. U.S.
Atomic Energy Commission (broadly reading the procedural requirements of the National Environmental Policy
Act), Tennessee Valley Authority v. Hill (broadly reading the Endangered Species Act), and, much more
recently, Massachusetts v. EPA (requiring EPA to reconsider regulation of greenhouse gases under the Clean Air Act) have
had policy impacts far beyond the facts of the particular case.
COMMON LAW
The common law of tort is an important tool for the resolution of environmental disputes that fall beyond the confines of
regulated activity. Prior to the modern proliferation of environmental regulation, the doctrines of nuisance (public or
private), trespass, negligence, and strict liability apportioned harm and assigned liability for activities that today would be
considered pollution and likely governed by regulatory regimes. These doctrines remain relevant, and most recently have
been used by plaintiffs seeking to impose liability for the consequences of global climate change.
The common law also continues to play a leading role in American water law, in the doctrines of riparian rights and prior
appropriation.
ADMINISTRATION
In the United States, responsibilities for the administration of environmental laws are divided between numerous federal and state
agencies with varying, overlapping and sometimes conflicting missions. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is the most
well-known federal agency, with jurisdiction over many of the country's national air, water and waste and hazardous substance
programs. Other federal agencies, such as the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and National Park Service pursue primarily conservation
missions, while still others, such as theUnited States Forest Service and the Bureau of Land Management, tend to focus more on
beneficial use of natural resources.
Federal agencies operate within the limits of federal jurisdiction. For example, EPA's jurisdiction under the Clean Water Act is limited to
"waters of the United States". Furthermore in many cases federal laws allow for more stringent regulation by states, and of transfer of
certain federally mandated responsibilities from federal to state control. U.S. state governments, therefore, administering state law
adopted under state police powers or federal law by delegation, uniformly include environmental agencies.The extent to which state
environmental laws are based on or depart from federal law varies from jurisdiction to jurisdiction.
ENFORCEMENT
In the United States, violations of environmental laws are generally civil offenses, resulting in monetary penalties and, perhaps, civil
sanctions such as injunction. Many environmental laws also provide for criminal penalties for egregious violations. Environmental
agencies often include separate enforcement offices, with duties including monitoring permitted activities, performing compliance
inspections, issuing citations and prosecuting wrongdoing (civilly or criminally, depending on the violation). EPA's Office of
Enforcement and Compliance Assurance is one such agency. Others, such as the United States Park Police, carry out more traditional
law enforcement activities.
Other environmental law enforcement agencies include:

Fora Verde, a branch of the Brazilian Armed Forces which was established decades ago to protect against environmental
crimes.

Green Police, an environmental task force in New Jersey.

Veteran Environmental Patrol of Israel started fielding uniformed officers in 2001.

EDUCATION AND TRAINING
Environmental law courses are offered as elective courses in the second and third years of JD study at many American law schools.
Curricula
vary:
an
introductory
course
might
focus
on
the
"big
five"
federal
statutes
NEPA, CAA, CWA, CERCLA and RCRA (or FIFRA)and may be offered in conjunction with a natural resources law course
ASIA

The Asian Environmental Compliance and Enforcement Network (AECEN) is an agreement between 16 Asian countries dedicated to
improving cooperation with environmental laws in Asia. These countries include Cambodia, China, Indonesia, India, Maldives, Japan,
Korea, Malaysia, Nepal, Philippines, Pakistan, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam, and Lao PDR.
CHINA
According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "China has been working with great determination in recent years to develop,
implement, and enforce a solid environmental law framework. Chinese officials face critical challenges in effectively implementing the
laws, clarifying the roles of their national and provincial governments, and strengthening the operation of their legal system."Explosive
economic and industrial growth in China has led to significant environmental degradation, and China is currently in the process of
developing more stringent legal controls.The harmonization of Chinese society and the natural environment is billed as one of the
country's top national priorities.
JAPAN
The Basic Environmental Law is the basic structure of Japans environmental policies replacing the Basic Law for Environmental
Pollution Control and the Nature Conservation Law. The updated law aims to address global environmental problems, urban pollution
by everyday life, loss of accessible natural environment in urban areas and degrading environmental protection capacity in forests and
farmlands.
The three basic environmental principles that the Basic Environmental Law follows are the blessings of the environment should be
enjoyed by the present generation and succeeded to the future generations, a sustainable society should be created where environmental
loads by human activities are minimized, and Japan should contribute actively to global environmental conservation through
international cooperation
MIDDLE EAST
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency is working with countries in the Middle East to improve environmental governance, water
pollution and water security, clean fuels and vehicles, public participation, and pollution prevention.
EUROPEAN UNION
The European Union issues secondary legislation on environmental issues that are valid throughout the EU (so called regulations) and
many directives that must be implemented into national legislation from the 27 member states (national states). Examples are the
Regulation (EC) No. 338/97 on the implementation of CITES or the Directive 92/43/EEC on Fauna-Flora-Habitat. EU legislation is
ruled in Article 249 Treaty for the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU). Topics for common EU legislation are:

Climate change

Air pollution

Water protection and management

Waste management

Soil protection

Protection of nature, species and biodiversity

Noise pollution

Cooperation for the environment with third countries (other than EU member states)

Civil protection
RUSSIA
The Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment of the Russian Federation makes regulation regarding conservation of natural
resources, including the subsoil, water bodies, forests located in designated conservation areas, fauna and their habitat, in the field of

hunting, hydrometeorology and related areas, environmental monitoring and pollution control, including radiation monitoring and
control, and functions of public environmental policy making and implementation and statutory regulation."
AUSTRALIA
The Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 is the center piece of environmental legislation in the Australian
Government. It sets up the legal framework to protect and manage nationally and internationally important flora, fauna, ecological
communities and heritage places. It also focuses on protecting world heritage properties, national heritage properties, wetlands of
international importance, nationally threatened species and ecological communities, migratory species, Commonwealth marine
areas, Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, and the environment surrounding nuclear activities.
NEW ZEALAND
The Ministry for the Environment and Office of the Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment were established by
the Environment Act 1986. These positions are responsible for advising the Minister on all areas of environmental legislation. A
common theme of New Zealands environmental legislation is sustainably managing natural and physical resources, fisheries, and
forests. The Resource Management Act 1991 is the main piece of environmental legislation that outlines the governments strategy to
managing the environment, including air, water soil, biodiversity, the coastal environment, noise, subdivision, and land use planning in
general.
ENVIRONMENTAL TREATIES
Pollution, scarce resources, wild animals and plants do not respect political boundaries, making treaties an important aspect of
environmental law. Numerous legally binding international agreements now encompass a wide variety of issue-areas, from terrestrial,
marine and atmospheric pollution through to wildlife and biodiversity protection.
While the bodies that proposed, argued, agreed upon and ultimately adopted existing international agreements vary according to each
agreement, certain conferences, including 1972's United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, 1983's World Commission on
Environment and Development, 1992's United Nations Conference on Environment and Development and 2002'sWorld Summit on
Sustainable Development have been particularly important.

ORGANIZING PRINCIPLES
International environmental law's development has included the statement and adoption of a
number of important guiding principles. As with all international law, international environmental
law brings up questions of sovereignty, legal reciprocity ("comity") and even perhaps the Golden
Rule. Other guiding principles include the polluter pays principle, the precautionary principle, the
principle of sustainable development, environmental procedural rights, common but differentiated
responsibilities, intergenerational and intergenerational equity, "common concern of humankind",
and common heritage.
SOURCES
Treaties, protocols, conventions, etc.
International environmental agreements are generally multilateral (or sometimes bilateral) treaties (a.k.a. convention,
agreement, protocol, etc.). The majority of such conventions deal directly with specific environmental issues. There are also
some general treaties with one or two clauses referring to environmental issues but these are rarer.There are about 1000
environmental law treaties in existence today; no other area of law has generated such a large body of conventions on a
specific topic.
Protocols are subsidiary agreements built from a primary treaty. They exist in many areas of international law but are
especially useful in the environmental field, where they may be used to regularly incorporate recent scientific knowledge.
They also permit countries to reach agreement on a framework that would be contentious if every detail were to be agreed
upon in advance. The most widely known protocol in international environmental law is the Kyoto Protocol, which followed
from the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.

Organizations, institutions, bodies, etc

Multilateral environmental agreements are sometimes creating an International Organization, Institution or Body that
implements the agreement. Major examples are the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna
and Flora (CITES) and the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN).
Customary international law
Customary international law is an important source of international environmental law. These are the norms and rules that
countries follow as a matter of custom and they are so prevalent that they bind all states in the world. When a principle
becomes customary law is not clear cut and many arguments are put forward by states not wishing to be bound. Examples of
customary international law relevant to the environment include the duty to warn other states promptly about icons of an
environmental nature and environmental damages to which another state or states may be exposed, and Principle 21 of the
Stockholm Declaration ('good neighborlinesss or sic utter).
International judicial decisions
International environmental law also includes the opinions of international courts and tribunals. While there are few and
they have limited authority, the decisions carry much weight with legal commentators and are quite influential on the
development of international environmental law. One of the biggest challenges in international decisions is to determine an
adequate compensation for environmental damages.
The courts include: the International Court of Justice (ICJ); the international Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (ITLOS);
the European Court of Justice; European Court of Human Rights and other regional treaty tribunals. Arguably the World
Trade Organizations Dispute Settlement Board (DSB) is getting a say on environmental law also.
Important cases have included:

Trail smelter arbitration, 33 AJIL (1939)

Nuclear weapons testing cases, such as between New Zealand and France before the International Court of Justice;

Gabcikovo-Nagymaros Dam Case, ICJ Rep (1997)

ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS OF INDIA
In the Constitution of India it is clearly stated that it is the duty of the state to protect and improve the environment and to
safeguard the forests and wildlife of the country. It imposes a duty on every citizen to protect and improve the natural
environment including forests, lakes, rivers, and wildlife. Reference to the environment has also been made in the Directive
Principles of State Policy as well as the Fundamental Rights. The Department of Environment was established in India in
1980 to ensure a healthy environment for the country. This later became the Ministry of Environment and Forests in 1985.
The constitutional provisions are backed by a number of laws acts, rules, and notifications. The EPA (Environment
Protection Act), 1986 came into force soon after the Bhopal Gas Tragedy and is considered an umbrella legislation as it fills
many gaps in the existing laws. Thereafter a large number of laws came into existence as the problems began arising, for
example, Handling and Management of Hazardous Waste Rules in 1989.
Following is a list of the environmental legislations that have come into effect:
General
Forest and wildlife
Water
Air
GENERAL

1986 - The Environment (Protection) Act authorizes the central government to protect and improve environmental quality,
control and reduce pollution from all sources, and prohibit or restrict the setting and /or operation of any industrial facility
on environmental grounds.
1986 - The Environment (Protection) Rules lay down procedures for setting standards of emission or discharge of
environmental pollutants.
1989 - The objective of Hazardous Waste (Management and Handling) Rules is to control the generation, collection,
treatment, import, storage, and handling of hazardous waste.
1989 - The Manufacture, Storage, and Import of Hazardous Rules define the terms used in this context, and sets up an
authority to inspect, once a year, the industrial activity connected with hazardous chemicals and isolated storage facilities.
1989 - The Manufacture, Use, Import, Export, and Storage of hazardous Micro-organisms/ Genetically Engineered
Organisms or Cells Rules were introduced with a view to protect the environment, nature, and health, in connection with
the application of gene technology and microorganisms.
1991 - The Public Liability Insurance Act and Rules and Amendment, 1992 was drawn up to provide for public liability
insurance for the purpose of providing immediate relief to the persons affected by accident while handling any hazardous
substance.
1995 - The National Environmental Tribunal Act has been created to award compensation for damages to persons,
property, and the environment arising from any activity involving hazardous substances.
1997 - The National Environment Appellate Authority Act has been created to hear appeals with respect to restrictions of
areas in which classes of industries etc. are carried out or prescribed subject to certain safeguards under the EPA.
1998 - The Biomedical waste (Management and Handling) Rules is a legal binding on the health care institutions to
streamline the process of proper handling of hospital waste such as segregation, disposal, collection, and treatment.
1999 - The Environment (Siting for Industrial Projects) Rules, 1999 lay down detailed provisions relating to areas to be
avoided for siting of industries, precautionary measures to be taken for site selecting as also the aspects of environmental
protection which should have been incorporated during the implementation of the industrial development projects.
2000 - The Municipal Solid Wastes (Management and Handling) Rules, 2000 apply to every municipal authority
responsible for the collection, segregation, storage, transportation, processing, and disposal of municipal solid wastes.
2000 - The Ozone Depleting Substances (Regulation and Control) Rules have been laid down for the regulation of
production
and
consumption
of
ozone
depleting
substances.
2001 - The Batteries (Management and Handling) Rules, 2001 rules shall apply to every manufacturer, importer, reconditioner, assembler, dealer, auctioneer, consumer, and bulk consumer involved in the manufacture, processing, sale,
purchase, and use of batteries or components so as to regulate and ensure the environmentally safe disposal of used
batteries.
2002
The
Noise
Pollution
(Regulation
and
Control)
(Amendment) Rules
lay
down
such terms and conditions as are necessary to reduce noise pollution, permit use of loud speakers or public address systems
during night hours (between 10:00 p.m. to 12:00 midnight) on or during any cultural or religious festive occasion
2002 - The Biological Diversity Act is an act to provide for the conservation of biological diversity, sustainable use of its
components, and fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the use of biological resources and knowledge
associated with it
FOREST AND WILDLIFE
1927 - The Indian Forest Act and Amendment, 1984, is one of the many surviving colonial statutes. It was enacted to
consolidate the law related to forest, the transit of forest produce, and the duty leviable on timber and other forest produce.

1972 - The Wildlife Protection Act, Rules 1973 and Amendment 1991 provides for the protection of birds and animals
and for all matters that are connected to it whether it be their habitat or the waterhole or the forests that sustain them.
1980 - The Forest (Conservation) Act and Rules, 1981, provides for the protection of and the conservation of the forests.
WATER
1882 - The Easement Act allows private rights to use a resource that is, groundwater, by viewing it as an attachment to the
land. It also states that all surface water belongs to the state and is a state property.
1897 - The Indian Fisheries Act establishes two sets of penal offences whereby the government can sue any person who
uses dynamite or other explosive substance in any way (whether coastal or inland) with intent to catch or destroy any fish or
poisonous fish in order to kill.
1956 - The River Boards Act enables the states to enroll the central government in setting up an Advisory River Board to
resolve issues in inter-state cooperation.
1970 - The Merchant Shipping Act aims to deal with waste arising from ships along the coastal areas within a specified
radius.
1974 - The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act establishes an institutional structure for preventing and
abating water pollution. It establishes standards for water quality and effluent. Polluting industries must seek permission to
discharge
waste
into
effluent
bodies.
The CPCB (Central Pollution Control Board) was constituted under this act.
1977 - The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act provides for the levy and collection of cess or fees on
water consuming industries and local authorities.
1978 - The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Rules contains the standard definitions and indicate the
kind of and location of meters that every consumer of water is required to affix.
1991 - The Coastal Regulation Zone Notification puts regulations on various activities, including construction, are
regulated. It gives some protection to the backwaters and estuaries.
AIR
1948 The Factories Act and Amendment in 1987 was the first to express concern for the working environment of the
workers. The amendment of 1987 has sharpened its environmental focus and expanded its application to hazardous
processes.
1981 - The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act provides for the control and abatement of air pollution. It
entrusts the power of enforcing this act to the CPCB .
1982 - The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Rules defines the procedures of the meetings of the Boards and the
powers entrusted to them.
1982 - The Atomic Energy Act deals with the radioactive waste.
1987 - The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Amendment Act empowers the central and state pollution control
boards to meet with grave emergencies of air pollution.
1988 - The Motor Vehicles Act states that all hazardous waste is to be properly packaged, labelled, and transported.
Water Pollution
Water covers over 70% of the Earths surface and is a very important resource for people and the environment. Water
pollution affects drinking water, rivers, lakes and oceans all over the world. This consequently harms human health and the
natural environment.

Clean and plentiful water provides the foundation for prosperous communities. We rely on clean water to survive, yet right
now we are heading towards a water crisis. Changing climate patterns are threatening lakes and rivers, and key sources that
we tap for drinking water are being overdrawn or tainted with pollution.
Water pollution can come from a number of different sources. If the pollution comes from a single source, such as an oil
spill, it is called point-source pollution. If the pollution comes from many sources, it is called nonpoint-source pollution.
Most types of pollution affect the immediate area surrounding the source. Sometimes the pollution may affect the
environment hundreds of miles away from the source, such as nuclear waste, this is called Trans boundary pollution.
Surface water pollution:
Surface waters are the natural water resources of the Earth. They are found on the exterior of the Earths crust and include:
Oceans, Rivers AND Lakes.
These waters can become polluted in a number of ways, and this is called surface water pollution.
Oxygen depleting:
Microorganisms that live in water feed on biodegradable substances. When too much biodegradable material is added to
water, the number of microorganisms increase and use up the available oxygen. This is called oxygen depletion.
When oxygen levels in the water are depleted, relatively harmless aerobic microorganisms die and anaerobic
microorganisms begin to thrive. Some anaerobic microorganisms are harmful to people, animals and the environment, as
they produce harmful toxins such as ammonia and sulphides.
Ground water pollution:
A lot of the Earths water is found underground in soil or under rock structures called aquifers. Humans often use aquifers
as a means to obtain drinking water, and build wells to access it. When this water becomes polluted it is called
groundwater pollution. Groundwater pollution is often caused by pesticide contamination from the soil, this can infect our
drinking water and cause huge problems.
Nutrients and their effects on water:

Nutrients are essential for plant growth and development. Many nutrients are found in wastewater and fertilisers, and these
can cause excess weed and algae growth if large concentrations end up in water.
This can contaminate drinking water and clog filters.
This can be damaging to other aquatic organisms as the algae use up the oxygen in the water, leaving none for
the surrounding marine life.
Micro-biological water pollution:
Microbiological water pollution is usually a natural form of water pollution caused by microorganisms.
Many types of microorganisms live in water and cause fish, land animals and humans to become ill. Microorganisms such
as: Bacteria, Viruses & Protozoa
Serious diseases such as cholera come from microorganisms that live in water. These diseases usually affect the health of
people in poorer countries, as they do not have the facilities to treat polluted water.
Suspended matter:
Some pollutants do not dissolve in water as their molecules are too big to mix between the water molecules. This material is
called particulate matter and can often be a cause of water pollution.
The suspended particles eventually settle and cause thick silt at the bottom. This is harmful to marine life that lives on the
floor of rivers or lakes.
Biodegradable substances are often suspended in water and can cause problems by increasing the amount of anaerobic
microorganisms present.
Toxic chemicals suspended in water can be harmful to the development and survival of aquatic life.
Chemical water pollution:
Industrial and agricultural work involves the use of many different chemicals that can run-off into water and pollute it.
Metals and solvents from industrial work can pollute rivers and lakes. These are poisonous to many forms of aquatic life and
may slow their development, make them infertile or even result in death.
Pesticides are used in farming to control weeds, insects and fungi. Run-offs of these pesticides can cause water pollution and
poison aquatic life. Subsequently, birds, humans and other animals may be poisoned if they eat infected fish.
Petroleum is another form of chemical pollutant that usually contaminates water through oil spills when a ship ruptures. Oil
spills usually have only a
localised effect on wildlife but can spread for miles. The oil can
cause the death of many fish and stick to the feathers of seabirds causing them to lose the ability to fly.
Causes of water pollution:
Sewage and waste water:

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Domestic households, industrial and agricultural practices produce wastewater that can cause pollution of many lakes and
rivers.
Sewage is the term used for wastewater that often contains faeces, urine and laundry waste.
There are billions of people on Earth, so treating sewage is a big priority.
Sewage disposal is a major problem in developing countries as many people in these areas dont have access to sanitary
conditions and clean water.
Untreated sewage water in such areas can contaminate the environment and cause diseases such as diarrhoea.
Sewage in developed countries is carried away from the home quickly and hygienically through sewage pipes.
Sewage is treated in water treatment plants and the waste is often disposed into the sea.
Sewage is mainly biodegradable and most of it is broken down in the environment.
In developed countries, sewage often causes problems when people flush chemical and pharmaceutical substances down the
toilet. When people are ill, sewage often carries harmful viruses and bacteria into the environment causing health problems.
Marine dumping:
Dumping of litter in the sea can cause huge problems. Litter items such as 6-pack ring packaging can get caught in marine
animals and may result in death. Different items take different lengths of time to degrade in water:
Cardboard Takes 2 weeks to degrade.
Newspaper Takes 6 weeks to degrade.
Photodegradable packaging Takes 6 weeks to degrade.
Foam Takes 50 years to degrade.
Styrofoam Takes 80 years to degrade.
Aluminium Takes 200 years to degrade.
Plastic packaging Takes 400 years to degrade.
Glass It takes so long to degrade that we dont know the exact time.
Industrial waste and water pollution:
Industry is a huge source of water pollution, it produces pollutants that are extremely harmful to people and the
environment.
Many industrial facilities use freshwater to carry away waste from the plant and into rivers, lakes and oceans.
Pollutants from industrial sources include:
Asbestos This pollutant is a serious health hazard and carcinogenic. Asbestos fibres can be inhaled and cause illnesses
such as asbestosis, mesothelioma, lung cancer, intestinal cancer and liver cancer.
Lead This is a metallic element and can cause health and environmental problems. It is a non-biodegradable substance so
is hard to clean up once the environment is contaminated. Lead is harmful to the health of many animals, including humans,
as it can inhibit the action of bodily enzymes.
Mercury This is a metallic element and can cause health and environmental problems. It is a non-biodegradable substance
so is hard to clean up once the environment is contaminated. Mercury is also harmful to animal health as it can cause illness
through mercury poisoning.
Nitrates The increased use of fertilisers means that nitrates are more often being washed from the soil and into rivers and
lakes. This can cause eutrophication, which can be very problematic to marine environments.
Phosphates - The increased use of fertilisers means that phosphates are more often being washed from the soil and into
rivers and lakes. This can cause eutrophication, which can be very problematic to marine environments.
Sulphur This is a non-metallic substance that is harmful for marine life.
Oils Oil does not dissolve in water, instead it forms a thick layer on the water surface. This can stop marine plants
receiving enough light for photosynthesis. It is also harmful for fish and marine birds.
Petrochemicals This is formed from gas or petrol and can be toxic to marine life.
Nuclear Waste:
Nuclear waste is produced from industrial, medical and scientific processes that use radioactive material. Nuclear waste can
have detrimental effects on marine habitats. Nuclear waste comes from a number of sources:
Operations conducted by nuclear power stations produce radioactive waste. Nuclear-fuel reprocessing plants in northern
Europe are the biggest
sources of man-made nuclear waste in the surrounding
ocean. Radioactive traces from these plants have been found as far away as Greenland.
Mining and refining of uranium and thorium are also causes of marine nuclear waste.
Waste is also produced in the nuclear fuel cycle which is used in many industrial, medical and scientific processes.
Oil pollution:
Oceans are polluted by oil on a daily basis from oil spills, routine shipping, run-offs and dumping.
Oil spills make up about 12% of the oil that enters the ocean. The rest come from shipping travel, drains and dumping.
An oil spill from a tanker is a severe problem because there is such a huge quantity of oil being spilt into one place.

Oil spills cause a very localised problem but can be catastrophic to local marine wildlife such as fish, birds and sea otters.
Oil cannot dissolve in water and forms a thick sludge in the water. This suffocates fish, gets caught in the feathers of marine
birds stopping them from flying and blocks light from photosynthetic aquatic plants.
Underground storage leakages:
A tank or piping network that has at least 10 percent of its volume underground is known as an underground storage tank
(UST). They often store substances such as petroleum, that are harmful to the surrounding environment should it become
contaminated. Many USTs constructed before 1980 are made from steel pipes that are directly exposed to the environment.
Over time the steel corrodes and causes leakages, affecting surrounding soil and groundwater.
Atmospheric deposition:
Atmospheric deposition is the pollution of water caused by air pollution.
In the atmosphere, water particles mix with carbon dioxide sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides, this forms a weak acid.
Air pollution means that water vapour absorbs more of these gases and becomes even more acidic.
When it rains the water is polluted with these gases, this is called acid rain.
When acid rain pollutes marine habitats such as rivers and lakes, aquatic life is harmed.
Global warming:
An increase in water temperature can result in the death of many aquatic organisms and disrupt many marine habitats. For
example, a rise in water temperatures causes coral bleaching of reefs around the world. This is when the coral expels the
microorganisms of which it is dependent on. This can result in great damage to coral reefs and subsequently, all the marine
life that depends on it.
The rise in the Earths water temperature is caused by global warming.
Global warming is a process where the average global temperature increases due to the greenhouse effect.
The burning of fossil fuel releases greenhouse gasses, such as carbon dioxide, into the atmosphere.
This causes heat from the sun to get trapped in the Earths atmosphere and consequently the global temperature rises.
Eutrophication:
Eutrophication is when the environment becomes enriched with nutrients. This can be a problem in marine habitats such as
lakes as it can cause algal blooms.
Fertilisers are often used in farming, sometimes these fertilisers run-off into nearby water causing an increase in nutrient
levels.
This causes phytoplankton to grow and reproduce more rapidly, resulting in algal blooms.
This bloom of algae disrupts normal ecosystem functioning and causes many problems.
The algae may use up all the oxygen in the water, leaving none for other marine life. This results in the death of many
aquatic organisms such as fish, which need the oxygen in the water to live.
The bloom of algae may also block sunlight from photosynthetic marine plants under the water surface.
Some algae even produce toxins that are harmful to higher forms of life. This can cause problems along the food chain and
affect any animal that feeds on them.
Effects of water pollution:Health:
Virtually all types of water pollution are harmful to the health of humans and animals. Water pollution may not damage
our health immediately but can be harmful after long term exposure. Different forms of pollutants affect the health of
animals in different ways:
Heavy metals from industrial processes can accumulate in nearby lakes and rivers. These are toxic to marine life such as
fish and shellfish, and subsequently to the humans who eat them. Heavy metals can slow development; result in birth
defects and some are carcinogenic.
Industrial waste often contains many toxic compounds that damage the health of aquatic animals and those who eat them.
Some of the toxins in industrial waste may only have a mild effect whereas other can be fatal. They can cause immune
suppression, reproductive failure or acute poisoning.
Microbial pollutants from sewage often result in infectious diseases that infect aquatic life and terrestrial life through
drinking water. Microbial water pollution is a major problem in the developing world, with diseases such as cholera and
typhoid fever being the primary cause of infant mortality.
Organic matter and nutrients causes an increase in aerobic algae and depletes oxygen from the water column. This
causes the suffocation of fish and other aquatic organisms.
Sulphates particles from acid rain can cause harm the health of marine life in the rivers and lakes it contaminates, and can
result in mortality.
Suspended particles in freshwater reduces the quality of drinking water for humans and the aquatic environment for marine
life. Suspended particles can often reduce the amount of sunlight penetrating the water, disrupting the growth of
photosynthetic plants and micro-organisms.

Economy:
Water pollution can be damaging to the economy as it can be expensive to treat and prevent contamination. Waste that does
not break down quickly accumulates in the Earths waters and eventually makes its way to the oceans.
Water pollution can be prevented by stopping pollutants from contaminating nearby waters. There are a number of
water treatments to prevent pollution such as:
Biological filters
Chemical additives
Sand filters
These simple techniques cost money to maintain, but prevention is much cheaper than cleaning up water pollution that has
already occurred. The cost of a pollution clean-up depends on many factors:
The location of the pollution is important in determining how much the clean-up will cost. If the contamination is in an area
that is easy to get to, then the clean up cost will be cheaper.
The contamination size also needs to be considered, the larger the area of contamination, the more expensive the cost of the
clean-up.
The type of pollutant may also have an effect on the clean-up cost, some pollutants are more difficult to clean up than
others, and therefore more expensive.
Economy:
There are many different types of water pollution and all have a different adverse effect on the environment.
Heavy metals from industrial processes can accumulate in nearby lakes and rivers. These are toxic to marine life such as
fish and shellfish, and can affect the rest of the food chain. This means that entire animal communities can be badly affected
by this type of pollutant.
Industrial waste often contains many toxic compounds that damage the health of aquatic animals and those who eat them.
Some toxins affect the reproductive success of marine life and can therefore disrupt the community structure of an aquatic
environment.
Microbial pollutants from sewage often result in infectious diseases that infect aquatic life and terrestrial life through
drinking water. This often increases the number of mortalities seen within an environment.
Organic matter and nutrients causes an increase in aerobic algae and depletes oxygen from the water column. This is
called eutrophication and causes the suffocation of fish and other aquatic organisms.
Sulphate particles from acid rain change the pH of water making it more acidic, this damages the health of marine life in the
rivers and lakes it contaminates, and often increases the number of mortalities within an environment.
Suspended particles can often reduce the amount of sunlight penetrating the water, disrupting the growth of photosynthetic
plants and micro-organisms. This has subsequent effects on the rest of the aquatic community that depend on these
organisms to survive.
Prevention:
If you want to help keep our waters clean, there are many things you can do to help. You can prevent water pollution of
nearby rivers and lakes as well as groundwater and drinking water by following some simple guidelines in your everyday
life.
Conserve water by turning off the tap when running water is not necessary. This helps prevent water shortages and reduces
the amount of contaminated water that needs treatment.
Be careful about what you throw down your sink or toilet. Dont throw paints, oils or other forms of litter down the drain.
Use environmentally household products, such as washing powder, household cleaning agents and toiletries.
Take great care not to overuse pesticides and fertilisers. This will prevent runoffs of the material into nearby water sources.
By having more plants in your garden you are preventing fertiliser, pesticides and contaminated water from running off into
nearby water sources.
Dont throw litter into rivers, lakes or oceans. Help clean up any litter you see on beaches or in rivers and lakes, make sure it
is safe to collect the litter and put it in a nearby dustbin.
Treatment:Industrial water treatment:
Before raw sewage can be safely released back into the environment, it needs to be treated correctly in a water
treatment plant. In a water treatment plant, sewage goes through a number of chambers and chemical processes to reduce the
amount and toxicity of the waste.
The sewage first goes through a primary phase. This is where some of the suspended, solid particles and inorganic material
is removed by the use of filters.
The secondary phase of the treatment involves the reduction of organic; this is done with the use of biological filters and
processes that naturally degrade the organic waste material.

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The final stage of treatment is the tertiary phase; this stage must be done before the water can be reused. Almost all solid
particles are removed from the water and chemical additives are supplied to get rid of any left-over impurities.
Denitrification:
Denitrification is an ecological approach that can be used to prevent the leaching of nitrates in soil; this in turn stops
any ground water from being contaminated with nutrients.
Fertilisers contain nitrogen, and are often applied to crops by farmers to help plant growth and increase the yield.
Bacteria in the soil convert the nitrogen in the fertilizer to nitrates, making it easier for the plants to absorb.
Immobilization is a process where the nitrates become part of the soil organic matter.
When oxygen levels are low, another form of bacteria then turns the nitrates into gases such as nitrogen, nitrous oxide and
nitrogen dioxide.
The conversion of these nitrates into gas is called denitrification. This prevents nitrates from leaching into the soil and
contaminating groundwater.
Sceptic tank and sewage treatment:
Septic tanks treat sewage at the place where it is located, rather than transporting the waste through a treatment plant
or sewage system. Septic tanks are usually used to treat sewage from an individual building.
Untreated sewage from a property flows into the septic tank and the solids are separated from the liquid.
Solid material is separated depending on their density. Heavier particles settle at the bottom of the tank whereas lighter
particles, such as soap scum, will form a layer at the top of the tank.
Biological processes are used to help degrade the solid materials.
The liquid then flows out of the tank into a land drainage system and the remaining solids are filtered out.
Ozone wastewater treatment:
Ozone wastewater treatment is a method that is increasing in popularity. An ozone generator is used to break down
pollutants in the water source.
The generators convert oxygen into ozone by using ultraviolet radiation or by an electric discharge field.
Ozone is a very reactive gas that can oxidise bacteria, moulds, organic material and other pollutants found in water.
Using ozone to treat wastewater has many benefits:
Kills bacteria effectively.
Oxidises substances such as iron and sulphur so that they can be filtered out of the solution.
There are no nasty odours or residues produced from the treatment.
Ozone converts back into oxygen quickly, and leaves no trace once it has been used.
The disadvantages of using ozone as a treatment for wastewater are:
The treatment requires energy in the form of electricity; this can cost money and cannot work when the power is lost.
The treatment cannot remove dissolved minerals and salts.
Ozone treatment can sometimes produce by-products such as bromate that can harm human health if they are not controlled.
Water quality parameters:
Water quality determines the goodness of water for particular purposes. Water quality tests will give information about the
health of the waterway. By testing water over a period of time, the changes in the quality of the water can be seen.
Parameters that may be tested include temperature, ph, turbidity, salinity, nitrates and phosphates. An assessment of the
aquatic macro-invertebrates can also provide an indication of water quality.
Temperature:
Temperature of a waterway is significant because it affects the amount of dissolved oxygen in the water. The amount of
oxygen that will dissolve in water increases as temperature decreases. Water at OC will hold up to 14.6 mg of oxygen per
litre, while at 30oC it will hold only up to 7.6 mg/L.
Temperature also affects the rate of photosynthesis of plants, the metabolic rate of aquatic animals, rates of development,
timing and success of reproduction, mobility, migration patterns and the sensitivity of organisms to toxins, parasites and
disease. Life cycles of aquatic organisms are often related to changes in temperature.
Temperature ranges for plants and animals can be affected by manmade structures such as dams and weirs and releases of
water from them.
Salinity:
Salinity is a measure of the dissolved salts in the water. Salinity is usually highest during periods of low flows and increases
as water levels decrease. Salinity is measured as either
TDS (Total Dissolved Solids), which measures the amount of dissolved salts in the water, or as EC (Electrical
Conductivity), which is the property of a substance which enables it to serve as a channel or medium for electricity. Salty
water conducts electricity more readily than purer water. A samples EC can be converted to TDS and vice versa.
Some EC and TDS Ranges

Water type EC
(s/cm)
TDS (mg/L)
Pure rainwater
< 15
< 10
Freshwater rivers
0 - 800
100 1,000
Brackish water
1,600 4,800
1,000 3,000
Saline water
> 4,800
> 3,000
Seawater
51,500
35,000
Sources of salinity include urban and rural run-off containing salt, fertilisers and organic matter. Land use issues related to
high levels of salinity include clearing of vegetation and the resultant rise in the water table, excessive irrigation,
groundwater seepage and runoff containing dissolved solids from industry, sewage, agriculture and storm water. Areas in the
tidal limit of rivers which flow into the sea will experience fluctuations in salinity between high and low tide. While an
appropriate concentration of salts is vital for aquatic plants and animals, salinity that is beyond the normal range for any
species of organism will cause stress or even death to that organism. Salinity also affects the availability of nutrients to plant
roots.
pH: pH is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of water. It is usually measured by using a colorimetric test - litmus paper
changes colour with increased acidity or alkalinity. pH varies naturally within streams as a result of photosynthesis. There
are a number of reasons that water may have extreme pH values:
Acidic values
Geology and soils of the catchment affect pH. Acid soils (these are different from Acid Sulphate Soils) and rocks such as
basalt, granite and sandstone contribute to lower pH in water.
Acid sulphate soils are a major problem in estuarine areas. These soils form in anaerobic environments that are rich in
sulphur, such as at the bottom of estuaries. If these soils are not disturbed and are left in anaerobic conditions, they do not
pose any threat. However, when they are uncovered and oxidised, they release sulphuric acid into adjoining water ways.
Runoff from bush land areas is slightly acidic. This is due to tannic acids (tannins) which are found naturally in leaves.
Tannins are also responsible for giving water a tea-like colour.
Alkaline values
Basic rocks such as limestone contribute to higher pH values.
Runoff such as fertilisers and detergents cause increased alkalinity Extreme values of pH can cause problems for aquatic
fauna. For example, fish may develop skin irritations, ulcers and impaired gill functioning as a result of water that is too
acidic. Death of most aquatic fauna may result from extremely acid or alkaline water. The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14:
Acidic: 0 to 6.9
Neutral: 7
Alkaline: 7.1 to 14
A pH range of 6.5 8 is optimal for freshwater. A range of 8 9 is optimal for estuarine and sea water.
Turbidity:
Turbidity is a measure of the ability of light to pass through water, that is, a measure of the waters murkiness. Measuring
murkiness gives an estimate of suspended solids in the water. Turbidity is measured in Nephelometric Turbidity Units
(NTUs).
Suspended Solids usually enter the water as a result of soil erosion from disturbed land or can be traced to the inflow of
effluent from sewage plants or industry. Suspended solids also occur naturally in the water from bank and channel erosion;
however, this process has been accelerated by human use of waterways. Turbidity measurements also take into account
algae and plankton present in the water.
Pollutants such as nutrients and pesticides may bind with suspended solids and settle in bottom sediments where they may
become concentrated.
Suspended sediments can also smother aquatic plants as they settle out in low flows, and clog mouthparts and gills of fish
and aquatic macro-invertebrates.
High turbidity affects submerged plants by preventing sufficient light from reaching them for photosynthesis. High turbidity
also has the capacity to significantly increase water temperature. Water temperature needs to remain fairly constant so
aquatic fauna can survive.
Though high turbidity is often a sign of poor water quality and land management, crystal clear water does not always
guarantee healthy water. Extremely clear water can signify very acidic conditions or high levels of salinity.
Dissolved oxygen (do):
The amount of oxygen in water, to a degree, shows its overall health. That is, if oxygen levels are high, one can presume
that pollution levels in the water are low. Conversely, if oxygen levels are low, one can presume there is a high oxygen
demand and that the body of water is not of optimal health.
Apart from indicating pollution levels, oxygen in water is required by aquatic fauna for survival. In conditions of no or low
oxygen availability, fish and other organisms will die.
Oxygen enters water as a result of two processes:

1. Diffusion - diffusion of oxygen into water is accelerated when the water turbulence is increased (moving through rapids
and waterfalls) and when there is a strong wind blowing. Additionally, oxygen will diffuse into cold water at a higher rate
than it will into warm water.
2. Photosynthesis - during daylight hours, aquatic plants use the suns energy to create energy they can use for growth. A
by-product of this process is oxygen which is released into surrounding water.
Ecosystem Type
Dissolved oxygen trigger value range (DO %)
Upland River
60 120
Lowland River
60 120
Lakes and Reservoirs
90 110
Estuaries
60 120
Marine
90 - 110
When the level of Dissolved Oxygen is above or below these ranges, the waterway will become increasingly stressed.

Nutrients:
The three main plant nutrients are nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. Of these, only phosphorus is tested by Water watch
groups. Nutrient levels in Australian waters are naturally very low. However, due to human impacts these levels are often
too high, resulting in algal blooms and excessive growth of water-plants including weed species such as Water Hyacinth and
Sylvania.
The effects of consistently high levels of nutrient levels are:
Water bodies choked with vegetation or algae - often weed species;
Changes in aquatic flora and fauna composition. This is often a change monoculture that is a change to a system dominated
by a single plant species increased fluctuations of dissolved oxygen levels. This places stress on aquatic fauna an increase in
total organic load, resulting in odours and reduced aesthetic quality.
Phosphates: are often the limiting nutrients in Australian environments. Therefore, high phosphate levels could lead to the
problems described above. The main sources of phosphorus in local catchments are:
sediments from rocks and soil;
effluent from waste water treatment plants and onsite sewage disposal units;
Detergents and fertilisers that have been washed down drains or that have run off properties due to poor land management
practices and storm water pollution; decaying organic matter.
Faecal coliforms:
Faecal Coliforms are naturally occurring bacteria found in the intestines of all warm blooded animals (including humans)
and birds. The presence of Faecal Coliforms is an indicator of contamination by sewage waste.
Faecal Coliforms indicate a risk to human health. They are not pathogenic (disease causing) but indicate that pathogenic
bacterial and viruses may be present.
Faecal Coliforms can enter streams and rivers via:
sewer and septic systems
feedlot and dairy run-off
run-off from broad acre farming storm water
livestock defecating directly into the water
Aquatic macro invertebrates (water bugs):
Aquatic macro invertebrates are:
Animals without backbones
Small but you can see them with your eyes
Live in water
An assessment of the aquatic macro-invertebrates at the waterway can provide an indication of water quality.
Different macro-invertebrates have different tolerances to pollution. Highly sensitive bugs can only live in water with high
water quality. Tolerant and very tolerant bugs can withstand lower water quality. A healthy waterway has a higher
biodiversity of bugs.
Water bugs are rated according to their sensitivity to pollution. Pollution rating numbers from 1 to 10 indicate how
sensitive each bug is.
There are four grades:
Very sensitive 10, 9
Sensitive 8, 7, 6
Tolerant 5, 4, 3
Very tolerant 2, 1