WORKS.

PUBLIC

TREATISE

ON

SUBJECTS
OBJECTS

OF

IINTEREST

TO

MunicipalOfficers.

BY

ERNEST
Member

McCULLOUGH,
of tli,-7Jv

hnical

Sod -{y ifflu Pacific C\"asS,

EDITION.

1894

C.

E.

1894,

Copyrighted,
BY

ERNEST

MINTRl)

TMK

COI-RIKK

R\

PKKSH

McCui.i.oiu;n,

WORK

THIS

A.

TO"
"

MY

FATHER

"

INDEX,

CHAPTER

I.
PAGE

STREETS

7
Grades

Sections

Cross

"

Widths

"

Materials

"

CHAPTER

II.

CLEANLINESS

AND

HEALTH

14

CHAPTER
AND

DRAINAGE

Cost.

"

SEWERAGE

Sewerage

Drainage
"

III.
16

Plans

"

Ventilations

"

Sizes

"

Grades

"

of

Sewers

Materials

"

CHAPTER
Sources

"

nections
ConCost.

IV.

SUPPLY

WATER

and

Specifications
Disposal
"

"

25
Uses

"

Sizes

"

of

Pipes
"

Cost

CHAPTER

"

Ownership.

V.

SURVEYS

31

Resurveys
"

Working Maps

"

Levels

CHAPTER
CONTRACTS

"

General

VI.

WORK,

AND

SpecificationsContracts
"

35
"

Work.

CHAPTER

VII.

PLANS,

38

CHAPTER
MUNICIPAL

VIII.

OWNERSHIP

42

CHAPTER
BONDS,....

Maps.

IX.
49

riT.ii

INDEX,

CHAPTER

I.
PAGE

STREETS

7
Grades

Sections

Cross

"

Widths

"

Materials

"

CHAPTER

II.

CLEANLINESS

AND

HEALTH

14

CHAPTER
Sewerage

Drainage

"

III.

SEWERAGE

AND

DRAINAGE

Cost.

"

16
Plans

"

Ventilations

"

Grades

"

of

Sizes

"

Sewers

Materials

"

Disposal
Specifications
"

"

CHAPTER
Sources

"

"

nections
ConCost.

IV.

SUPPLY

WATER

and

25
Uses

Sizes

"

of

Pipes
"

Cost

CHAPTER

"

Ownership.

V.

SURVEYS

31

Resurveys
"

Working Maps

"

Levels

CHAPTER
CONTRACTS

AND

"

General

VI.

WORK,

Contracts
Specifications"

35
"

Work.

CHAPTER

VII.

PLANS,

38

CHAPTER
MUNICIPAL

VIII.

OWNERSHIP

42

CHAPTER
BONDS,....

Maps.

IX.
49

PREFACE.

articles

following

The

Town,

California

of

for

written

the

intention

being

Engineer's

from

discuss

an

which

with

problems

of

are

is

there

that

deal.

to

and

Ownership
it

amiss

nothing

about

his

have

Municipal

to

various

the

would

propositions

economic

Bonds

standpoint
Trustees

the

subjects

the

As

tees
Trus-

the

were

been

has

ered
consid-

Engineer

in
an

ing
hav-

them.

say

In

the

belief

that

appreciate
It

is

hoped

the

work

the

articles
are

they

useful

will
prove

to

now

Francisco,

Cal.,

September,

1894.

published.

some.

THE

San

would

Officers

Municipal

many

AUTHOR.

CHAPTER

I.

STREETS.

Grades.
the several

Among
the

Everyone

principal one
admires

why

reasons

increases

aesthetic.

and

street

proved
im-

are

be

to

seems

handsome

streets

its improvemen

of

the value

abutting property.
In establishinggrades preliminary to improvement
taken
into
consideration
two
age
drainthings are
"

and

traction.

Surface
channels

water

be

must

taken

that

care

of in

will

suffer

regular

jury
inno
privateproperty
water
to
during storms.
Any slopewill cause
but the least grade should
be less than
not
four
run,
inches in one
hundred
feet if possible.
down
will run
Although water
slope,some
any
fore
tax
a
severe
are
on
draught animals to ascend, therebe limited
between
the
street
grades should
lightest possiblefor efficient drainage and the steepest
with

team

The

so

Grades
feet

steeper than

or

on

load

grade

most

of

(I

five feet in

after

with

exceed

not

will

100

in

hundred

one

hundred

one

careful

horse
in

ease.

feet.

four inches

lighterthan

Calling the
Then

hundred

one

adopted only

ascend

can

wagon

should
steepest grade,if possible,

five feet rise in

be

loaded

should

stud}'.
pull on
horse

it

t"

level

will
u

100:

pull
u

90.
o

"

it

tt

Grades
should

be

not

tolerated

feet
ten
grades over
strongly condemned.

Sometimes

five feet in

than

steeper

in

business

on

hundred

one

hundred

one

street, and
be

cannot

too

fear of expense
tion
compels the adopof steeper grades than an
mend,
Engineer would recombut which
of abutting
to owners
are
satisfactory
the

it is useless
they pay the bills,of course
fore
a
quarrel by persistentarguing, there-

As

property.

stir up
they have

to

If the

grade

their way.
is a main

street

hurts

number"

that
is

"the

and

one

the

steep

the

beyond,

property

remember

must

traveled

Municipal Officer
greatest good to the est
great-

good motto.
The improvement of a street is a grievous affair
to all concerned, and
such
when
a
piece of work is
finished those in authority are
devoutly thankful.
Until a regular grade is established
each
man
has regarded the street in front of his lot as so much
of his own
to
persuade him
property, and it is hard
that the Town
has any jurisdiction
it. He
has
over
sidewalked,drained and paved (?)it to suit himself,
and whether
above
below
the general level is conor
fident
that his portion is just where
the grade should
be.
at

The

Trustee

future

understand

"Cross

that

thinks

he

is

otherwise

has

Engineer

the
meddler

and

an

enemy

is* given

to

ignoramus.

an

Sections.

each

sidewalk

cial'grade,thus
cross

who

elections, and

It is usual
of

to

so

at

improve
the

giving

curb
what

street

line shall
is known

that
be

the
the

on
as

edge

offi-

"level

section."

For

drainage the sidewalks

slope toward the gutters
and
the roadway is high in the center.
The
shaping, or crowning, of the roadway depends upon
its width and the material
it is paved with. A smooth,
does not
ing.
crownimpervious pavement
require much

"

Sometimes
side is lower
in elevation

indulge,or
arranged to

other.

be

to

so

shaped

Where

the difference

usuallybecause
be because

may

suit the ideas of

each

on

owners

the

when

feet it is

two

lias

than

but
or

street

that

one

difference

the

that a level
is great it is for the reason
pensive,
property line to property line is very ex-

from

street

"

does

not

exceed
has

someone

one

fad

to

compromise had to be
grade entertained by the

side.

The

shaping of a sidelingstreet is a problem not

To
it in the
solved.
crown
always satisfactorily
center
gives one-half the roadway too slight a pitch
and the other too much, resultingin a bad appearing
job; while to give the street a straightslope from
glitter to gutter necessitates the passing of surface
the entire street
water
over
surface,a practiceto be
avoided.
The center
should
be kept as dry as possible,
but the keeping up of a crown
on
a
sidelingstreet
than
level one.
jections
costs
The
more
on
a
foregoingobto sidelingstreets
unapply to them when
paved. Paved with asphaltum, brick or stone blocks
the shape can
be made
to suit the opinions of
one.
anySome

follow

streets

from

five

attempt
such

to

establish

one

for each

grades, and

roadway

twenty
is

side of the

the

the

of the

than

the

foolish.

is said

street

be flat

across

curves.

It need

side-hill

streets

street

near

to

be

is

To

other.

it,in

It is far better

roadway
slopes connect

Grassed

the
such

In

for the

grades, one

sidewalk.

ground.

anything

or

and

sides,and

side

one

higher

expensive

should

of

section

cross

three

on

that

feet

hill

out

contour

happens

level

cases,

laid

are

the

it often

cases

to

towns

terraced.

and
the

The

and

slopeto the inner

only be about twenty

feet wide.

These
streets

and

should

possibleto give
trees

which

it is

be

them

generallyresidence
improved at as slightcost as
a

are

handsome

possibleto

All
appearance.
should
remain,
preserve

10

"

and

like

look

make

to

hill side
beautiful

be maintained.

should

It is needless

should

streets

There

have

set rules

no

are

streets.

to

drains

serve

as

The
and

improved

to be

grades or
establishing
well,are

They

of travel.

lowest

the

to look

are

avenues

as

at

for

streets

possiblecost

considerations

All other

ends.

these

level,or

possibleall business
tion.
nearly level,cross sec-

that if

to say

improving
are

The

park.

the
picturesque and

endeavored

be

it should

"

to attain

matters

are

of detail.

Widths.
The

of a street is from
property line to
The street consists of a roadway for

width

property line.
vehicular

traffic and
to make

common

on

streets

wider

and

In

where

retail

stores

roadway

narrower

at

are

wagons

rapid pace,
and

abound

to

narrow

the sidewalk
here

feet wide

with

and

On

reservation
are

one

the wholesale

show

windows

business

reigns.

district where

there

in the other

dust and

save

in

are

and pedestriplentiful
ans

for in the

is little driving except for

sidewalks

than

portionsof the residence

some

width

the

rule is

the attraction

fence

one-fifth

is

for

district where

are

pedestrians. It

sixtyfeet will give two twelvesix foot roadway.

a thirtyoften departedfrom, as for instance

the

move

for

sidewalk

each

of the street,which
foot sidewalks
and

This

sidewalks

pleasure,the roadway

of maintenance
expense
The
is wide.
actual

oftentimes

stripsof

mere

borders of grass

between

stone

them

is

and
walks
sidea

few

and the

curb.
terraced

for the

side-hill street

the sidewalk

slopesrequirespace,

before stated,should

be at least

and

the

is

row,
nar-

roadway

as

twenty feet wide.

Materials.

The
sidewalks

materials
and

curbs

for

paving

should

streets

'be chosen

and

by

making
majority

11

"

"

trie proper
affected,
for quality.
being responsible

of the property
course

the

On

the most

of economy

score

well made

road

macadamized

common

ment
pave-

for streets.

rock,or macadam,

is crushed
A

officialsof

owners

is very

tory.
satisfac-

roadway should first be excavated about a

foot below grade and shaped to the street surface. It
should then be sprinkledand well rolled. Upon this
should be placedlayersof stone a few inches thick of
layersbelow and the finer
varying sizes,the coarser
The last
above and each layer sprinkledand rolled.
layershould be of material which will pass through a
The

half inch

screen.

The
tested

by

usual

used

stone

test

the Town
is

of

good qualityand

Engineer before

known

one

be

should

as

the

The

it is used.
"

rattler

where

test

is put into
regularsized pieces,
The box is closed tightly
axles.
on
and revolved for a periodof tinie,
the motion
causing
in the box
and
the stones
to fall about
against each
other.
The difference in weight of the whole stones
before and after the test
tion
represents the loss by attriand gives an idea of the wearing powers
of the
the stone, broken
mounted
a box

tested.

stone

Every
crusher

with

outfit

$1,500. The

crusher

be macadamized
rock

yard

contract

and
quarry
for the roads.

to the

road

furnish

let them
roads

roller

is

roller costs from $500 to

from $3,000 to $7,000.
and

better work

roller.

furnish

to

street

is to

found

cheaper to
certain priceper

labor alone

up, and
repairmaterial should

must

plentiful
suppliesof
a

at

contractors

be located

kept

When

stone

purchased

should
be

than

to

everything.

Macadam
and

can

and

be

can

generallybe

it will

and

for

"rattler"

An

repairmaterial
furnish

have

screens.

selected

some

cubic

should

town

for less than

in

into

for

the

be

kept

necessity. A
$1,000, and a
The
same

steam

money

therefore
be kept,

proper

horse

steam

roller

roller does
than

more

horse

-J2

When
streets

the

there

desires

town

are

materials

many

often arise before

dissensions

better

have

to

paved
from, and

choose

to

the choice

is made.

cleanly,
perfectpavement is durable, noiseless,
has not
healthy and cheap. The perfectpavement
yet been discovered,but asphaltum and bituminous
rock pavements
approach it. They are noiseless,
cleanly,healthy,very durable,but not as cheap as
A

in first cost.

others

some

Wooden

pavements

not

are

be

to

commended.

they are noiseless, but this is not so

of asphalt. The first cost is small, but they
durable or cleanly. The spaces
between
the
It is said

become

filledwith

filth and

and

excreta

in

they become so rotten as to endanger the

the community. .They do not wear
smooth.
Vitrified bricks

cost

wood

than

more

true
are

as

not

blocks

few years
health
of
and

make

satisfactory
pavement, but there is difficulty
in gettingthem
all of uniform
quality,consequently
do
not wear
they
smoothly. They are comparatively
noiseless,cleanly and fairlydurable, but having
jointsare not perfectlyhealthy.
Granite
blocks are
for only
to be commended
one
thing durability.They are very noisy,and on
of the jointsnot particularly
account
cleanly,healthy
a

very

"

or

and

smooth

surfaced.

less than

Gutters
blocks
As

laid

horses

The

is

cost

Gutters

on

brick

asphalt.
should

be

wide

lengthwise and
oftentimes

stand

and

urine

from

macadamized

built of

cemented
for

the gutters should

be hard, to
iron-shod hoofs,and should
be

slops and

than

more

the

granite
joints.

hours

by the curbs
stand
pawing with
impervious, to keep

getting to
streets

in

the

are

of stones
four to six inches square,
the spaces between filled with crushed

soil beneath.

generallymade
laid by hand
and
stone

and

sand.

Curbs
should be of stone, but oftentimes
it is
difficultto procure it of suitable quality,so iron or
is used instead.
concrete
The top of the curb is at
official grade.

Economy

oftentimes

the
justifies

use

13

"

of wooden

4" x

set

long

inches

two

should

wooden

The

of

variety,but the most

curbs
two
join in a

four inches

to

these

wooden

sidewalk

permanent

handsome

wooden

in

should

hold

on

about

planks are bent around

four layers,making

curve

feet

three
and

spiked

laminated

place,and

in

them

to

of this

corner

and

line

the

equal

"

plank. Plenty of nails will

the finished job looks well.
Sidewalks

radius

by driving 4"x4" posts

inch

posts

is where

corner

having

curve

considerable

presents

corners

inside the curb

One

apart.

top of

3"x 15"

grade,and the sidewalk

and is spiked to it. No

below

of the sidewalk.

is best made

sort

curb

cept
ex-

curb.

shaping

the width

The

time.

(of two-inch plank) rests on

would
think of puttingin
one
and

be used

never

A redwood

streets.

6" will last

is

curb

they

macadamized

on
or

curbs, but

"

be of

crete,
brick,asphaltum or conthe last. They are neat and
clean.
preferably
sidewalk
becomes
and when
it
A wooden
soon
filthy,
begins to wear
presents anything but a neat appearance.
It tripsthe pedestrianin Summer, and squirts
muddy water on him in Winter.

During

the

work

in San

street

Francisco

for

(1894) contracts

present year

have

been

let at

lowing
the fol-

prices:
Bituminous
per square
Basalt
square

rock

pavements

from

19 to 25 cents

foot.
block

paving

from

16%

to

19

cents

per

foot.

Macadamizing streets, includingrock gutters, 2

to

per square foot.

Macadam
sidewalks
one

4 cents

Cobble
Granite
Granite

cent

per square

foot.

per square foot.

curb per lineal foot from 60 to 95 cents.
crosswalks
per lineal foot 70 to 80 cents.

paving 7^2 cents

Artificial stone

sidewalks

per square

foot 8

to

cents.

Bitumen

sidewalks

per square

foot

7^

cents.

13

14

"

Plank

front

sidewalks

from

to 90 cents
15 cents
per
fifteen
feet in width.
three to

foot,
varying from

Redwood
Basalt

curbs

blocks

"

9 and 10 cents per lineal foot.

for repairs$32.25 per thousand.

cubic

yard 6 to 70 cents.
be seen, varies between
The cost of grading,it may
and no closer estimate can
be given
wide limits,
for the cost as so much
depends upon the qualityof
material
and depth of excavation.
in grading and
For cheap work
shaping streets
of the road
there is nothing which
can
equal some
the market.
on
graders now
Grading per

CHAPTER
HEALTH

It is not
Within

CLEANLINESS.

AND

enough

it is necessary

II.

to have

to enforce

good sanitarylaws,but

them.

municipalitythere should not be permitted

but
if
such
cesspools or privy vaults,
any
do
exist
things
they should be perfectlytight that
no

moisture

from

them

contaminate

can

the

rounding
sur-

earth.

The
settled
looked

greatest

to

menace

health

closely
any
it should
be

and
community is undrained
soil,
to that anything tending to load

with

filth and noxious

be
wastes
be difficult to underdrain
flat
a
in any
is worth

in

case,

so

here

"an

not

allowed.

lying
ounce

the

town

of

earth
It will

and

pensive
ex-

prevention

pound of cure."
Not
only cesspools should be prohibited,but
pilesof garbage,manure, old rags, boxes etc.,tend to
increase dampness and breed disease. Refuse
should
be regularlycarted
and
destroyed. These
away
a

15

"

"

for a
moisture
retain
things permittedto accumulate
multiply,the surfaces
long time and disease germs
ting
become
weather, and as alternate wetdry in warm
and drying promote decay the surfaces rot and
distributed broadcast in the form of dust by the
are

Filth

winds.

and

wind

and

disease

breeds

water

pileand garbage heaps send

spread it. The manure
quantities,
poison through air and earth in frightful
and only wise laws well enforced can
prevent it.
There is a vast difference between
sanitaryregulations
hard
is
to
but it
and sumptuary
legislation,
citizen understand

the average

make

it. As

in street

improvements any fancied infringementof his rights

is warmly resented,the Health
Officer has an
popular
unjob.
Alleys and lanes should be regularly cleaned
and
all paved streets
swept daily. Storekeepers
be permitted to put the sweepings of
should
not
and

stores

sidewalks

gutters,but have

the refuse

receive

to
receptacle
emptied and

No

in the

which

should

proper
be often

cleaned.

laws

prevent people using well

can

water,

thickly populated district the dangers of

should be pointedout and the
possiblecontamination
obtained
from
wells
difference in quality of water
in a sparselysettled district and a thicklypopulated
town
explained.
nation
is good when
of contamiWell
water
sources
no
but

in

are

near,

it has

to

habitations
drink

when

but

the watershed

receive

of
quantities

is, to

the

it

say

which

liquid
least,carelessness
wastes

plies
supfrom
to

it.

Some

percolating
peopleimagine that the water
the
but it is a
is
earth
through
by filtering,
purified
mistake.
tering,
Suspended impuritiesare removed by filbut

by

such

it with

whatever

standing awhile
it clear sooner,

For

instance

is
take

never

removed

clay and mix

beeomes
The water
turbid,but after
clear. Filtering
will render
becomes
but although the color is gone
it does

process.

water.

is in solution

16

"

not

argue
and
water

"

that the water

is pure.
filter it. It is colorless

Mix

salt with

but

salt,and

the
all

freshen
it.
not
So
filtering
possiblewould
from
with liquidwastes
cesspools. In the ground
the suspended impuritiesare removed
and the water
in the well is clear and beautiful,
but the poisons in
solution are still there and may
cause
an
epidemic.
another
of
form
wells and fit
Springs are but
only for use in country districts.
The water
supply of a town should be obtained
from an undoubtedly healthysource
and pipedto the
the

consumers.

CHAPTER
DRAINAGE

In
now

between

being a
waters, and

term

the

SEWERAGE.

AND

planning a

made

III.

sewerage

system

Drainage
meaning

and

latter

liquidhousehold
garbage.

the

term

Solid

wastes.

distinction

is

mer
Sewerage ; the fordisposalof surface
providing only for
wastes

are

termed

Drainage.
Surface
convenient
rainfall

waters
water

may

be

courses.

is absorbed

as

it

dischargedinto the most

A
great portion of the
falls, but

as

town

comes
be-

and streets are

closelybuilt over
paved,
less
a
quantity goes that way, and proper conduits
be provided for it. Broad, deep gutters will
must
carry a great deal of water, and it is well to provide
for surface water
ing
dividby gutters as far as possible,
the streams
and guarding againsttheir
frequently
in size. When
the flow becomes
too much
increasing
more

so

great

time

threaten

to

as

ruin

the

of

the

it is

street

underground conduit to conduct

the water
As
this water
is
to the wasting place.
be discharged wherever
comparatively clean it may
provide

to

it will harm

This
surface
no

property.

no

is the

practicein

whole
Provide

water.

washouts

small

an

can

ways

and

occur,

the

of

treatment

for its escape

so
keep the streams

that
as

possibleby spreading or dividing the flow.

One of the first things a town
needs is a atic
systema
plan for surface drainage, so that whenever
culvert or gutter is,built it forms
part of a system,
and

as

will not

need

to

be torn

afterwards

out

or

be

larged.
en-

Sewerage.
The

first act of the officials of

be

should

town

newly incorporated
preparationof plans for a

the

system.
sewerage
It should
be
leads

to

man

prepared on the
have
plans drawn

lettingthe contract,
The
or

system
be built

can
as

principlethat

same

viz: economy
and common
be constructed
at once

needed

one

before

for his house

block

at

sense.
as

ned,
plan-

time.

In

growing town the system is never

completed, but is
continuallygrowing, and the first plans take into
consideration
not
only present but prospectivepopulation.
The
the

main

point of disposaland
sewers

sewers

not

can

must

first be decided

be built

early planned

sizes and

as

desired.

it will lead to

locations

upon,
If a

and

system

great confusion

of
eral
lat-

is
and

expense.

Sewers

needed, and all who can afford it have

As the populationincreases, these priprivateones.
vate
drains multiply until there
a
are
great many
foul points of dischargein the town, and
the people
in the low lying districts complain of the foulness of
their surroundings. Malignant diseases break
out,
are

18

"

and

the

"

unable
to
residents,
provide private
Then
the more
tunate
forpetitionfor a system.
sewerage,
and wealthy residents are
heard from.
Their
'are built and working well, no
disease threatsewers
ens
let
each
for
look out
man
them,
himself, or let
them
work on
the good old Anglo-Saxon plan and
stand togetherto extend
the sewers
farther. These
remarks
are
frequentand loud and oftentimes prevail
for awhile, until an
epidemic brings the people to
their

poorer

senses.

the system is planned these same

vate
priof them
wealthy and presumably
many

when

But

owners,

do their best to prevent the building

will tend to render theirs usewhich
of any sewers
less,
lawsuits are necessary
and oftentimes
to compel

intelligent
men,

them

with

to connect

be expectedthat

the

built

sewers

be of much

dwellingscan

It is

system.

new

to

serve

service in

one

not

to

two

or

general system.
design
system a topographicalmap
the
be
must
constructed,
sizes,shapes and grades of
determined
the sewers
ers
upon, and if any privatesewsituated as to be useful it is well, but if
so
are
and connections
not, they should be discarded at once
made
with the publicsewers.
Therefore

to

All this

owners

are

health
Sizes

means

should

system

and

of

worry

be

started

enough
necssity.

strong

and

expense,
before the

to

act

therefore the

private sewer
against the public

Sewers.

There

are

two

systems

of

which

sewerage
and
water

"

the

bined,
com-

in
providesfor storm
sewage
large sewers, and the separate, which
provides only
for sewerage
in small pipes.
The combined
system is planned by taking into
consideration rainfall and drainage area.
The
age
sewis

inconsiderable an
The
smallest
calculated.
in

so

diameter,and

the

item
sewers

ordinary

that
are

often

it is

twelve

sizes must

not

inches
be

large

enough

permit

to

basins

Catch

to

man

providedat

are

them

enter

street

for

corners,

cleaning.
and

holes
man-

The
frequent intervals along the streets.
and
combined
formerly carried the sewage
system
storm
water
together,but latelythere is a tendencj^
the sewage
to place pipes to carry
along the sides of
the latter for storm
leave
the large conduits,and
at

alone.

water

The
in

combined

places is

some

water, if

storm

is used

in

the

where

towns

the

the surface

is needed

water

to

best,and

are

in fact

streets, for

the

wash

be

waters

storm

is

far,the separate system

taken

and
largecities,
be used, as
the

only system to
carried along the street, would

In small

river.
not

system

they receive no other cleansing.

The
separate system is planned by taking into
the daily water
account
supply, as the discharge from
term
we
sinks, baths, closets,etc., is what
sewage.
small
be
six
in
the
as
as
Pipes
separate system may
inches.
exceeds thirty-six
inches ; the largestseldom
and catch basins are dispensedwith,though
Manholes

oftentimes

flush

tanks

are

to

common

both

systems.

have
two
nearly
Arguments over
that surface water
mixed
unceased,as it is recognizednow
with sewage
is cheaply and
readily disposed
for providing a sewer
of, and that the prime motive
often
It has
system is to dispose of the sewage.
had
has
sewer
happened that an unhealthy town
the disposal of
plans made which took into account
surface water
also,and proved so expensive that they

methods

the

constructed.

never

were

The

plans

called

were

nuisance,

and

as

storm

for

because

waters

the

did not

sewage
trouble

was

them

necessity for providing for anything

but sewage.
However, precedent was
strong
for sewcourses
ers,
as
past generations used water
for water
needs
sewers
courses.
use
they must
and each place has the
But this is changed now,

and

there

system
The

best

was

no

suited

for it.

separate system

costs

about

one-third

as

20

"

much

comparison,as
and

The
will

localities differ

always a fair
much
in requirements

so

etc.
facilitiesfor disposal,
should be of such a
sewers

half

run

this is not

combined,but

the

as

"

There

full.
three-quarters

or

be sufficient current

keep

to

them

size that

they

will then

clear.

is

largerthan

to
absolutelynecessary
providefor sewage has a tendency to fill up. The
has not velocity
stream
enough to carry all the solids
in it,consequentlythese settle to the bottom
and the
sewer
continuallyfills until there is a space at the
flow.
When
top justlargeenough for the constant
is choked.
the sewer
Then
the
a large flow comes
and merchants
want
papers talk of overflowed cellars,
damages.
is kept open
the
If the sewer
by any means
of sewer
large, empty space invites accumulations
Flushing by hose is of doubtful benefit when
gas.
and hose are compared. Pipes
the sizes of the sewer
are
parison
compared by their sectional area, and for comis obtained by squaring the diameters.
this area
A
15-inch pipe contains 15x15=225
square
To flush such a pipe with a 2^ -inch hose
inches.
is equalto flushing
225 square inches with a 2^x2^

"

sewer

6^-inch stream.
The

it is
or

scientific affair and

haphazard

Materials

and

The
and the

must

and

course

hand, and

It should

streets

the

on

of guess

matter

work

be of the very best quality,

first-class. An
competent
inspector,
should
be constantly
politician,
personallywatch everything

not

during construction.
The depth of the
of houses

Connections.

workmanship
on

not

carefullyplanned,as

calculation.

materials

of

be

must

system

sewer

sewer

be low

stances.
depend upon circumenough to drain the cellars
will

either side of the

sewers

of

course

can

side hill
On
drain the houses

street.

only

21

"

"

side,therefore they need not be placed

at any
great depth below the street surface. In frosty
countries they must
be deep enough to prevent damage
frost does not
and
where
occur
they
by frost,
need only be deep enough to be uninjuredby traffic.
fore
The house connections
should all be trapped beconnectingwith the sewer, and no connections
for at least thirty
should be made
with the sewer
days after the latter is completed. This givesan opportunity
and
which
for all settling
to occur
will,
moves
redanger of cracked joints.
any
should
be of iron, and
All pipes within
houses
earthenware
110
pipes should be permitted above
ground.

on

the upper

Ventilation.

The

temperature of

and as a
6o"(Fahrenheit),
has
a
tendency to seek
is more
danger from sewer

of the town
of

than

in the

consequence

the
gas

lower,

air within

warm

seldom

sewers

is

falls below

the air within

higher levels. There

in the higher portions
as

the

natural

assisted,when

the

ment
move-

perature
tem-

falls,
by the colder air,and is forced up.
isolates each
Trapping the house connections
there.
house, and cuts off an escape of sewer
gas
Ventilation
openings should be providedat intervals,
and
of every
the end
at
a
sewer
ventilatingpipe
should
be placed. These
pipes can start from some
house

connection

between

the

trap and

sewer,

and

above the roof. Soil

up the sides of the house
pipes should also extend to the roof and be open at
extend

the top for ventilation and also to prevent house

from being siphoned as they discharge.

traps

Grade.

Without
a
everything to a sewer.
is a costlyand dangerous thing.
proper gradea sewer
surface
If a street has sufficient grade to carry
water
well,then it may be settled that the grade is

Grade

is

22

"

sufficient for

enough

should

sewer

clinatio
in-

have

produce a velocityof
for the
half full,
when

to

feet per second

three

the

but

sewer,

"

least

at

smallest

sewers.

lightgrade producessuch

that solid

be moved

cannot

matters

solid matters

the water

Either

flow

constant

to

will be

to

induce

left while

is bad.

extreme

have

As

it is

for
it is necessary
flush tank located at the end
liable

remain

so

perfectsystem of grades
sufficient to keep the sewers
clear,
and economy
to have
a
efficiency

always possibleto

not
or

on.

goes

and

steep grade is apt

clog the pipe,while

that
such
a velocity

sluggish current

of

each

able

to

line which

is

suffer.

to

flush tank

should

be

50 to 150 gallonsof water

be
into a sewer, and should

in less

dischargefrom

than

minute

one

adjustedto dischargeonce
twice a day. A proper system of flushingwill reor
quire
of
water
not exceedingtwo
three
a quantity
or
Flush tanks
per cent, of the total supply of the town.
cost from
$50 to $80 each,in place.
A certain width, not
less than
ten
feet,in the
middle

of the

and

water, gas

The
and

no

street
or

depend

sewers

therefore should

should
other
upon

be

reserved

conduits

for

sewers,
permittedthere.

grade, the

do

others

not,

give way.

Specifications.
When

the
should

sewer

be written

portionconstructed
The

system is planned proper

should

for

the

conform

should
specifications

work
to

the

and

fications
specievery

tions.
specifica-

the
only cover
in the streets,but should
work
nections.
apply to house conEverybody should procure a permit from
the Street Superintendentto connect
with the sewer,
and the job must
be inspectedby that official or the
Engineer,before being covered. The specifications
should prescribe
the size and
grade of the soil pipe,
and the manner
connections
of connection,all house
not

23

"

to
or

"

by a licensed drain layer,and care1essness

incompetency to be punished by the revoking [of

be made

the license.

Disposal.
disposalis assuming
question of sewage
great importance of late years, and as the country
becomes
more
thickly populated the pollutionof
will be looked after strictly. It is not right
streams
derive
from which
towns
that streams
perhaps some
their water
supply, should be used to carry sewage
from towns
the source,
as
nearer
epidemicsare
away
of a
liable to result,and the people near
the mouth
hold their lives and health subjectto the will
stream
is it rightfor a town
Neither
of those above
them.
health
to endanger its own
by discharging sewage
into lakes or marshes
near
by.
as
is
be
to
Sewage
gotten rid of as expeditiously
and towns
able to dischargeinto tidal bays
possible,
the ocean
to be congratulated,for the filth is
or
are
tion.
carried to sea and there rendered
innocuous
by diluThe

interior towns
disposalfor their waste
But

plans of
For

this

towns
reason

must

matters, and

will take
the

providesome

system

future

into consideration

separate system

of

sewerage
this fact.

will grow

in

favor,as it providesa minimum

quantityof sewage
and therefore a saving of expense.
to be treated,
There are four ways
of disposingof sewage :
Mechanical
ist.
separation.
This method
separates the solids and liquids,
leaving a clear effluent to be dischargedinto the
stream

is open

or

lake.

Whether

this

effluent

is harmless

question.
2d.
Chemical
precipitation.
The sewage
into tanks, and a chemical
is run
precipitant,such as crude sulphate of alumina, is
mixed
with it. All solids are deposited,
and a clear,
odorless effluent is discharged.
to

24

"

In

both, the

preceding methods
as
slndge,"which

The

there

known
left,
rid of.

"

method

the least trouble

used

should

be

nmst

is a material
be gotten

which

one

gives

and

It may
be dried in
expense.
for fertilizing.
open pitsand sold or given to farmers
It may
be run
to land and be plowed in,or simply
on
left to dry. It may
be dried 'and burned
in kilns.
Broad

3d.

irrigation.

The

is

to land

for

The
irrigation.
land
and can
raisingfruits and vegetables,
be rented
for such
by the municipality.
purpose
Properly planned and executed,this is a cheap and
of disposal.
efficient method
Interm itlent Jilt
ration
4th
This is a cheap method
and one
which
meets
with more
favor than irrigation.The
jection
principalobfrom
to broad
comes
irrigation
people with
who
squeamish ideas,
objectto eatinganything which
have
been
For nitration
irrigatedby sewage.
may
a small
pieceof land with a porous soil is selected
and drained.
At intervals the sewage
is discharged
the land and allowed to percolatethrough the soil.
on
It is relieved of all impuritiesin suspensionby filtering,
and the slow movement
bed
through the filtering
of all impurities
gives time for thorough purification
in solution by exposing it to the beneficial influence
of oxygenizing agencies.
During the present year (1894)pricesfor sewer
sewage
is used for

run

on

work

in San

have

been

Francisco

about as
and
Manholes

and

follows

other

cities in this State

complete $25 to $50.

Cesspoolsand culverts with corner
complete$100.
6-inch sewers
per lineal foot,
30 to
70 cents.
8

"

"

"

covers

"

40
"

"

10
"

"

"
"

"
"

12

"

60

"

16

"

18

"

"
"

"
"

"
"

$1.00

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

1.75
"

2.00
"

"

"

1.50
"

"

1.50

1.25
"

"

"

"

2.50
"

"

"

1.75

"

1.50
"

"

"

$1.00

"

75

14

20

"

"

3.00

The
of

cost

of

and

qualityof

sewer

also

with

laying varies

sewer

material

sixty per

Brick
of diameter

cent

from

from

cost

sewers

in

The

latter

75 cents

$2.00 per foot

to

four
place. Thus, a sewer
might cost from $3.00 to $8.00 per
and depth.
depending upon specifications

CHAPTER

That

is

price list.

in

WATER

depth

the

excavation, and

discount.

manufacturers'

sometimes

with

feet in diameter
lineal

footy

IV.

SUPPLY.

supply is essential to the

growth of a town goes without saying,as one of the
first questions asked
facturers
by possible residents or manuis in regard to the water
supply.
of
A
man
thinking
establishinga business in
where
one
always wants
good water works
any town
for manufacturing, and
can
supply him with water
protection in case of fire. He always inquiresabout
If he intends
a
sewer
system, also,to dispose of wastes.
livingthere he wants
good water for drinking
and

good

household

water

and

purposes,

system

sewer

to pre-

his health.

serve

Sources.

The

of

sources

and
selected,

all

water

danger

of

supply must
pollutionshould

be

be

carefully
guarded

against.
Artesian
source

be

is

are

but
available,

obtained

small

wells

place.

of

well

it is seldom

sufficient
town

when

enough

volume

that
to

consideringthe

no
a

well

other
can

a
supply even
propositionof

26

"

"

wells
artesian
from
must
obtaining water
proceed
slowly and carefullyin order that after the hole is
bored and pipes laid,the volume
of water
to depend
will justifythe expenditureof the money
spent
upon
to

it.

secure

It is not
per

safe

and
per capita,

day

the

reach 60
town, may
capita. Estimates based on
wells

Driven

are

the water

is obtained

the

as

tubes

amount,

in

the sand

wanted.

be well done

or

The

bed from

be connected

may

This

is

perhaps

the wells

with
directly

will

is in

be

stant
con-

into
may
open
from it,or the
the wells.

of the best methods

one

water, but necessitates a pumping

few towns, however, are so situated as to
have

which

body to supply
sealing of the

The wells
and expense.
worry
large cistern and the water pumped

pumps

30 gallons
turing
manufaca

gallonsper day per

the total population.
of supply, if
good source

is of sufficient

rapidlyas

must

than

to 80

and

there is ample watershed

water

less

figure on

to

for plying
supsystem. As
be

able

to

back.
perfectgravity supply, this can be no drawwith mains
In fact a town
suppliedby pumps
is
good positionas regards fire,for pressure

wanted

for fire streams.

be
must
running streams
for pollution,
examined
and unless perfectly
carefully
before use
be subjected to
be rejected,
or
pure must
If obtained
from
some
purifyingprocesses.
higher
altitude it may
and
be piped to the town
stored
in
Water

obtained

reservoirs for

streams

Lake
above

These

use.

capacityto
of drought,

from

reservoirs must

ficient
be of suf-

requisitestorage for periods

from
the
as
supply
necessary,

afford the
if

is variable.

water, unless

obtained

from

the mountains

with

of supply.
dairyranches,is a doubtful source
When
the quantity requiredis not
great, the
with
a
standpipe or tank
system is by pumps
a capacityfor about
twenty-fourhours' supply.

The

tank

best

fire when

furnishes

the

pressure,
it is better to disconnect

except in
it and

case

attach

of
the

27

"

"

to the
supply main.
directly
need only be used to keep the

pump
pump

With

pumping
pipes in

of

town

3000

tank

filled.
inhabitants a direct

with
preferable,

is

system

over

Ordinarilythe

several

stand

different parts of town, if it is very

The

hillyor
supplied by the

pipes will be
district.
force main, and each will supply its own
be
With
a
large city a gravity system may
cheaper than a pumping system, but it will require
careful planning in any case.
broken.

stand

Uses.

drinking, manufacturing
laundries
and baths,street sprinkling,
sewer
purposes,
fires,etc., and unless it can
flushing,irrigating,
it is not a good combe used for all these purposes
mercial
needed

is

Water

for

water.

be all right for cooking and drinking,

It may
and
unfit for the manufacturer
or
laundry. It is
be
but it can
for everyone,
hard to get a perfectwater
averaged up pretty well so that the people will be
satisfied.
the

Where
be

practiced
;

sea, salt water

and

purposes,
farther.

supply

but
may
thus

when
be
the

is small
a

town

used

to

fresh

must

great economy
is located

near

advatage for
water
supply

the

certain
can

go

flushingwater-closets
it is better
and
for bathing. For
flushing sewers
of its greater specific
fresh water, on
than
account
gravity,and it leaves the air in the sewer
very fresh
Salt

and

water

is excellent

for

clear.

sprinklingstreets, in English cities where

it has been
extensivelyused,it is highly esteemed.
much
round
of a watering cart
One
to do as
seems
count
good as three rounds with fresh water, and on acit serves
of its hygrometric properties
to keep
the air cool and the ground moist a long time.
For extinguishing fires it is of doubtful benefit,
For

28"-

"

building,if well soaked, will

to be a healthy habitation.
sufficiently

as

the

Sizes

dry

never

out

of Pipes.
the

Whether
works

water

town

owns
owns

company

the water
the

the

works, or

town, there

should

be certain regulations
regarding sizes of pipe. It is
have plenty
economical
to buy largepipes and
more
of hydrants than to buy fire hose.
All street

mains

should

be at least six inches

in

for water
increases in a far
diameter,as the demand
the
population. The cost of
greater degree than
water-pipeincreases rapidlywith size,but not in proportion
In a growing town
it is econoto its value.
my
and
not be obligedto
to lay large pipes at first,
change every little while.

Cast iron
feet from

the

pipe is generallyin lengths of

mouth

in

place.

Cast

iron

when

is

of

one

commonly

bell to that of the

used, but

steel it may

as

be said

next

compared
that the

with

wrought

days

of cast iron water

pipes are nearing an end.
dead weight comiron pipes represent too much
pared
of obtaining
with their strength,as the best method

Cast

long
make

iron and

twelve

service

before destruction

by

is to
tation
incrus-

rust

It is very hard to prevent

in cast
iron pipes,and being to a certain extent
brittle,
they are in great danger of breakagefrom
them

"water

thick.

ram."

in that it pospipe is preferable,

sesses
greater strength in proportionto its weight
than cast iron.
Being "tough" and not "brittle" its
It also
enables it to stand greater shocks.
elasticity
is not
retains protectivepreparationslonger, and
troubled
It generally
much
with incrustation.
so
in longer pieces than cast iron,and therefore
comes
has fewer joints,
making it easier and cheaper to lay

Wrought

and

maintain.

iron

"

29

"

Lock

joint,seamless,wrought iron pipe is superior

lap and riveted pipe,in that it is so smooth
that very littleobstruction is met
with, and an

to

inside
even

flow may

be maintained.

Cost.

The

of

cost

gravity system

after proper surveys,

for supply can
be calculated

only

can

The

be

mated
esti-

gallon
est
by adding togetherinterof construction,
cost
taxes
on
on
plant,cost of
renewal,salaries,
wages, etc.,of employes, allowance
for accidents,
of gallons
etc.,and dividingby number
etc.

cost

per

furnished.
An

approximate
be

idea of the cost

of

pumping

The

ing
cost of raiseasilygiven.
million
one
gallons one hundred feet will range
from seven
to thirtydollars.
The following
is for a town
estimate
of from 1000
in a flat country, and
to
inhabitants,
supplied
3500
from
into
wells
redwood
tank
a
on
by pumping
a
tower
seventy feet high.
should be the smallest
Although 6-inch mains
much
to save
as
as
used, still,
possibleon first cost,
6-inch mains
will be only put in on the main business
in the more
dence
thicklysettled resistreet, 4-inch mains
farther out.
and 3-inchmains
district,

system

can

more

SUMMARY.

Land

for

plant,(say)
lo-inch wells,
Two
Two
duplex steam
pumps,
Two boilers,
complete,
Erection of pumps
and boilers,
Buildings,
tank on
One 6o,ooo-gallon
redwood
tower, with foundation,
feet 6" pipe,3 feet deep,
1800
"

12000
"

17000

4"
3"

"
-

"""---

$ 500

oo

1000

oo

900
600

oo
oo

500
600

oo

2500

oo

I3S"
6000

""

6800

oo

oo

70- foot

oo

30

"

"

Twenty hydrants,assorted sizes,

Twenty-fivewater gates, assorted sizes,
Specialpieces,
Contingencies,
Contractor's profits,

550

oo

200

oo

200

oo

1300

oo

2000

oo

$25,000

oo

Total,
This
into the

plant should raise 15,000 gallons per hour

tank, so that four hours' pumping will fill it,
be used
for direct pumping in
can
pumps

and

the

case

of fire.

The
boilers
a

be

outfit is in

fire break

"

that the town

so

"

duplicate

out

at

will not
when
one

time

two

and

pumps

two

be

helplessshould
happens to
pump

disabled.

The
per year

Interest

and

Renewals

of

cost

operationshould

be about

fixed

and

charges,
depreciations,
-

Extensions,
Engineer and fireman,
Fuel,etc.,

The

town

oo

1000

oo

1000

oo

1150

oo

500

oo

$5650

pumping

system will

$2000

""

Total,
The

follows

as

serve

of

capacitybeing large
for

some

the

oo

above

time.

Hanford, Cal.,in August, 1893,was

works
water
system for $20,000,

supplied with a
bonds being voted for payment.
The
The
population is about 3000 or 3500.
site is comparativelylevel,and
the pipes are
town
cost
suppliedby direct pumping. The pump
$1400,
and
the pipe is eight inches,six inches,five inches,
and four inches in diameter,
very best qualityof lock
jointwrought iron pipe,treated inside with a preparation
of lead,tin and
nickel
to prevent corrosion.
The lengthsare about the same
going
as
given in the forefeet
example. A fire alarm system and 2000
of fire hose
was
included,and 32 double-nozzle hydrants.
No

tower

or

tank.

31

"

"

Probablyas complete data

other

small
shown

cost

of

will

water

The

towns.

aid

be obtained

can

from

ample
given and the exdetermining the probable

estimate
in

supply system

for

small

town.

Ownership.
givenfor a water
works
or
city,but each should
system in any town
The
interests of the people will
possess their own.
assured.
be better served
and fire protection
There

To

should

establish

be

franchises

no

proper
sanitaryregulationswhich

system

sewer

enforce

and

consumption
of much
water, without also owning the water works,
the people the profits
is equivalentto stealingfrom
the
If the town
earned by the water
owns
company.
water
ured
works, the exact cost of running them, as figeach
be ascertained
above,can
year, and the
fixed

rates

water

on

call for

the

that basis.

municipalityto
but
it is to provide sewers,
as
provide pure water
when
standpoint
consideringit from an economical
will have nothing to do in
it is assumed
that politics
It is

as

much

the administration.
made

or

to

bring a

the

duty

Water
revenue.

of

can

It

the

be

furnished

can

also be

at
a

cost

source

of expense.

CHAPTER

V.

SURVEYS.

Many of our towns have been settled so long that

all the originalsurvey
stakes have
disappeared,and
a
happy go lucky" way of establishing fences and
erectingbuildingshas crept in,with the result that
"

32

"

"

impossibleto re-establish the original

lines with any certainty.
The longer such a state of affairs continues,the
the confusion, and the prospects of costlylawsuits
worse
future time when
land
are
promising at some
it is almost

has

increased

in value.

Re-Surveys.
need

the

When

of

some

definition

proper

of

is made, it
realized,and a re-survey
should
be made
by a competent Engineer,and should
when
show
the followingobjects
platted:

boundaries

mark

All

All

an

stakes

originalcorners,

and

monuments

be in at the time.

may

The
to

of

corners

buildingson the street line.

lots and buildingssupposed

corners.

3d.
which

and

All fences

st.

2d.
to

is

above

should

be

plattedon

scale of 50 feet

inch.

record
on
original deeds and descriptions
and boundaries
should be plattedon the map, and corners
It is a risky thing to
adjustedwith great care.
and
disturb long established possessions,
only the
All

most

careful and

combination
a

job in

and

the

will be.
been
and

way

longerit is put
The

off the

more

of Geodetical

name

It is

this part of

an

troublesome

it

Jurisprudencehas
Engineer'sduties,

plattedon cloth-mounted
24x36 inches, and when
adjusted and the work officially

should be
map
sheets of about

acceptedthese

been

and filed
be well bound
Public Records.
as
a part of the
should be established in
monuments

sheets

the Clerk

Permanent

more

will do.

engineeringskill to do such
the majorityof the residents,
to satisfy

paper, on
all the lines have

various

work

legaland

of

conferred upon
it is a fit one.

The

with

conscientious

should

parts of town, and

trouble

can

occur.

well

located

so

that

no

33

"

"

Working- Maps.
The

of the boundary
maps
kept in case of future trouble,and

surveys
there is

of detail which

on

will be of

therefore

the town
all the lines have

should

been

should
be
map
inches,and should show:
with

an

courses

All

official map,

an

official map

of about

sheets

on

All street and

lot lines
and
distances.

st.

2d.

after

and

24x36

re-established,

as

established

monuments

lines,their kind, number

to

preserve

sizes and

location.

and
within
streams
4th. All water courses
and
limits,their size,direction,
points of

Contours

5th.
elevation

the

All sewers, water

and gas pipes,
their length,
material,and all drains,culverts,etc.

3d.

town

have

amount

an

adjusted.

This

use

no

be

to

are

above

on

all the

the
charge.
dis-

streets, showing the

which
base,or plane of reference,
has been adopted as citybase.
The data for these working maps
all be collected
can
when
the boundary survey
is made, at a slight
increase in cost.
A
complete survey, as above,will
to establish
give the town data from which
grades,
in
all improvements.
put
sewers, and in fact make
The field work
of surveying is expensive^ and
can
Office work
only be prosecutedin favorable weather.
is cheaper,and can
be done at all times. It is economical
to do all the field work
at one
time, and have
data

hand

at

work

so

some

that when

the

cost

of any

street

or

is

wanted, the Engineer can, by working

in his office,
awhile
Sometimes
give his estimates.
this information
is wanted
quickly,and bad weather
so
ing
prolongoperationsthat the cost of Engineermay
services on a job will be out of all proportion to
sewer

the

of the work

cost

The
feet to

an

scale

inch.

itself.

of this map

should

be

one

hundred

34

"

"

Levels.

plane of reference should be selected from

which
and grades. The
to figureall officialelevations
of lower low tides is a good plane of reference,
mean
if any government
bench
marks
are
near
enough to
ascertain it;or low water
mark
in the stream
into
which
the sewer
outlet dischargesmay
be taken.
The
plane of reference can be termed zero, and elevations
described as being so many
feet above or below it.
Frequentbench marks throughout the town, referring
should
be
established so that long
to citybase,
lines of levels will be avoided in doing any work.
One
of these
benches
should
be established by
or
more
ordinance,the rest can be fixed by the Town
neer
Engifor his

convenience.

own

Extensions.

Street

of land

All subdivisions
should be subjectto
before

the

within

the

limits

town

approval of the Council

streets
are
accepted. The

and

gineer
En-

Council

mum
prescribethe width of the streets and the maxition
grade. The plats should show proper connecwith adjacentcitymonuments,
and have monuments

can

at each

referred to
the time

The

corner.

citybase

the

elevation of all

should

be shown

official map

corners

in red ink.

At

is

accepted an ordinance
should be passed,dealing with future
subdivisions,
additions,
grades,etc.
General

Maps.

For the purposes

of street
water
rates, etc.,it is
hand
about
show
or

lithographedmaps
four hundred

only street

elevations.

foot square.

and

They
Several

of the

feet to

an

tax

assessments,

good plan to
town

inch.

on

These

have

lections,
colon

scale of
maps

will

property lines without

should

be

on

field notes
sheets about one

pastedtogether will

make

one

35

"

"

full map.
Citizens wanting maps
can
buy them from
the Clerk,and sometimes
enough may be sold to pay
for the printing. In any case
they will be extremely
valuable

and

of the

will

too

save

full and

more

much

ers,
handling,by outsidcomplete officialmaps.

CHAPTER
CONTRACTS

VI.

AND

WORK,

Specifications.
For

should

be

complete specifications,
be done
and
should
nothing
carefullydrawn,
The
smallest piece of work
without
such
papers.
when
will be done in a more
both
manner
satisfactory
when
such
than
tions
direcpartieshave plaindirections,
are
wanting.
are
plain descriptions,
Complete specifications
detail
of the work
in
with drawings if necessary,
to
be done,and should form a part of the contract, which
it is taken, and
under which
recites the circumstances
the rewards
and punishments for its faithful or nonshould be drawn
The specifications
faithful execution.
drawn
by the
by the Engineer, and the contract
Attorney.
all work

there

Contracts.
No
an

contracts

estimate

of

should
cost

has

until
let for any work
and
been
made
submitted

be

and plans.
specifications
Estimates of cost are
generallygiven to assist
the work
be
should
not
in determining whether
or
and when
it is decided to go ahead
plans
prosecuted,
with

the

36

"

"

and

called for. When

these are
are
specifications
complete a careful estimate of the cost should be
made and left in a sealed envelopewith the Clerk ; all
bids to be submitted
in sealed envelopes and
not
The exact
estimate of
opened until the proper time.
cost being known
sumed
only to the Engineer,it being ashe is honest, goes far to prevent pooling.
When
the time for opening the bids arrives,the
Engineer'sestimate is first opened and the lowest
responsiblebidder gets the contract, provided,in the
Engineer'sjudgment,he can do it at the figuresgiven.
If the bids

all far above

are

for the Council

do

the

estimated

decide

to

it

whether

work.

If

cost, it
to let

mains
re-

tract
con-

by day's
Engineer is
competent and they have confidence in him, this is
States
perhaps a good way to settle it. In some
however,the law reads that all work estimated to cost
be let by contract.
than a specified
must
more
sum
small
sections
By dividingthe work into sufficiently
the law is sometimes
evaded, but strict honesty does
and there is no
not justifysuch
a proceeding,
omy
econor

the

in it.
When

the contract

the

estimate,then

of work

amount

the

They

pricefor

plans

were

class work

than
and

drawn
is

pieceof

it is far better to

work
do

ceeds
ex-

less

ing
by altermoney
is often done.
as
specifications,

to

always

to

secure

the

try

to

save

class
first-

work, and

first-

cheapest.

Work.
It is not

economical

for the

nish
to furmunicipality
and contract
simply

material
paving or sewer
for labor,as the inspectorsare
apt to be lenient in
passingimperfectmaterial in order to save loss. The
furnish everything,
only way is to have the contractor
and have
it rigidlyinspected before being put in
place.
An exceptioncan
be made
in favor of macadam,
the town
as
should own,
or
lease,a quarry and fur-

37

"

nish macadam

There

men

are

many
to bid on

encouraged

and

its own

crusher

with

teams, who

all street

and

work,

should
if the

be

town

sprinklersthey can be rented

If obligedto furnish such
contractors.
for them
with
to compete
be impossible

these

small

tools it would

large firms.
in
invests
Therefore,if a town
road rollers and sprinklersthe roads
repaircheaply,and they will be the
great deal of money

rock

certain

number

take

the interests
When
pay

means

at home.

for

of

bids,that
bor.
day's la-

employ

justicecan

endorse

and

rian who

the

not

inserts such

that

certain

of local contractors

The

in

notified that

are

and

demagogue

one

humanity.

contractors

nor

stated

will constitute

of hours

certain wages

reason

kept in
of keeping

State laws requireit,and no

fact,some
exceptions to such a law, which is drawn

In
can

crushers^

be

can

It is often stated in advertisements

a

screens.

road rollers and

owns

to

from

at cost

"

local

they must
workmen, neither
It is the

that action.

philanthropistor humanitait is
provision. Also, when

percentage
will be

on

the

results

given, the

favor

in

cost

are

nicious.
per-

the best for the

With
people and not to encourage
any industries.
and residence of workmen
they have nothing
wages
be done
The
work
to do.
must
as
reasonably as
Officers

and
possible,

To

money.

and

to

home

do

get the

people must

encourage

labor

by

such

The

aids in

labor
those

treasury doors, and

the
scarce

in

and

to

contractors

independent when

costly

far from
force
find

protectedby

authority.

It is well

help should

to

not

local contractors
paid for their use

to

very

the

tions
restric-

in

workmen, so
pools.
lever
the Council as
a
use
feelinggrateful,

open

for their

most

contractors, always results

the

on

work

the

elected

are

industry,but
the rentingof

tools

before

The

to be

be

by

home
encourage
go farther than
as
can

stated.
ascertained

rent

such

the bidders

38

"

before

the

item of cost
will
exceed

by

the

per cent

are

not

right to

honest,and tend
up

For

will be

lowest

get the contract, provided his

taxpayer has
run

"the

it is stated that

the

to

submitting bids,and

an

to them.

when

But

for

date

"

the

priceof

economical
honest

lowest

bid

does

not

outsider's

Such

rebel.

to the

der
local bid-

formation

bid,"
provisions

of combines

work.

work

there

biddingand

and
competent supervision,

must

be

good specifications

lettingof contracts, with

severe
penaltiesfor non-

performance and shirking.

Dry nursing of local labor
day'slabor are to be avoided.

CHAPTER

and

employment

of

VIL

PLANS.

When
plans for sewerage
desired there are two methods

or

water

supply

are

sidered,
only which can be conof which
be adopted.
must
one
The first method, which
is undoubtedly the best,
is to select a competent Engineer and have him
pare
prefair pricefor his workr
the plans. Pay him
a
and give him every facility
in its prosecution. This
is a proceedingin accordance
with
the old saying,
to his trade."
"Every man
The
be
of course
plans when
completed must
presented to the Council and acceptedor rejected,
but not passed upon
as
by experts. The Engineer
is the man
whose
supposedly superiorknowledge of
the subjectthe board are
and for this
to rely upon,
he was
reason
employed. Any criticism of technical
scientific features of his work
of place if
or
out
are

"

his selection

was

on

expediency alone
his plans. They
do not
of some.

39

account

govern

the

"

ability.Questions of
selection or rejection
of
or
high-priced,
perhaps

of

be too
may
suit certain local conditions

to the

satisfaction

changes suggestedhe can consider,

If not
be modified.
and if practicable
the plans can
his
he should then be preparedto defend
practicable
ideas.
in the selection of an
neer,
EngiBy using care
and dealingwith him as with a business
man,
it will be found that good service and economy
may
The

be secured.
is that
method
to the above
objection
in practicalpoliticsthere
is a mysterious factor
trously
known
as
"pull." This pull often operates disasit is proposed
when
to a town's best interests,
In the
for any
to employ competent
men
purpose.
appointment of the "expert,"one is sometimes called
whose
assumption of the claim to be considered such
for
is unwarranted.
He is employed out of gratitude
past favors received,or prospectivefavors to be
of authority
granted,or out of friendshipto someone
in awhile,
in local affairs. It happens that once
cials
when
intending to do their full duty, the town offifail through ignorance of what
unintentionally
in
for the work
reallyconstitutes a competent man

The

great

The

second

hand.
offer
well.

method

is to advertise for

bonus for the best one

two.
or
This method
if properly followed

plans,and

In the first placethe time

should

in which

result

to prepare

to six
plans should be ample, being from one
One
months
accordingto the importanceof the town.
for givingplenty of time is to enable
reason
itors
competto
carefullyand not compel
study the matter
is that
them
it through. Another
reason
to rush
work
must
only one or two win, therefore a number
these men
for nothing. By giving plenty of time
can
give their spare time to the work on which they
take chances of payment and lose nothing else. Firstclass men
being generallybusy time counts, and if

the

"

40

"

compelled to drop other work for the bare chance of

winning a bonus they decline to enter into competition,
and their fellows who
happen to be doing little
reap the benefit. By giving time enough to prepare
plans the town stands a good show of securingthem
from

better

men.

In the second
full.

blue

placethe data furnished should be

printof the town should be furnished,

with all the officialelevations

grades have
three

not

been

feet interval

marked

thereon.

established,contours

should

be

drawn.

of

Where
two

or

All

existing
pipes (if a

(ifa sewer
system is desired)or
water
supply system) should be shown, with their
condition and elevations,
and all other
sizes,
material,
will be useful.
data which
A printeddescription
of
the place and all information
regardingit which will
help should be prepared.
Thirdly,the advertisement should state the time
of work
desired,the
plans will be judged,the amount
the plans
of prizesand their number, where
amount
should
be sent, whether
they will be judged by the
Council or by competent Engineers,and providethat
all competitors
should mark
some
sign or symbol on
their plans and reports,and deposita sealed envelope
and address with the Clerk of
containingtheir name
the Board, the sign they use
being on the outside of
the envelope. This will aid in a fair selection,
for if
no
jobberyis indulged in all plans will be judged
of the authors of the
solelyon their merits,and none
until the premiums are awarded,
plans will be known
the envelopes are
when
opened. The unsuccessful
have
their plans
if they so desire,
competitors,
may
made
for a man
mention
returned without
of the fact,
in such
loss of reputation
suffers some
if unsuccessful
a competition.
There are several reasons
why the selection of
the best plans should be left to competent Engineers,
the most
important one being that few Engineers of
standing and abilitywill enter plans otherwise,thus
the town
is a loser.
Sometimes
Engineersof unsewers

41

"

"

doubted

will present plans for the judgment

ability
of the Council,
but it is generallyin cases
where
there is a surety of honesty and fair play,or through
fear that some
mediocre
be adopted and
plans may
the profession
of
injured. There are other reasons
of them
some
hardly creditable.
course,
The plans should
be judged by Engineers because
their education
and trainingare for the purpose
them
for such work, and there is more
of fitting
in it
has any idea of. A town
than the ordinaryman
official,
trained in such special
if not
work, is apt to judge
a certain
by their first cost, or as affecting
plans entirely
locality.
Take
a
sewer
53^ tern, for example. It is a
and there are
highly scientific and complicatedaffair,
details about it which
innumerable
can
only be properly
in such
ters.
matjudged by one who is a specialist
The business man
is not supposed to know
why
sized
certain
which
will
do
is
in
a
too
one
place
pipe
for
small
another;he does not know
why, in several

of sewer, each increase in size calls for

he does not
decrease in inclination;

blocks

the

why
above

the bottom

understand

be

may
judgment. A

Each

discharge

of others.

Plans

them.

know

ferent
pipe,if of a difdischarging
cannot
keep up with the times
of certain devices and the
utility

the

worthlessness

should

responding
cor-

of the

diameter,he
and

manhole

pipe entering a

called

for, and the

come
in,and the

number

presents

his

Council
authors

side of the

own

pass

case

with
and

the officialsget

puzzled. Finallya selection is made

the ground of cost and perhaps when
too late it
on
is found to be the most
costlyof the lot. Some man
which
he
presents a plan costing a certain amount,
claims will drain every portion of the city,but his
estimates

cover

perhaps a

far

every

foot

With
not

occur

main

cheaper system

and

loses

alone.

sewers

on

has

account

Engineers judging
as
they would detect

Another

figuredthe

with
cost

of

of it.
the
at

plans this could

once
anything of

42

"

the kind

render

be detected

can

which

and

"

report accordingly.Bad
mistakes

and

tice
prac-

The

seen.

plan

is

reallythe best will be selected and the people

their
value
for
get good
money.
In some
to be a dislike to consult
placesthere seems
and
notably in the
Engineers on such matters
Western
States. To examine
mittee
plans a comsewerage
and
of plumbers, architects
physicianswill be
or
appointed,with perhaps a contractor
two, while to
examine
plans for water supply,stationaryengineers,
and

machinists
vaunted

contractors

"sense"

yet this

of the business

business

same

man

calls in

man

The

favored.

are

much

is relied

upon,
physicians when

ill,
lawyerswhen sued, and carpenters to build his
To employ the physicianor lawyer to build
house.
his house
be

and

consult

extremely bad
are

form

the

carpenter when

and

not

OWNERSHIP.

of cost in any
follows:

items
'as

Interest

2.

Taxes

3.

Extensions.

4.

Renewals

5.
6.

Labor, supplies,etc.
Administration.

7.

Profits.
first and

connected
then

watered

on
on

that

erally
gen-

plant.
and

maintenance.

last items

they

is not

be

enterprisemay

investment.

1.

The

ferences
in-

VIII.

MUNICIPAL

stated

The

economical.

obvious.

CHAPTER

The

ill would

are

are

sometimes

synonymous,

gilt-edgedunless

but
the

so

closely

ment
the investstock

is

43

"

"

leads men
which
to organhope of profit
ize
companies to supply publicneeds, and to some
economists
the idea of saving the profitsto the
hear
is very
pal
municiusers
alluring. Therefore we
ownership of all kinds of schemes advocated.
It is urged that under
publiccontrol the only
It is the

of cost

items

are

1.

Administration.

2.

etc.
Labor, supplies,

3.

Renewals

4.

Extensions.

and

consumer

small

of other

maintenance.

and

interest

gets his

goods at

taxes
Profits,

the

follows

as

saved, therefore
bare cost or perhaps
help defray the cost
are

profitmay be made to
non-productiveproperties.

It is

well-established

fact that the residents

of

of their own
take care
wastes
municipality must
there is no profit
in a sewer
as
vate
system to tempt prifrom
T
he
a
perfectsewer
enterprise.
only return
health
from
the safety to
conies
system
guaranteed
by its presence and therefore a possibleincrease in
ent
prosperityas populationwill be attracted. The efflufrom the disposalworks
turn
rebring in some
may
but never
the whole
on
enough to be profit
tem.
sysif
the
want
Therefore,
they
good sewers
people
a

must

them.

own

Sometimes

there

is

organizedto collect
There is always much

are

saved.

profitin garbage
it and

and

sell what

panies
comcan

be

left for the

municipality
of even
after these private
to take care
scavengers
the
not
are
large enough to
profits
get through so
tempt the public.
is an absolute necessityand privatecomWater
panies
often make
largeprofits.For health and fire
article that it is as
an
protectionit is so necessary
much
a thing for public
ownership as a sewer
system.
fluence
But the hope of saving in cost should not wholly inthe
is under

in

economist

as

the fact that the water

complete control is the

this question.Sometimes
settling

ply
supfactor
principal

municipal own-

"

ershipis

44

"

expensive a luxury that although taxes;.,

interest and profits
are
saved,the peopleare extremely
liable to pay more
than
for their water
the private
charges.
company
The -reasons
are
simple. In a privatecompany
an
employee's value is rated by his earningcapacity.
is somewhere
in hand
His efficiency
for the work
to the work
expected of him. In
nearly proportioned
often happens that a man's
ness
fita municipalityit too
he holds is apt to be guaged by
for the position
his usefulness
than
at election time.
Patronage more
his appointment.
efficiency
governs
dom
Therefore it is that publicenterprisesare so selcers
economicallymanaged. While the elected offiin their intentions,
be perfectly
honest
and
may
work
their
do their own
to the best of their ability,
appointeeshave no such feelingsbut each is intent
his nest before next election day.
on
feathering
Sometimes
our
City Halls have a gas or electric
light plant, but it has seldom
proved economical..
The lightbeing,as it were,
free is used wastefullyy
and the impossibility
of keeping the department out
of politics
is another
drawback.
Advocates
of wholesale
municipalownership are
doubt honest in their intentions and beliefs,but
no
deficient in perception
of economic
facts. Anything
tending to an increase in salaried positionstends
to increased
expendituresand increased danger of
With
control or "bossism."
an
ment
enlargepolitical
in scope of the Civil Service idea, it is possible
gage
our
municipalities
safely and economically enmay
in various lines of business, but not otherwise.
If economy
and cheap service are
desired,wise
laws well enforced will serve
everything. Men live
in communities
for the sake of advantages offered by
such association,
members
of joint
and not to become
stock companies ; therefore it is a questionif it is not
encroachment
individual rights for a cityto
an
upon
of the
in business for profit. The
members
engage
Council will have their hands full ifthe sewers, schools,
so

45

"

"

fire departments, and

parks, streets, police,
thousand

and

one

et ceteras

It is
own

all

always economical
buildingsit needs, as

will be less than

looked

are

for the

the

one

after

properly.
municipalityto

interest

on

their value

buildingsto rent
is bad because of the employees required. It is wisest
if a municipality
owns
quire
buildings it does not reto lease them
as
a whole.
itself,
done by the muStreet sprinklingis sometimes
nicipality
and sometimes
by individuals. The practice
is not at all uniform,but it is generally
considered
that the work
should
be done by and paid for by the
the sprinkler
should
municipality.
During the season
three rounds
round
make
daily and one
early on
Sunday morning. The cost should not exceed one
But

rent.

to

own

hundred

dollars per month

It is ecofor each mile.
nomical
for the municipalityto own
the sprinklers
and rent them
with teams
to men
to do the work
by
the
furnished
also
the
water
town
by
being
contract,
at a certain priceper hundred
gallons. The reasons
are

obvious.

The

subjectof street sweeping is one which becreases,

-comes
important as the mileageof paved streets inand every largecityhas much
valuable data
the subject.
on
In St. Paul it cost last year about $8.67 per mile
The work
the streets.
is principally
done
to sweep
by machines, and the refuse is shoveled into carts
all
and carried to dumping places. The
work
men
night, and around the business centers the streets
are
swept each night. The principalpaved streets
outside the business center
are
swept twice a week,
and an endeavor
is made to clean the whole cityeach
Saturday night for the comfort of Sunday drivers.
The

teamsters

furnish

their

$3.25 per day; shovelers

$2.10.
In San

Francisco

rule,and the
1892,$16.40 per

the

contract

own

teams

and

receive

men
get $1.60 per day, and foremachine

pricehas

mile. Some

has been
since July,
been swept

sweeping

streets

been
have

46

"

"

daily, except Sundays, jvhile

others

are

seldom

touched.

The
with

the

have

this Summer

work

the

which

in

manner

the

the

conducted

business

work

result
are

the streets

moving
of

man

can

take

street

sweep

$15.00

per mile.

care

With

charity.

and

well

the

and

mile.

After

of three

As

merchants
ure.
nat-

claimed

keepingit

that

clean

all

the street

is swept
To
ordinaryblocks.

day by hand,

machine

and

service of like

street

each

once

real

of men,

$1.25 per day, it is

sweeping a
day long is $30.00 per
one

was

number

continuous

secure

at

look

now

labor

With
the cost

to

been

thus

has

dissatisfied

done, and
extensive
experiments
the city. They have

portion of
given employment to a great

in
.

Association became

Merchants'

and

hand

the

cost

labor

is

bined,
com-

will cost $10.00 per mile. This

one
ures
citylias few level streets,and therefore the above fig-

dailyround

can

seem
.high.Long stretches on slightgrades
may
be more
cheaply done than short, hillysections,

and

continuance

of the

present experiments in

will be looked to with interest.

largerterritory
employed
the solution of the "unAs a suggestiontoward
it might be a good
workingman" question,
all street sweeping
plan for the municipalityto own
tools and machinery to let to small contractors.
Have
the districts small,and contracts
let for short periods.
for the work
The unemployed could contract
and use
the publicproperty, paying a small rental. It is possible
that in this

manner

the work

could

be

done

at

extremely low rates, and the genuine workman, who

disdains to beg, be helped. The
never
hungry man
position
but if such a thing does happen, and a dis"pools,"
be
is manifested
to run
can
up prices,men
hired by the day. The sweeping being done at night
and after business hours, gives the men
some
tunity
opporness
busiand do odd jobs. When
to look for work
is good and there are few unemployed, the work
forded,
be afwill be comparatively high, but it can
then
and machine
sweeping will be the rule. When

times

hard

are

will be

there

contracts

keener

will be the rule.

is the order

of

be let

can

competition
it is then

As
the

the

day

and

cheaply,as
hand
sweeping

time

when

more

economy
will
be the
municipality

gainer.
In regard to franchises
or
privilegesfor
certain
should
enterprises,great care
There
of

is evident

the

fact that
and

valuable,
an

heretofore

than

return

applicationis
should

man

and

each

franchises
the
for

to

be

cised.
exer-

tion
stronger recognioftentimes

are

tremely
ex-

public should
get a larger
privilegesgranted. When
for

received

be selected

year

ing
conduct-

make

franchise
a

careful

competent

examination

the

projectto ascertain the possible

The
value.
be pubapplicationand report should
lished,
with
chise
franthe
which
the
terms
together
upon
will be granted, and
certain
a
day the
upon
stated
highest bidder will receive it,provided some
report upon

at

amount

that

if the

have

the

least is bid.

Provision

should

be made

so

original applicant is overbid,he should

and get the
right to offer ten per cent more

franchise.
The
follows

be

should

about

as

The
use

of the franchise

terms

streets

are

publicproperty,

them

for certain purposes

therefore changes of

does not

and

the

transfer

right to
ship;
owner-

grade, etc., are still under

control of the Public Officers,and
an
understanding
shall
should
be had that the municipality
pay no part
of the expense
of raising or lowering pipes or conduits,
or
changing car tracks or any other work the
of changes desired
account
have to do on
company
may
by the people.
The

limits within

should

be

provided in
within

The

defined

event

certain

the

company
and
severe
plainly,

of the

territorynot

shall operate

penalties
being occupied

time.

publicand privateservice,and
service prescribed.

cost

qualityof

which

of

the

"

As

of

compensationfor
using the streets, the

five to ten
and

48

"

the

(notexclusive)
privilege
should

from
pay
into the ury,
treasper cent of its gross receipts
that when
the company
provisionmade
company

its
six or seven
on
profitof over
per cent
the municipal treasury shall
actual capitalinvested,
in
receive twenty per cent of such increased profits,
addition to the percentage on gross receipts.
The authorities should retain the rightof inspection
of the company's books and works
at all times.
should deposita guarantee fund
The company
or
fund, with the
bond, equal to its construction
Treasurer,until construction is finished.
fund
A renewal
equalto twenty per cent of the
be invested in bonds
of the
invested capitalshould
municipalityand kept on depositwith the municipal
makes

authorities.
for
Specifications

all work

be

must

approved by

officers.

the proper

tracks,so that vehicles may

gauge
tracks
should
between
the
space

lay only standard

travel easily and
be
well
paved.

Tracks

concentrate

Street

upon

car

companies

in the middle
the

sides,and

of

should

street

the cost of street

On macadamized

therebyincreased.
is more
than
doubled, therefore
of cost in street
should be decided.

the

maintenance

travel

maintenance
streets

is

the cost

company's proportion
and
ments
improve-

mal
propelledby other than anithe maximum
speed should be prescribed.
power
Electric roads should be requiredto stand the
of all damage caused
to
privateor
public,
expense
corporate property by electrolysis.A clause of this
for conkind is better than reams
of specifications
struction.
On

street

Franchises

car

lines

for power

light should be very

and safetyto the
streets

and

as
explicit
using the
regards
public.
If wires are permitted
above ground there should
be only one line of poles on the streets ; owned by the

municipality and
using them.
Ordinances
dead

No

with

loose

be

should

of

end

be disastrous.

various

wires

should

permitted
a

dead

companies
be

strict.

remain,

to

wire

Electric light wires

as

circuit

may
electric lightwire and

poorly insulated

the

to

regarding

wires

sometimes

rented

the

sults
re-

should

be

as
thoroughly insulated and all wire routes
parallel
diminish
of
the
to
as
liability crossing.
possible
tain
Finally,a franchise should be granted for a cerlimited period with
a
provision that in certain
contingenciesand after a certain date the municipality
can
acquire the whole
plant and appurtenances
by purchase upon a fair basis of valuation to be provided

for in the
When

contract.

public property it should

plantbecomes
be leased,under
to pricomplete municipal control
vate
the
be bid for and
companies. The lease can
can
offering the most
satisfactoryterms
company
have
it. These
be for long periods.
leases should
In

the

connection

there is

now

to

to

law

counties
the

grant them

herewith
in

be

it may

California

stated

requiringall

cities and towns

cities,
highest bidder and making

that
ties,
coun-

chises
to sell fran-

and

it unlawful

otherwise.

CHAPTER

IX.

BONDS.

The

time

is

municipality, when
work.
and

The

should

issue
be

to

sure

bonds
may

will

prove

to issue

bonds

issued

be

blessing

carefullyconsidered

It is unwise

history of

in the

come

before

for

for
or

every
some

curse

undertaken.

improvements";

"

the nature

and

amount

settled after the

issue.

50--

of said

The

improvements
should

issue

If for any necessary

estimates of cost should

specific
purpose.
and

surveys

everything
should

judge
there

let.

The

publishedand

the

be

to

were

be

carefullydone

as

at

once

as

be

work

be

reports and

careful
and

contracts

estimates

peoplegiven a

chance

of the matter.
When
the bond election
be little doubt of the result.
can

Unless

for

made

though

be

to

to

occurs

municipalityissuing the bonds has

a sufficient financial
rating,that is assessed valuation;
and the debt is kept well under, say five per cent
of
that assessed valuation,it is almost
impossibleto
count.
negotiatebonds, except to speculatorsat a large disthe

The

of the securitydoes not operinsufficiency

ate
sale
of
the
much
bonds
ill-advised
so
as
against
action in their issue. Such operationsare often undertaken
Records
are
hastilyand without due care.

scanty and

lack

of detail shown

which

affects seriously

securityand hampers their sale. Bonds

sold at a premium, at par or below par. To secure
are
their sale at par or premium, all action taken in regard
their

to

the issue should

be deliberate

It is better that the records be

want

of

and

the records

full.

prolixthan injuredby

particulars.

large cities attorneys of recognized reputation

cipal
muniissuance
of
have made
in the
a specialty
bonds and follow that line of practice
to the exclusion
of others,and it is very often cheaper for
than it is to employ
the municipality
to employ them
who, from the fact that local issues
attorneys at home
of bonds
few and far between, have not the same
are
line enfor keeping posted in that particular
joyed
means
The
by those situated in commercial centers.
plans and estimates for the work and the proceedings
the guidof the Council should be constantlyunder
ance
the issue is an
of the best legaltalent,
and when
accomplishedfact it is not likelythe bonds will go
In all

51

"

begging
of

have

or

some

small

mistake

below

sold

be

to

"

mistake.
in

bond

has

issue

results in increased

; it

expense
of the placeto be looked at

Officers up to ridicule.
abuse or
stand mud-slinging,
made

effects: It

three

all securities

causes

and
suspiciously,

the

once

acconnt

on

par

Public

it holds

Officer

can

but
wrongful criticism,
of his influence

target for ridicule much

is gone.

The
them

the

issuance

of bonds

for

long

command

terms

enables

premium, but
The longer the day of
is conducive
to extravagance.
row.
to borreckoning is put off the more
apt people are
It is well to remember
that although ways
of
each day made
the timeare
obtainingmoney
easier,
honored
method
of going down
in the pocket to repay
been
the loan has never
superseded. The old adage
about

readilyto

more

death

and

and is
purposes
In addition
to

paidbut
serious

as

collector

tax

true

as

now

Not

it

all modern

serves
ever

was.

of payment

long term

to a

the interest account

extravagance
item.

is

the

only

the interest

on

the
an

interest

idle

on

ducive
being con-

is

mendous
tre-

the bonds

redemptionfund

is

loss.

Owing

to the

of interest

of loanable

accumulation

funds

the

It seems
lowering year by year.
that bonds be issued for no longer
advisable,
therefore,
than
be refunded.
terms
ten
they can
years, when
do not favor short terms, and dilate upon
Capitalists
the expense
attendant upon
a refundingissue. Short
bonds
seldom
command
that is
term
a premium, but
of screw
used to make
and
sort
a
borrowing common
rate

is

easy.

of large denominations,
also favor bonds
Capitalists
that bonds of $25 or
but experiencehas shown
are
generallysold in the neighborhood
$50 denominations
of the
thus

issue

the interest is

The
that the

if not

kept near

theory of a bond
expenditureof a

over

say

$100,000, and

home.
issue is this

certain

sum

It is

of money

seen

will

52'

"

produce

certain

beneficial

"

To

results.

obtain

the party having it is promised a share

profitsfor a certain length of time for the use

in the

money

He

money.

party

in

is not
commercial

opportunitiesand
a

longerterm

shrewdness
his share
to

of

than

no

doubt

but

If he

close

simply
abuses

his

his money
for
he displaysbusiness
his

home

at

words

with

secure

partners

is
money
be devised
the

rest

resident

gainer.
community of slow growth

that direct

of his

to loan

manage

being. The interest on the

and if a plan can
the profits,

settled

robber

transaction.

the money,
in other
or
the community is
In

or

is necessary,
than is possessed by

the interest

keep

thief

can

more

for the time

this

of

ner,
part-

is the

taxation

best

is

there

method

of

paying for improvements. People's needs increase

and
in a rapidly
faster,
however, than their means,
growing placeit is not likely that anything will be
found to supplant bonds.
The plan of redemption should be such that the
people will alwa}^sfeel it slightlyand not with the
idea that their

descendants

will

pay.
thrift.

extravagance and

This

As
encourages
it will be felt less owing to increased

go on
and value

of property and decreased

dollars' valuation.
hundred

each

As

to

sale

of

bonds.

Several

the

checks
years

population

assessment

brokers

on,

ing
invit-

City Treasurer
alone should attend to the matter
and hawking them
the country should not be permitted. A tripto
over
the money
market
with a pocket full of securities to
negotiatefor expenses while endeavoring to sell the
issue is a reprehensible
and yet it has been
practice,
bids will hurt

their

The

sale.

done.
It is

so

common

proper consideration
remarks
will be of

There
such

are

many
and
securities,

bonds

to issue

that it is
some

value

firms which
from

them

out
hastilyand withing
hoped the foregotakes.
in preventingmisdeal

much

exclusivelyrin
valuable

advice

53

"

frequentlybe

may

that

however,

"

secured.
advice

such

It is to be
is

given

remembered,

in the

interest

of men
who demand
a safe investment.
principally
in the country
Any large,established Bond House
will cheerfully
to what
answer
as
they
inquiries
consider the best way of making any particular
issue
of bonds, and it would be well for municipalities,
fore
beand for what
determiningin what denominations
time
the market
is by
what
to issue, to ascertain
house
houses
or
writing to some
dealingin bonds.
They need not necessarilyfollow the advice they
get, but generallythey can profitsome
by obtaining
of
house
which
the market
follows
.suggestions a
the style of bond
knows
closelyand which
very
which
is best adapted for the then
existingmarket.
It is well to obtain all the information
possible
from reliable sources
before taking any move.
Such
information
be regarded as an
should
aid to judgment,
and

not

With
hands

all the

Under

to

to

pervert it.
obtainable

information

the committee

prepared

are

allowed

having

co-operate

the

with

his

direction the issue

the people be well satisfied with

Gettingaway
easy

The
had

bonds

be

can

and

no

their

charge
adviser.

legal
arranged

and

result.

the

subjectof
ciering,
ingenious financan
AmeriScientific
be out of place.

to

of

indebtedness,or
the followingstory from the
of December
4, 1886, might not
people of Guernsey needed a meat
payment

it was
of

from

in

matter

the

in

the

market

but
due consideration
to build it. After
money
decided to issue ^4,000 secured on "the whole

island,said to be worth four

millions."
introduced
A provision
was
making the
outside of Guernsey, and
worthless
notes
so
they
in denominations
were
never
exported. They were
of one
from i to 4,000.
pound and numbered
They
the

bore
them
and

property

no

on

interest

the

and

the contractor
was
material with them.

goods,landlords

for rent

circulated

paid and
Tradesmen
and

as

he

money.

With

paid for

labor

took

them

for

the authorities for taxes.

When
ten

ten

been

cent

per

had
their

source

notes

disappeared

at

taxes,
of

any
and

large

UHIVERSITY

revenue

end

of

ever

ten

to

people

having
that

the

the

years

The

inhabitant
since

year

beginning

circulation.

from

without
in

the

for

Each

redeemed,

were

and

one,

market

farthing
a

the

leased

was

^400.

of

rental

annual

of

it

completed

was

an

number

notes

one

at

years

with

had

market

the

State.

time

paid
it

has

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SAX

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Road
A

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Complete
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and

radium,

Rock

H.

Cleaning

Roads

Paved

and

Natural

for

Machinery

Improved

Latent

of

Constructing,
and

Sweepers and Sprinklers,Road

Scrapers,New Era Graders, etc.

Crushers,

Rollers,

Street

P. GREGORY

AND

FREMONT

CO.,

"

8AN

Streets.

MIS-ION

FRANCE

C",

STREETS,
CAL.

McBEAN " Co.

GLADDING,
MANUFACTURERS

ARCHITECTURAL
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Tile

TERRA
Fire

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Proofing

VITRIFIED SALT GLAZED

SEWER

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TERRA COTTA CHIMNEY PIPE AND TOPS

Roman

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Fire

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FARMER'S DRAIN TILE,ETC,

SAN

1358 "

FRANCISCO

OFFICE:

MARKET

MANUFACTORY:

ST. LINCOLN,PLACER CO.CAL